Manual On Oil Pollution

Section II
Manual on Oil Pollution

C O N T I N G E N C Y
P L A N N I N G
1995 Edit ion
B
INTERNATIONAL
MARITIME
ORGANIZATION
London, 1995
Copyright @ International Maritime Organization 1995. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced or transmitted in
any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without prior permission in
writing from the International Maritime Organization.
Licensed to Chevron Texaco by the International Maritime Organization
First published in 1978
by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION
4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR
Second edition 1988
Third edition 1995
Printed in the United Kingdom by Edward Mortimer Ltd, Halifax
8 10 9
ISBN 92-801-1330-5
IMO PUBLICATION
Sales number: IA560E
The cover photo is reproduced by kind permission of Environment Canada
Copyright # IMO 1995
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, electrostatic, magnetic
tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without prior permission in writing from the
International Maritime Organization.
Preface
This publication, prepared by the Marine Environment Protection
Committee of the International Maritime Organization (IMO),
supersedes the 1988 edition of section II of the Manual on Oil Pollution.
It provides guidance to Governments, particularly those of developing
countries, on ways and means of establishing a response organization
and preparing contingency plans.
This edition takes into account the International Convention on Oil
Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC
Convention) and other new developments in oil pollution emergency
preparedness and response. Chapter 1, which deals with response
considerations, introduces the new organizational concept of a tiered
response, according to the severity of the spill. To that end, subsequent
chapters mirror the escalation of activity, beginning with guidance on
local contingency plans (chapter 2), national response (chapter 3) and
international agreements designed to cover operational aspects of the
rare, catastrophic spill (chapter 4).
Finally, chapter 5 provides specific guidance on intervention and cost
recovery from spills arising from shipping accidents.
The Manual on Oil Pollution consists of five sections:
Section I Prevention, revised edition published in 1983;
Section II Contingency Planning, first published in 1978, revised
editions published in 1988 and 1995;
Section III Salvage, published in 1983;
Section IV Combating Oil Spills, published in 1988
Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (1995).
A related publication addressing one aspect of combating oil spills is the
IMO/UNEP Guidelines on Oil Spill Dispersant Application including Envi-
ronmental Considerations (1995).
iii
Contents
Page
Chapter 1 General response planning considerations
1.1 Designation of authority responsible
for development and operation of a plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Response organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Identification of areas of high spill risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Fate of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Probable oil spill movement based on local wind
and current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Coastal sensitivity mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Priorities for protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Oil spill response policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Organization for response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Chapter 2 Facility, seaport, local and area oil pollution
emergency plans
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Scope and geographic area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Duties and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Methods for increasing response effort and
requesting further assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Training and exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 3 National systems for preparedness
and response
3.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Purpose and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3 Scope and content of the plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5 Support from other agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.6 Reporting systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Alerting systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.8 Spill assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.9 Salvage and cargo removal considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.10 Spill surveillance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
v
3.11 Response decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.12 Clean-up operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.13 Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.14 Transport and disposal of recovered oil
and oily debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.15 Restoration of affected areas and post-spill
monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.16 Record keeping and preparation of claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.17 Public information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.18 Training and exercises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.19 Plan revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Chapter 4 International agreements for preparedness,
response and co-operation
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Scope of co-operation between participating
governments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Definition of geographical area(s) and division of
responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4 Reporting, alerting and communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Logistics, administration and funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 Review and update of an international
contingency plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 5 Intervention and cost recovery
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Intervention on the high seas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3 Intervention in national waters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.4 Intergovernmental regimes for compensation for
oil pollution damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5 Identification of the polluter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.6 Preparation of claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.7 Oil pollution damage not covered by the
intergovernmental compensation regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.8 The role of the P and I Clubs with regard to
marine casualties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
vi
Appendices
Appendix 1 Issues to be considered when developing
local oil pollution emergency plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Appendix 2 Oil pollution emergency plans for offshore units,
seaports and oil handling facilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix 3 Outline of a national oil pollution emergency plan . . . . 39
Appendix 4 Suggested outline for an international oil pollution
emergency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Appendix 5 Pollution reporting systems (POLREPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Appendix 6 Guidelines for identifying response resources . . . . . . . . . 62
vii
Chapter 1 General response
planning considerations
1.1 Designation of authority responsible for development
and operation of a plan
1.1.1 Before serious consideration can be given to writing a plan to
respond to oil pollution, some agency or agencies must be made
responsible for the task both at the national and local levels. The
national plan would normally be developed at a higher management
level of an organization, while it is important for local plans to be
developed by local authorities responsible for co-ordinating on-scene
response efforts at the beginning of an incident. Different countries
have various solutions to this problem, but the principal options at
Government level are:
Defence Department
Maritime Transport (Civil) Department
Environment Protection Department
Coast Guard
National Committee.
1.1.2 It is likely that different agencies or organizations will be
responsible for different aspects of the counter-pollution plan, at sea
and on shore, but overall co-ordination by a designated authority or
lead agency is essential for success. Similarly, a wide range of
expertise will have to be made available. Necessary skills include, but
are not necessarily limited to:
marine salvage
ship operations
meteorology and oceanography
aircraft operations
scientific expertise of various kinds
fisheries
environment protection
civil engineering
legal
logistics, customs and immigration arrangements
health and safety
training and exercises
communications.
1
1.2 Response organization
1.2.1 Before national contingency plans are finalized, a national system
for preparedness and response fulfilling the minimum requirements of
article 6 of the OPRC Convention should be developed. The number of
levels that such a national system needs should also be identified. Each
response level identified will need a corresponding contingency plan.
.1 Some countries may require fewer levels of response and thus
fewer plans than other States. However, a minimum of two
response levels should be established: a national level that
will require a national contingency plan (NCP) as discussed in
chapter 3 of this manual and a local level which will address
responses to geographic subdivisions. This local area may be
a terminal, a port or several ports within the specified re-
sponse area or jurisdiction.
.2 Each local area will need a facility, seaport or local oil pollu-
tion emergency plan as discussed in chapter 2 of this manual.
There will be substantial differences between an oil pollution
emergency plan dealing with a whole national coastline and
one dealing with a single port or locality. The former will be
wider in scope, while the latter can go into much greater local
detail. However, all plans covering a given area must be
compatible.
1.2.2 Another response level that may be needed is an area response
level. This level may be established in larger countries that require an
intermediate response level between the local and national
organizations. An area plan would likely follow the same format as the
national plan.
1.2.3 In addition, those entities that may be the source of a pollution
incident should also have an established response system and a
corresponding oil pollution emergency plan. Guidance on oil pollution
emergency plans has been developed specifically for vessels (see
regulation 26 of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78 and resolution
MEPC.54(32), Guidelines for the Development of Shipboard Oil
Pollution Emergency plans). Other activities that may need oil
pollution emergency plans include seaports, oil handling facilities and
offshore units as described in article 3 of the OPRC Convention.
Co-operation with industry
1.2.4 A co-operative approach with the oil and shipping industries is
key to the establishment and sustainment of an effective response
system. It is Governments role to establish the legal and organ-
izational framework for this relationship. Whatever relationship is
established, the roles of Government and industry should be clearly
defined.
2
Manual on Oil Pollution II: Contingency planning
1.2.5 It is important to understand the envisaged relationships
between national response systems and international oil spill pre-
paredness and response arrangements currently in existence. There
are two planning approaches that coexist in the international arena:
the international industrys concept of tiered response and govern-
mental arrangements at the local, national, and regional levels. Figure
1 is a depiction of the relationship of these two approaches with
response capability.
Figure 1 The global framework for pollution response
Tiered response
1.2.6 Tiered response is a widely accepted operational concept that
provides a convenient categorization of response levels and a practical
basis for planning. Tiered response recognizes three levels.
.1 Tier 1 is concerned with preparedness and response to a
small spill within the capabilities of an individual facility or
harbour authority. Seven hundred tons is often cited as the
upper limit of tier 1; however, the circumstances of the spill
and the surrounding environment will determine the actual
level of response.
.2 Tier 2 is concerned with preparedness and response to a spill
that requires the co-ordination of more than one source of
equipment and personnel. For a tier 2 response, assistance
can come from a number of entities within a port area or from
sources outside the immediate geographic area. Tier 2 de-
scribes a wide range of spill sizes and potential scenarios.
Figure 1 depicts a grey boundary either side of tier 2 to reflect
this.
3
Chapter 1
TIER 3
TIER 2
TIER 1
GROUP 3
GROUP 2
GROUP 1
Industry concept
of tiered response
The organization of the
international framework
INTERNATIONAL CAPABILITY
MULTI-NATIONAL
OR REGIONAL
CAPABILITY
NATIONAL
CAPABILITY
AREA
CAPABILITY
LOCAL
CAPABILITY
.3 Tier 3 is concerned with a major spill requiring the mobili-
zation of all available national resources and, depending upon
the circumstances, will likely involve mobilization of regional
and international systems. It is this tier of response where
positive advance customs arrangements are critical to facil-
itate a successful effort.
Governmental arrangements
1.2.7 Governmental oil spill preparedness and response arrangements
may be grouped in the following fashion.
.1 Group 1 encompasses the entire national response system,
and is the focus of this proposal. The national oil pollution
emergency plan, also called the national contingency plan
(NCP), is the over-arching document that embodies the na-
tional response policy and establishes the national organi-
zation for response to oil spills (the national response system).
As described in section 1.2.1, depending on the needs and
complexity of the country, the response system described by
the plan may consist of an assembly of sub-national plans for
specific geographic areas which would be further subdivided
into local plans.
. Additionally, the NCP should address the interrelationship
between the vessel plans, offshore unit plans, seaport plans
or oil handling facility plans and the national response
system.
1
Typically, the developers of these plans would re-
quire guidance on organizational structures to maintain
compatibility with the national response system, lines of
authority and reporting procedures.
.2 Group 2 consists of any bilateral or multilateral response
plans or agreements with other countries as well as regional
response bodies. Multilateral arrangements have been devel-
oped for the Mediterranean, Baltic and North Seas by gov-
ernments and for some eight regions of the world covered by
the UNEP Regional Seas Programme. The importance of these
arrangements to the concept of sustainable development
cannot be overestimated. Effective multilateral and regional
systems provide for the pooling of resources and effective re-
sponse to the rare large spill.
. Customs issues. The movement of oil spill response equip-
ment and personnel across national borders is a necessary
ingredient of a sustainable system. No individual country,
regardless of its wealth, can sustain the levels of equipment
1
Note: Article 3 of the 1990 OPRC Convention calls for authorities or operators in charge
of vessels, offshore units, seaports and oil handling facilities to have oil pollution
emergency plans or (for seaports and oil handling facilities) similar arrangements.
4
and personnel needed for the worst-case spill. Such spills
require rapid movement of equipment, unimpeded by
lengthy customs formalities. Conversely, countries should
be able to protect themselves from opportunists who would
use an emergency to smuggle contraband. The NCP should
contain guidance that ensures the legitimate need for se-
curity is maintained in a system that expedites the im-
portation of essential response resources.
.3 Group 3 is the network of inter-regional plans or agreements.
This includes the operation of the IMO Oil Pollution Co-ordi-
nation Centre and relationships, both formal and informal,
among the secretariats of the various regional agreements
world-wide.
1.3 Identification of areas of high spill risk
1.3.1 In deciding on the provision of counter-pollution response
capability, it is clearly desirable to give special emphasis to those areas
at highest risk. The perception of risk might be based upon the amount
of passing tanker and other shipping traffic, navigational hazards, the
location of oil refineries and oil terminals and the exist-ence of offshore
oil exploration and production operations and related undersea
pipelines.
1.3.2 The degree of attention paid to this aspect of planning will vary. A
country with a short coastline might find it relatively easy to identify the
few areas of high risk whilst a country with a long coastline and a
complex interaction of these factors might find it more difficult.
Nevertheless, it should always be possible to indicate which areas
have higher than average risk.
1.4 Fate of oil
There are wide variations in characteristics of oil and in the way they
change with time once an oil has been released into the marine
environment. This affects the response options available, and can
make speed of response imperative. Information about the charac-
teristics of different oils can be obtained from the oil industry or from
various publications. Further details on the physical and chemical
processes which determine the fate of spilled oil may be found in
chapter 3 of section IV of the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution.
1.5 Probable oil spill movement based on local wind and current
1.5.1 The probable movement of an oil slick can be forecast if the speed
and direction of current and wind are known. Suitable arrangements
should be made for prompt and accurate forecasting of spill movement
by trained persons. However, it should be recognized that some high-
density oils may not always stay on the surface, thus rendering
prediction difficult.
5
Chapter 1
1.5.2 To simplify the forecasting of oil slick movements, various
computer programs are available. These vary in sophistication from
those doing little more than a vector sum to programs which have
oceanographic data built in, together with a full outline of the relevant
coastlines, some different oil characteristics and a model of the fate of
spilled oil. Provision is always made for wind and current information
input. Accurate prediction of slick movement is dependent on reliable
data, which are not always available. For this reason, it is always
advisable to carry out aerial surveillance, and to consider deploying
tracking devices in the early stages of a spill, to monitor the actual
movement of the oil. Local knowledge of ocean currents and of natural
collection points (coastal areas where floating debris regularly collects)
is often the best predictor of the movement of oil on the waters surface
and the probable area of shoreline impact.
1.6 Coastal sensitivity mapping
1.6.1 For a variety of reasons, some stretches of coastline and coastal
waters are more sensitive than others to oil pollution. Some factors
which might influence such considerations are:
fisheries
mariculture
birds and other wildlife
areas of particular environmental significance, e.g. wetlands
industrial use of seawater, e.g. in power stations
desalination plants
amenity beaches
yachting and other recreational facilities
cultural/archaeological sites.
1.6.2 In planning response to oil spills, a knowledge of coastal
sensitivities in the threatened area will enable the best use to be made
of available clean-up resources, as it will usually be impossible to protect
all of the coastline, and priorities have to be decided. In order to assist the
decision makers, coastal sensitivity maps may be prepared. The
sensitivity of an area could also be affected by seasonal factors. For
example, an area may require a higher sensitivity priority during
breeding seasons or during periods when serving as a nursery area for
young organisms or when hosting migratory species.
1.6.3 Priorities can also be decided on the basis of socio-economic
factors such as fisheries, agriculture, industrial water intakes or
tourism or of pure aesthetic reasons.
1.6.4 Also, matters of general national policy have to be taken into
account; for example, prohibition of the use of dispersants or sinking
agents. Furthermore, priorities for certain response methods could be
given depending on the geographical location of an oil spill. It may be
6
considered undesirable to use dispersants near to industrial water
intakes, desalination plants, shellfish grounds or sensitive reef areas,
while dispersants could be the best solution in a breeding area or in
an area hosting a rare bird population. On open waters most response
methods could be utilized, individually or in combination, while solvents
and dispersants should be avoided in enclosed waters. Sinking agents
should in any case be avoided since they cause incorporation of oil or of
oil and agents into the sediment. The presence of coral reefs, mangroves
and sea-grass beds, but also socio-economic factors, require careful
consideration of different response methods.
1.7 Priorities for protection
1.7.1 In many spills, it may not prove possible to prevent some oil
coming ashore, and in some circumstances it might be advantageous
to deflect the oil to a chosen place onshore. It is therefore necessary to
decide in advance which areas are to be given priority for protection.
Before making such decisions, a wide variety of interested parties will
need to be consulted.
1.7.2 Various factors will have to be considered, including:
availability of local knowledge
the practicality of protecting a particular resource
relative importance of competing demands
variations in priorities due to seasonal factors, such as fish and
bird breeding seasons and holiday seasons.
1.7.3 Information about agreed priorities must be readily available and
sufficiently widely published. The priorities must be listed and cross-
referenced to any coastal sensitivity maps. Such an order of priorities
can reduce the risk of disagreement and indecision when faced with
difficult choices during an oil spill emergency.
1.8 Oil spill response policy
1.8.1 Oil spill response is not an exact science, and there are different
opinions as to the best techniques. The planners should try to keep their
options open to permit the best combination of responses for any
particular incident in the light of existing circumstances. It should be
emphasized that the primary purpose of the oil spill preparedness and
response effort is to prevent, to mitigate and, where possible, to restore
pollution damages caused by the spill.
1.8.2 Standard reporting procedures should be established that will
facilitate effective passing of impact-assessment information between
field personnel and the command post. Standardization facilitates
impact assessment and response resource allocation. Also, planners
should, in advance of a spill, identify the different shoreline types in
their area and identify which countermeasures are acceptable and
7
Chapter 1
which are, or may be, prohibited for use in each area. This process
should be a collective consensus of all of the parties responsible for
protecting the countrys resources.
1.8.3 The response measures include:
if possible, preventing or reducing outflow of oil from the
source;
if marine or coastal resources are not threatened, monitoring
the oil slick;
attempting to recover the oil at sea;
application of dispersants at sea;
protection of key resources;
shoreline clean-up;
if marine or coastal resources are threatened, consider
dispersants or in-situ burning;
bioremediation; or
any combination of the above.
1.8.4 Whatever the response, action at sea must be prompt if it is to be
effective.
1.8.5 Dealing with oil on shorelines may be less urgent, and there may
be circumstances in which it will be appropriate to do nothing about oil
that has come ashore, such as where natural cleaning will occur or
where any clean-up will increase damage to the environment.
1.8.6 Details on response techniques may be found in section IV of the
IMO Manual on Oil Pollution.
1.9 Organization for response
1.9.1 The response organization should be large enough and
sufficiently funded to deal with a pollution incident of a specified size
and nature. An example is shown in figure 2. It should be capable of
enlargement and modification to cope with a more extensive operation
as shown in figure 3. These diagrams have been kept purposely simple;
an actual organizational chart will likely be more complex.
1.9.2 Arrangements should exist for prompt gathering and dis-
semination of information about actual or threatened pollution. The
decision makers in the response organization must be available at all
times to receive such information. Adequate communication facilities
must therefore exist for transmission of instructions and information.
1.9.3 The decision makers in the response organization must have
sufficient authority to initiate action to deal promptly with a spill or
with an incident which may lead to a spill. This is of particular
importance if oil is to be dealt with whilst it is still on the sea.
8
9
Chapter 1
Response
team
OSC
Lead
Agency
Support staff
&
advisors
Response
team
Response
team
Response
team
Public Affairs
Safety
Science
Finance
Logistics
Figure 2 Typical local response organization
Operations
area 1
NOSC
Lead
agency
Support staff
&
advisors
Operations
area 2
Operations
area 3
Operations
area 4
Public Affairs
Safety
Science
Finance
Logistics
Local response organization
Figure 3 Incorporation of a local response organization
into a larger (area or national) organization
1.9.4 The response organization should be authorized to co-ordinate
the activities of other agencies and capable of controlling substantial
numbers of personnel and a variety of equipment. In this vein, clear
instructions should exist defining the responsibilities of different parts
of the response organization.
1.9.5 Resources for combating the oil pollution should be readily
available, whatever technique is to be used.
1.9.6 Additional personnel, equipment and materials needed to deal
with large incidents should be identified in advance and arrangements
made in advance for obtaining same.
1.9.7 Suitable centres should be identified for effective command and
control of operations. It may be decided that different centres will be used
for different aspects of counter-pollution operations, but an overall
command centre should be established.
.1 Due to the large number of parties that may be part of the
command post, and the relatively long time an oil spill re-
sponse centre may need to be active, authorities should con-
sider locating the oil spill response command centre close to
the incident, but separate from command centres established
by civil authorities for other emergency responses. This will
prevent conflicts should additional local emergencies arise.
10
Chapter 2 Facility, seaport, local and
area oil pollution emergency plans
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 An analysis of oil spill incidents between 1974 and 1990 indicates
that over 70% occurred in port during loading and discharging
operations and a further 12% were from ships in port that were
engaged in bunkering operations. The majority of these incidents
involved spill volumes of less than 7 tonnes and it is therefore
important that port authorities and terminal operators develop plans
designed to respond to the most likely spill scenarios.
2.1.2 In preparing seaport or oil handling facility oil pollution
emergency plans (port plans), the authorities and/or operators should
follow the same general outlines as for a national plan (see appendix 3),
with provision made for escalation via the local plan or area plan, as
relevant, to obtain additional resources, if required. The objectives of a
port plan are to establish an organization, communications and other
procedures for response to marine oil spills. Potential locations of spills
and types of oil are more easily identified in ports and terminals.
However, in preparing a port plan, due consideration should be given
to all emergency incidents which could occur, such as collisions,
groundings, fires, personnel casualties. Based on the foregoing,
priorities may be defined and response mechanisms established.
Appendices 1 and 2 provide more detail as to issues and essential
elements of these plans.
2.1.3 An On-Scene Commander should be designated and personnel
should be trained in the use and deployment of available equipment.
Mechanisms should also be established for reporting spillages,
alerting other concerned parties within the port and its environs,
assessing the spill to determine whether response action is required
and, if affirmative, beginning operations.
2.1.4 Where the petroleum terminals within a port are independently
owned and operated, spillages at a terminal should initially be the
responsibility of the operator. The port authorities should be advised
of the spill and should take appropriate measures to ensure the safety
of other vessels and harbour installations and monitor the clean-up. If
the spill proves to be beyond the capability of the terminal operator, the
oil handling facility oil pollution emergency plan should make provisions
for requesting additional resources from the port authorities or
elsewhere.
11
2.2 Scope and geographic area
The plan should define accurately the types of incident with which it is
intended to deal and who has authority to activate the plan. It should
also delineate the geographical area covered by the plan. Reference
should be made to any appropriate supporting legislation. The plan
must be compatible with other emergency plans in the area.
2.3 Duties and responsibilities
2.3.1 It is extremely important that any seaport plan or oil handling
facility oil pollution emergency plan clearly defines the duties and
responsibilities of all personnel involved. This should include the
alerting procedures, communications and the setting up of an
operational centre.
2.3.2 The designated person will activate the plan and the On-Scene
Commander will direct the various aspects of the operation and co-
ordinate all activities. The On-Scene Commander may be assisted by
other port or local officials acting as site representatives. Internal co-
ordination and co-operation at the national and local levels, and
amongst response agencies and industry, is essential to all pre-
paredness and response actions. Other departments which may be
able to render assistance include:
The Fire Department
The Police
Health and Safety Officials
industry and contractors
Municipal Authorities
Fisheries Officers
environmental specialists, etc.
2.3.3 Particular concerns that should be addressed include:
preventing movement of unauthorized aircraft, vessels,
vehicles and personnel at the site of the incident;
shelter in place or evacuation of port personnel and the public,
as necessary;
reception and treatment of any personnel injured in the
incident and subsequent response operations;
the maintenance of accurate cost records, and
logistics arrangements to facilitate the transportation of
pollution-response resources into and out of the affected area.
12
2.4 Methods for increasing response effort
and requesting further assistance
2.4.1 In localities where the major spill risks are concentrated within a
limited port or harbour area, a single plan will address all local response
arrangements. However, should the locality contain a number of
separate significant spill risks, such as those associated with an
extensive coastal industrial and port complex, individual seaport plans
or oil handling facility plans will integrate with a local plan or area plan.
This plan will provide for additional resources to be made available in
response to spills that occur that are beyond the capability of the port
authority or terminal operators own resources. The local plan or area
plan will also address other non-marine related oil spill risks, such as
those associated with pipelines or road or rail car oil movements.
2.4.2 Should a pollution incident be of such a magnitude that the
resources of the local plan or area plan are considered inadequate, the
countrys area plan should be activated in order to make available
additional resources. Further escalation would be achieved by acti-
vating the national contingency plan (see chapter 3) and, ultimately, by
requesting assistance from other nations or international organizations
and contractors.
2.5 Training and exercises
2.5.1 To ensure effective implementation of the seaport or oil handling
facility oil pollution emergency plans, training must be conducted
regularly for both equipment operators, in order that they may utilize
and maintain available equipment in the most effective manner, and the
On-Scene Commander and his management team.
2.5.2 The plan must be exercised regularly. This can be done either as a
paper exercise to verify communication procedures or by operational
exercises involving deployment of personnel, equipment and materials.
On completion of each exercise an evaluation should be conducted to
examine any deficiencies which are identified and make any necessary
revisions and amendments to improve the effectiveness of the plan.
2.5.3 Although the entire system needs to be exercised at one time to
ensure all of the response components mesh together properly, it is
beneficial to exercise some of the components of the response system
separately to allow for a more thorough evaluation and the opportunity
for the responders to become familiar with the different components. For
instance, prior to holding a full-scale exercise you may want to have a
command-post exercise and a communications exercise. Having all of
the potential players involved in the exercise helps ensure that the
needs of the entire community are addressed.
13
Chapter 2
Chapter 3 National systems for
preparedness and response
3.1 Background
3.1.1 Marine traffic, especially oil tankers, which is using ports or is in
transit through coastal waters presents the risk of marine oil pollution
from collisions, groundings, transfer of oil cargo and bunkers and other
marine accidents. A further risk is presented by petroleum exploration
and production activities. Such pollution can threaten recreation areas,
sea-birds, marine life, coastal installations and fisheries.
3.1.2 Response to accidental spillages of oil requires careful advance
planning to ensure that the impact of the oil spill is minimized. This is
usually accomplished by means of a contingency plan. Such a contin-
gency plan may be defined as a predetermined sequence of communi-
cations and actions which can be quickly initiated to cope with an event
of possible but uncertain occurrence.
3.2 Purpose and objectives
3.2.1 A national oil spill contingency plan is intended to delineate an
entire national preparedness and response system, including both
public and private resources, for responses to emergencies which
could result in the spillage of oil into the marine environment.
3.2.2 The objectives of such a plan are to ensure a timely and effective
response to spillages or the threat of spillages of oil. This is accomplished
by:
.1 establishing a viable operational organization with re-
presentation from all concerned agencies;
.2 identifying high-risk areas;
.3 identifying priority coastal areas for protection and clean-up;
.4 providing a minimum level and appropriate types of pre-
positioned pollution-response equipment to protect the areas
identified in 3.2.2.3 in accordance with article 6(2) of the
OPRC Convention;
.5 training operational, middle management and upper-
management personnel; and
.6 conducting exercises to assess and improve preparedness.
14
3.3 Scope and content of the plan
3.3.1 Whilst most oil spills are small and can be dealt with at the local
level, in the event of a major spill mechanisms must be available to
escalate the response to the national and international levels. In
general, contingency plans should follow a similar format at each level.
3.3.2 The plan should define policy and responsibilities, and identify
the authority or lead agency responsible for the preparation and
implementation of the plan, together with the supporting legislation.
The geographic area covered by the plan should be clearly indicated,
with reference made to supporting legislation and agreements.
3.4 Definitions
The following definitions are included to clarify terminology used:
Response: Any actions undertaken to prevent, reduce,
monitor or combat oil pollution.
Lead agency: The authority within the national
Government designated under the plan as
having overall responsibility for response to
marine emergencies.
Support agency: Any organization assigned specific tasks
under the plan in support of the response.
On-Scene Commander: The person responsible for organizing the
local response and co-ordinating the
deployment of required resources.
Marine emergency: Any casualty, incident, occurrence or
situation, however caused, resulting in
substantial pollution or imminent threat of
substantial pollution to the marine
environment by oil and including, inter alia,
collisions, strandings and other incidents
involving ships, blowouts arising from
petroleum drilling and production activities,
and the presence of oil arising from the failure
of industrial installations.
National On-Scene
Commander (NOSC): The designated On-Scene Commander for a
particular country in an international
response.
Supreme On-Scene
Commander (SOSC): The On-Scene Commander from the lead
country of an international response. The lead
country is usually the country in whose
waters the spill occurred, or the nearest
coastal State if the spill occurred in
international waters.
15
Chapter 3
3.5 Support from other agencies
The plan should clearly define the tasks of other government and private
agencies who may provide resources or technical and scientific advice to
the On-Scene Commander during both planning and operational
phases. Items to be considered in inter-agency matters should include
the following:
how such supporting agencies can work together collectively to
help the spill response organization;
the types of advisory and assessment responsibilities and
technical tasks that such a support group can undertake;
the organizational links by which their work can be delivered to
the response managers; and
the need for mechanisms by which disputes or conflicting
priorities would be settled.
3.6 Reporting systems
Article 8 and Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78 establish reporting require-
ments for masters or persons in charge of a ship. Article 4 of the OPRC
Convention is consistent with these requirements. Information regard-
ing a marine emergency which could result or has resulted in oil spillage
can come from a number of sources. The plan should identify an agency
which will receive and disseminate such reports, which should contain
as much of the following information as possible:
name of person reporting incident
telephone number (work/home) or other means of contact
date and time of observation
details of observation
location (e.g. latitude and longitude or position relative to
coastline)
source and cause of pollution (e.g. name and type of vessel,
collision or grounding)
type and estimated quantity of oil spilled and the potential and
probability of further pollution
weather and sea conditions
action taken or intended to respond to the incident.
3.7 Alerting systems
3.7.1 An alert procedure should be included in the plan. The initial and
subsequent reports should be disseminated to the lead and support
agencies by the fastest possible means.
16
3.8 Spill assessment
3.8.1 A rapid assessment of the threat presented by a marine
emergency is essential. If an actual spill has occurred then the
appropriate level of operational control should arrange for surveillance
of the oil slick and, by use of available meteorological and hydrographic
data, prediction of its probable movement. Since a large factor in the
threat posed by a spill is the environmental situation, the damage
assessment should include arranging for an up-to-date check of the
potential dangers to birds, wildlife, fisheries and other environmentally
sensitive features in the area.
3.9 Salvage and cargo-removal considerations
3.9.1 In the case of a ship casualty there may not be any immediate oil
spill but a threat may exist due to the condition of the vessel and the
possibility of leakage from oil cargo tanks or bunker tanks.
3.9.2 Salvage operations are complex and usually require the services
of a professional salvor. The plan should facilitate communications
between the Administration, the salvor, the vessels master and owner
and the cargo owner. Whilst the Administrations concern is to mitigate
damage from oil pollution in the event of a casualty, this may be best
achieved by the prompt and efficient salvage of the ship and cargo. In the
case of an oil tanker casualty, this will frequently entail cargo removal by
lightering into another tanker, using portable pumping equipment.
Section III of the Manual on Oil Pollution provides guidance to
Administrations on this matter.
3.10 Spill surveillance
3.10.1 Surveillance at sea can be carried out using a fixed-wing aircraft
or a helicopter. Airborne remote sensing equipment may be of value in
this regard. Aerial surveillance allows the movement and extent of the oil
slick to be plotted in order that appropriate response action may be taken
by the On-Scene Commander.
3.10.2 Aerial surveillance is also useful for determining the overall
extent of shoreline pollution, but this should be backed up by visiting
the affected and potentially affected shores where significant impacts
may not be visible except by walking the area and inspecting below the
surface of permeable shorelines.
3.10.3 Continuous surveillance may be required during some phases of
the clean-up operation.
17
Chapter 3
3.11 Response decisions
3.11.1 The plan should make provision for the various response
options to be considered:
.1 if possible, prevent or reduce outflow of oil from the source;
.2 if no marine or coastal resources are threatened or likely to be
threatened, continue monitoring the movement and beha-
viour of the oil slick;
.3 if marine or coastal resources are threatened, decide whether
to begin response operations at sea and/or to protect sensitive
shoreline areas by use of booms;
.4 if, due to weather conditions, response at sea and shoreline
protection is not feasible or shoreline resources have already
been affected, decide on clean-up priorities; and
.5 begin mobilization of the required personnel, equipment and
materials.
3.12 Clean-up operations
3.12.1 The plan should state which clean-up techniques should be
used and in what circumstances. Generally, containment and recovery
of spilled oil is to be preferred, but in some instances it may be necessary
to use dispersants, burning or other alternative response technologies.
The plan should state the policy with regard to whether, where and when
such alternative means may be used and the approved types, as well as a
description of any required process for dispersant applications.
3.12.2 In many cases oil will reach the coastal areas and it will be
necessary to remove oil and oily debris from shorelines and the water
surfaces within bays, lagoons, etc. For shoreline clean-up a large work-
force and civil engineering construction equipment are frequently
required, and the plan should identify their availability.
3.12.3 The progress of the clean-up operation should be monitored,
using inputs from aerial surveillance and site supervisors, to reassess
response decisions. Each area will require different standards of clean-
up; for example, amenity beaches are normally cleaned to a higher
standard than exposed rocky headlands. The decision to terminate
clean-up operations must be made by the On-Scene Commander in
consultation with all other parties concerned. In general, termination
is decided when further operations would be ineffective or the desired
level of clean-up has been achieved.
3.13 Communications
3.13.1 The plan should establish systems and procedures for effective
communication between the On-Scene Commander, field sites, and
vessels and aircraft involved in the operations. A communications
centre should be selected and equipped at least with telephone,
18
facsimile machine, telex and radio communications systems.
Consideration should be given to allocating an operating frequency or
frequencies for radio communication.
3.14 Transport and disposal of recovered oil and oily debris
3.14.1 The plan should identify resources to transport any recovered oil
and oily debris to collection and disposal locations and identify equip-
ment and temporary storage sites which can be used for collection and
reception of recovered oil and oily debris. Final disposal of the recovered
oil will depend on its nature and degree of contamination.
3.14.2 Disposal of oily debris and oiled sand presents particular
problems in handling due to the large quantities involved. It is
recommended that suitable final disposal sites are identified in the
plan in consultation with the relevant government agencies. Reference
should be made to chapter 9 of section IV of the IMO Manual on Oil
Pollution.
3.15 Restoration of affected areas and post-spill monitoring
3.15.1 On completion of the clean-up operations, some restoration may
be necessary. The degree of restoration will be determined by the lead
agency in consultation with other agencies such as those representing
environment, tourism, fishery, coastal industry and ports. Some
examples of such restoration are replacing contaminated beach sand,
replanting mangrove stands and marsh and sea-grasses and restocking
aquaculture projects.
3.15.2 In areas identified in the contingency plans or sensitivity maps
as having high environmental sensitivity, additional study may be
necessary to determine if more restoration, replacement, or other
actions for avoiding or mitigating damages to the coastal environment
is necessary. The lead agency for the spill response should consider this
factor in consultation with the appropriate environmental agencies.
3.16 Record keeping and preparation of claims
3.16.1 In order that claims may be processed with minimal delay, it is
essential that accurate records are maintained for each clean-up
location of all of the actions taken, personnel and equipment deployed
and consumable materials used. It is recommended that sample
worksheets should be provided as an annex to the plan. More complete
information on this subject is provided in chapter 5 of this manual. In
addition, documentation of the observed environmental damages, as well
as collection and preservation of samples, will be needed to validate
claims. Pictures and field reports, as well as actual physical evidence
such as wildlife killed by the spill, should be preserved and main-
tained until the steps necessary to mitigate or restore the damage have
been determined and satisfactory arrangements are in place to complete
these steps.
19
Chapter 3
3.17 Public information
3.17.1 Effective public relations is an integral part of the entire
operation and it is recommended that an experienced public relations
officer be designated in the plan to liaise with the media. This will require
provision of suitable office space and telephone line(s) separate from
those used for the response operations. It should be remembered that
failure to provide pertinent information to the public and the media as
quickly as possible may create unnecessary difficulties in dealing with
an oil-spill incident.
3.18 Training and exercises
3.18.1 The requirements for training and exercises should be clearly
defined in the plan. Training programmes should be developed at all
levels, including vessel and aircraft crews, equipment operators,
shoreline clean-up personnel and the command team.
.1 IMO provides guidance, titled IMO Model Training and
Trainer Training. The guidance focuses on three levels of
training:
(a) first responder;
(b) middle management; and
(c) senior management.
.2 It is helpful to conduct both internal and external exercises.
Internal exercises are conducted by a plan holder to evaluate
the effectiveness of their plan and only involve the plan hol-
ders personnel and resources. External exercises would in-
volve personnel and resources (from Government or industry)
outside the plan holders response structure. External ex-
ercises provide an opportunity to learn how well different
plans interface.
3.18.2 From time to time such exercises should require mobilization
and deployment of personnel, equipment and materials to ensure their
availability and performance.
3.19 Plan revision
The plan should be reviewed periodically to incorporate experience
gained from regular exercises and actual incidents. Regular updates of
alerting lists and equipment inventories should also be made. Any
organizational changes or legislative changes that modify the response
organization or policies should be reflected in timely amendments to the
affected plan(s).
20
Chapter 4 International agreements for
preparedness, response and co-operation
4.l Introduction
4.1.1 This chapter identifies those elements which should be included
in preparing international preparedness and response plans in order to
ensure that general agreements between Governments to co-operate in
responding to oil pollution or the threat of oil pollution are in place at the
operational level. These elements may be expanded and used for the
development of specific plans under the framework of regional, sub-
regional or bilateral agreements and are not intended to replace
existing contingency plans. This chapter is principally intended to
assist developing countries in establishing operational arrangements
between neighbouring States. It is recommended that participating
Governments should begin such activities on a modest scale within
their national capabilities. A suggested outline for an international
contingency plan is attached at appendix 4.
4.1.2 It is essential that each Government which intends to participate
in international co-operation first develops and implements a national
oil spill response systemand plan. This initiative should be conducted in
close consultation with domestic organizations, local industry, IMO and
other specialized United Nations agencies who can provide technical
expertise in risk assessment, behaviour of oil spills on the sea,
possible methods of treatment and availability of oil spill response
equipment.
4.1.3 Each Government should provide the following information to the
international plan:
.1 identification of the competent national authority and na-
tional operational contact point responsible for oil spill mat-
ters (OPRC Article 6(1)(a));
.2 description of the national oil spill response organization and,
if available, the national plan;
.3 types of oil spill response resources, if any, and the proper
method to request them;
.4 identification of logistic support facilities within the country
available for response; and
.5 identification of storage for recovered oil and disposal meth-
ods.
4.1.4 National arrangements should be consistent with any
international oil spill plan or agreement. It is also suggested that a
summary of the possible sources of oil spills, resources at risk and
21
priorities for protection is prepared for the geographic area covered by
the international contingency plan, drawing on the information provided
in the national plans.
4.1.5 International oil spill plans must remain simple and easy to
operate. However, mechanisms should be established to permit
activation by stages, on a set of prearranged signals and procedures
whereby States may initiate the appropriate levels of action.
4.2 Scope of co-operation between participating governments
4.2.1 International oil spill plans are intended to establish a framework
within which two or more Governments can co-operate to facilitate the
operational aspects of oil spill surveillance and response. Plans can
include, but are not limited to:
information exchange;
the use of vessels, aircraft and oil spill response equipment;
arrangements for the assumption of the lead role by the State
in whose waters a pollution incident occurs;
clear definition of command structure and liaison for joint
response operations;
identification of priority coastal and sea areas;
arrangements for transboundary activities such as the move-
ment of response equipment and personnel in, vessel oper-
ations in, or overflying of the territory of other States;
the conduct of paper and live exercises to test the adequacy of
the plan; and
arrangements for advisory and technical support.
4.3 Definition of geographical area(s) and division of responsibility
4.3.1 The geographical area covered by any international oil spill plan
should be clearly defined. Areas in which individual States or several
States jointly may be responsible for taking actions such as
surveillance, reporting, alerting and response activities should also be
clearly defined.
4.3.2 The geographical area may be identified by use of suitably
annotated maps attached to the plan, latitude and longitude co-
ordinates or both.
4.3.3 Typically, the State in whose zone of responsibility the spill occurs
assumes the lead role and is initially responsible for all of the actions
taken related to both tracking the spill and any necessary response. The
basis on which responsibility is transferred from one State to another
must be clearly laid down in any international oil spill plan. Any State
involved may escalate the response activities to call upon assistance
from other States participating in the plan or from States or
organizations not participating in the plan.
22
4.4 Reporting, alerting and communications
4.4.1 An international oil spill plan must include agreed lists for each
individual State, detailing the authorities or organizations assigned
responsibility under their national contingency plan. These lists
should identify contact points with appropriate telephone and/or telex
numbers, which must be available on a 24-hour basis. Existing facilities,
such as Defence, Coast Guard, or Police Headquarters, could be utilized
to receive and disseminate reports.
4.4.2 A State in whose zone of responsibility a spill or a serious threat
thereof occurs should immediately inform any neighbouring States if it
appears likely that it may affect their sea areas and shorelines, giving as
much detail as possible about the incident. In the event that a spill has
occurred, that information should include source date, time, position,
type and amount of oil spilled, likelihood of further spillage, the
prevailing and forecast weather conditions and proposed actions. As
the situation develops, information to these States must be updated
continuously and a regular synopsis provided to keep them informed.
Examples of report formats appear at appendix 5. Transmission of such
reports should not be delayed if complete information is not immediately
available.
4.4.3 Available meteorological and hydrographic data should be
analysed to give rough early predictions of general spill movement.
More sophisticated methods of prediction of spill movement may
subsequently be used. However, visual observation of any spill is
essential and the responsible authority under the appropriate national
contingency plan should use those resources already identified, such as
charter, military or commercial aircraft, for surveillance. It is essential
that the results of such observation and prediction be transmitted to
other States which may be affected by the spilled oil until it no longer
threatens any State in the area covered by the plan.
4.4.4 Procedures should be developed for requesting, offering and
accepting assistance in the event of a spill incident.
4.4.5 To facilitate on-scene radio communications, it is essential that
prior agreement is established between designated authorities on the
assignment of specific operating frequencies and a working language
for operational response to an oil spill.
4.5 Logistics, administration and funding
4.5.1 An international oil spill plan should contain contacts to acquire
response equipment and specialist personnel available through each
national authority, procedures for mobilizing equipment and materials
and the relevant charges. Guidelines for identifying response resources
are shown at appendix 6. The resources of national Governments and
commercial companies available for assistance within a region may still
be found to fall short of what is desired. It may, therefore, be necessary to
23
Chapter 4
agree upon an increase in individual holdings or, alternatively, to make
arrangements to maintain a common supplemental holding or stockpile
of equipment and materials. The international oil spill plan should also
consider commercial and government resources which may be readily
available fromoutside the region, so that a reasonable response to worst-
case situations can be mounted. All States would nevertheless maintain
control over the commitment of their national spill-response resources.
4.5.2 It is vital for the implementation of international oil spill plans to
be able to move equipment, materials and personnel to the places where
it is needed without undue delay or formality. It is therefore essential
that each State participating in an international oil spill plan makes
administrative arrangements to expedite customs, immigration and
other control of material and personnel entering or leaving its territory
for the purposes of assisting it or another State in combating oil
pollution.
4.5.3 Details of such arrangements should be included in the
international contingency plan and promulgated by all States
participating in this plan throughout their respective Governments.
International organizations or other States which may be called upon
to assist in the case of an oil pollution incident should also be made
aware of the arrangements. Such details should include the essential
information which is required by the appropriate national authority
(customs, immigration, etc.) in order to facilitate special arrangements.
Ideally, such arrangements should include provisions for the rapid
granting of entry visas as well as the temporary importation of oil spill
clean-up equipment and material free of duty or import taxes. The
interim guidelines for facilitation of response to an oil pollution
incident adopted by the MEPC pursuant to article 7 of the OPRC
Convention should be considered.
4.5.4 Specific agreements should be made for funding of joint response
operations and for the loan of resources. Participating States should be
aware of international regimes and voluntary schemes applicable in the
region for obtaining compensation for oil spill clean-up costs.
Specifically, States should refer to and, to the maximum extent
possible, use the annex to the OPRC Convention on reimbursement of
costs of assistance as a basis for funding international assistance.
4.5.5 Each State should maintain individual records of action taken
and of equipment and other resources used to respond to the incident.
These records can be utilized both to support claims for compensation
and for subsequent analysis of actions taken during the spill incident to
upgrade the international contingency plan.
24
4.6 Review and update of an international contingency plan
4.6.1 An international contingency plan should be reviewed periodi-
cally to incorporate experience gained from regular exercises and
actual incidents in the region. Periodic updates of points of contact
and equipment inventories should be made, using the information
provided by individual States.
25
Chapter 4
Chapter 5 Intervention and cost recovery
5.1 Introduction
This chapter addresses intervention and cost recovery, arising from
shipping accidents which threaten to cause or which result in an oil
spill. It does not deal with spills arising from other sources, which are
normally regulated under national law.
5.2 Intervention on the high seas
5.2.1 The International Convention Relating to Intervention on the
High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969, and the Protocol
Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine Pollution by
Substances Other than Oil, 1973, were prepared in cognisance of the
need to protect the interests of coastal States against the grave
consequences of a maritime casualty resulting in danger of oil
pollution of the sea and shorelines. It was recognized that, under such
circumstances, measures of an exceptional character to protect such
interests might be necessary on the high seas and that these
measures do not affect the principle of freedom of the high seas.
5.2.2 Parties to this Convention may take such measures on the high
seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and
imminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollution
or threat of pollution of the sea by oil, following upon a maritime
casualty or acts related to such a casualty which may reasonably be
expected to result in major harmful consequences. No such measures
may be taken against warships or other ships owned and operated by a
State and used only on government non-commercial service. The
International Maritime Organization maintains a list of experts who
can assist coastal States in assessing the need for intervention and in
the determination of the appropriate courses of action.
5.3 Intervention in national waters
5.3.1 Many Administrations have enacted legislation giving the
relevant Government authority the right to intervene in the event of a
marine casualty occurring in national waters. In such cases the
authority must have assessed the situation and concluded that the
nature or degree of actions taken by the shipowner or his agents is not
satisfactory. The authority can then either issue instructions or advice to
the shipowner and his agents as to how they should proceed or it can
take direct operational control.
5.3.2 In all cases, the master of the casualty vessel should take
immediate action to ensure the safety of the crew and the preservation
of the ship and cargo and will make arrangements, if necessary,
26
for salvage. Arrangements for salvage are normally made with a
professional salvage company. It should be recognized that the salvors
aim is to salvage the casualty successfully whereas the Administration
must give priority to protection of the coastal environment and of
commercial resources. It is therefore important that the NCP contains
provisions for co-operation between the authority, the ship and cargo
owners and the salvor to resolve any conflicts and to clarify res-
ponsibilities. The plan should address the need for safe havens and
ports of refuge to which the salvor may take the casualty to carry out
such operations as cargo removal, tank cleaning and temporary repairs.
5.4 Intergovernmental regimes for compensation
for oil pollution damage
5.4.1 The Torrey Canyon incident in 1967 provided a major stimulus to
the development of four international regimes through which
compensation for clean-up costs and pollution damage is available
following spills of persistent oil* from tankers.
5.4.2 Two of the regimes the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement
concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TOVALOP) and the Contract
Regarding a Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution
(CRISTAL) are voluntary in nature and were established by the
tanker and oil industries as interim arrangements pending the wide-
spread ratification and acceptance of two international conventions
developed under the auspices of the International Maritime Organ-
ization. These conventions are the International Convention on Civil
Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (Liability Convention) and the
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund
for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (Fund Convention). As
at 1 January 1994 the Liability Convention had been ratified by 82
States and the Fund Convention by 57 States.
5.4.3 The voluntary agreements have been revised on numerous
occasions since they first came into effect. Particularly significant
changes took effect in 1987 and resulted, amongst other things, in the
addition of a Supplement to the TOVALOP Agreement which was
previously in force (henceforth known as the TOVALOP Standing
Agreement). It should be noted that the terms of the Supplement, with
its higher limits of compensation and broader scope, only apply when a
participating tanker involved in an incident is carrying a cargo owned by
a party to CRISTAL.
5.4.4 Amendments to the international conventions are most difficult
to bring about. Protocols to both the Liability and Fund Conventions,
which broadened the scope of the original Conventions and
significantly increased the amount of compensation available to the
* The term persistent oil is not precisely defined in any of the regimes but, as a guide, it
can be taken to include crude oil, heavy fuel oil, heavy diesel oil and lubricating oil.
27
Chapter 5
victims of oil spills from tankers, were agreed in 1984 but failed to come
into force. However, a Diplomatic Conference in 1992 agreed to revise the
entry-into-force provisions of these Protocols to facilitate their
implementation.
5.4.5 The international system of compensation created by the two
international conventions and two voluntary agreements is unique in
the field of environmental pollution. Of particular note is the fact that
all of the regimes impose strict liability on the spiller. This means that
they apply regardless of whether or not the tanker owner whose vessel
suffered the spill was at fault, subject to very few exceptions (e.g. if the
spill was caused by an act of war). Claimants can therefore receive
compensation promptly, without the need for lengthy and costly
litigation.
5.4.6 Details of the scope of these international regimes, the types of
claims which are admissible and the levels of compensation available
are described in section V of the Manual on Oil Pollution Administrative
Aspects of Oil Pollution Response.
5.5 Identification of the polluter
5.5.1 In the case of major oil spills there is usually little difficulty in
identifying the source. However, the possibility of legal proceedings being
taken under national law against the offending vessel should be borne in
mind in all cases of pollution. Samples of spilled oil should be taken
immediately, properly labelled and witnessed, and then submitted for
analysis, ensuring that a custodial chain can be proved in court.
Samples should also be taken (and similarly labelled and witnessed)
from oil cargo tanks, bunker tanks and machinery spaces of suspected
offenders, and from other possible sources in the area, for comparative
analysis with the spilled oil.
5.6 Preparation of claims
5.6.1 When a spill occurs, claims for clean-up costs and damage can be
brought against the owner of the ship which caused the oil spill and, if
the limit of the owners liability is exceeded, against the IOPC Fund (if the
country where the pollution damage is caused is a member of the IOPC
Fund) or against CRISTAL (if the cargo owner is a CRISTAL member).
Normally an Administration will co-ordinate the submission of the
various claims, and it is essential that accurate detailed records are
kept to support such claims.
5.6.2 Each claim should contain the following particulars:
.1 the name and address of the claimant or representative;
.2 the identity of the ship involved in the incident;
.3 the date, the place and specific details of the incident, in-
cluding the type of oil;
28
.4 details of the clean-up measures taken, and of the kind of
pollution damage as well as the places affected;
.5 the amount of the claim.
5.6.3 Depending on the amount and nature of the claim, it should be
broken down into different categories, such as:
.1 Summary of events, including a description of the work car-
ried out in different areas and of the working methods chosen
in relation to the circumstances prevailing during the in-
cident.
.2 Delineation of the area affected, describing the extent of pol-
lution and identifying those areas most heavily contaminated.
This should be presented in the form of a map or chart sup-
ported by photographs or video tapes.
.3 Analytical and/or other evidence linking the oil pollution with
the ship involved in the incident (e.g. chemical analysis; wind,
tide and current data; observation and plotting of movement
of floating oil).
.4 Dates on which work was carried out (with weekly or daily
costs).
.5 Labour and administrative costs (number and categories of
response personnel; regular and overtime rates of pay; days/
hours worked).
.6 Equipment and material costs (types of equipment used; rate
of hire; consumable material quantity and cost).
.7 Transport costs (number and types of vessels, aircraft, vehic-
les used; number of days/hours operated; rate of hire or op-
erating cost).
.8 Costs of temporary storage (if applicable) and final disposal of
recovered oil and oily material.
.9 Fisheries costs of (Government) inspecting/monitoring the
presence of oil in potentially impacted fisheries areas.
.10 Environmental assessments of the effects the spill could have
or had; includes both field work and report preparation, often
after the clean-up has stopped.
5.6.4 It is essential that comprehensive records are kept detailing all
operations and expenditures. Daily worksheets should be compiled by
supervisory personnel of the operations in progress, the equipment in
use, where and how it is being used, the number of personnel employed,
how and where they are deployed and the materials consumed.
Recording such information is facilitated by using standard worksheets.
29
Chapter 5
To ensure that adequate control of expenditures is kept, it is essential
that a financial controller be assigned to the response team.
.1 Replacement and repair costs
Extent of pollution damage to property.
Description of items destroyed, damaged or needing
replacement or repairs (e.g. boat, fishing gear and
clothing) including their location.
Cost of repair work or replacement of item.
Age of item to be replaced.
Costs of restoring the environment to the state it had been
in before the spill.
Costs of studies to assess restoration and mitigation.
With regard to this category, it is likely that numerous claims
will be made from the public, and private sector, such as
fishermen, pleasure-boat owners, marina operators, etc. In
this case it may be desirable to arrange through the vessels
insurers to appoint insurance adjusters to whom claimants
may be referred. In some incidents a special telephone
number and office have been established to process small
claims and the public advised through the media that this
service is available.
.2 Economic loss
Nature of loss, including demonstration that loss resulted
directly from the incident;
Comparative figures for profits earned in previous periods
and for the period during which such damage was suffered.
Comparison with similar areas outside the area affected by
the spill.
Method of assessment of loss.
Subsistence (traditional) foods and government costs of
monitoring/responding to native food issues.
It should be noted that the IOPC Fund and the voluntary
agreements (TOVALOP and CRISTAL) only pay compensation
for quantifiable economic loss and do not accept claims for
non-economic environmental damage.
.3 Economic losses can include but are not limited to: restriction
of fishing activity, closure of coastal industrial and processing
installations, loss of income by resort operators (hotel owners
and restaurateurs), etc. In many cases the financial records
for previous years may be readily available, although diffi-
culties may arise in distinguishing losses caused by the oil
spill from those caused by other unrelated factors such
as bad weather or overfishing. When dealing with artisan
30
fisheries, no formal records may be available and some other
form of assessment may be required. Also there could be ad-
ditional indirect expenditures incurred by the local autho-
rities in providing alternate protein sources for the coastal
communities affected by the spillage which should be docu-
mented.
5.6.5 The foregoing are the principal categories of claims which are
likely to prove acceptable. However, there may be other categories of
claims. In all cases the claim should be presented clearly and in
sufficient detail so that it is possible to assess the amount of damage
suffered on the basis of the facts and the documentation presented. It
should be noted that each item of the claim must be supported by an
invoice or by other relevant documentation such as daily worksheets
and explanatory notes. Reference should be made to the IOPC Fund
Claims Manual.
5.6.6 In cases where the IOPC Fund may become involved, it is very
important that the Fund is informed of the incident immediately so
that the IOPC Fund will be able to follow closely the clean-up operation
and verify damage. This will facilitate the speedy settlement of claims.
5.7 Oil pollution damage not covered by the intergovernmental
compensation regimes
5.7.1 In respect of oil spills that do not fall under the regime of
compensation covered by the Civil Liability Convention and the Fund
Convention i.e. in cases of spills of non-persistent oils, spills from
unladen tankers and spills from ships other than tankers
compensation will have to be sought under applicable national law.
States are free to legislate as they consider appropriate as regards
such spills. However, a State may be party to the International
Convention Relating to the Limitation of the Liability of Owners of
Seagoing Ships, Brussels, 1957, or the Convention on Limitation of
Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 (LLMC 1976), which contain
provisions whereby the shipowners and certain other persons may
limit liability. If this is so the State concerned must, of course, in its
national law respect the limitations laid down by the applicable
convention. It should be noted that the 1976 LLMC Convention does
not apply to pollution damage caused by laden tankers within the
meaning of the Civil Liability Convention as outlined in paragraph 5.4.
5.7.2 A State may provide in its national law that claims in respect of
damage to harbour works, basins and waterways and aids to navigation
shall have priority over other claims. Several national Administrations
have ruled that oil spills fall under the definition of damage to harbour
facilities. However, as regards States Party to the Civil Liability
Convention, all claims for pollution damage against the owner of the
tanker from which the oil escaped must be given equal priority.
31
Chapter 5
5.8 The role of the P and I Clubs with regard to marine casualties
5.8.1 Protection and Indemnity Associations or P and I Clubs exist to
provide shipowners with insurance for liability they may incur to third
parties, meaning, in this context, anybody other than the insured
shipowner. Approximately 85% of all ocean-going ships are entered in
Protection and Indemnity Associations. In the case of tankers the figure
is closer to 95%.
5.8.2 The risks covered by P and I Clubs are numerous and do include
oil pollution liabilities. The intergovernmental regimes and voluntary
industry agreements which cover compensation and liability for
tankers have been covered under paragraph 5.4. However, other ships
can cause oil pollution from leakage of bunker fuel.
5.8.3 In a typical serious casualty, the shipowner is faced with a
number of immediate and urgent problems which include the decision
as to whether or not to attempt salvage of the ship and cargo or to dispose
of either or both as simply as possible, causing the least possible amount
of further damage. If oil has been spilled the owner may be required to
take immediate action to deal with the ensuing pollution. A P and I Club,
through its local correspondent, will provide advice on the shipowners
rights and duties and negotiate on the shipowners behalf with the
appropriate authorities to take fast and effective action to minimize the
damage and subsequent liabilities. At a later stage the Club will assist in
determining eventual liability for the damage and the extent of the
compensation.
5.8.4 One important principle is that the shipowner must pay the claim
in the first instance and only then claim reimbursement from the P and I
Club. As a general rule, the P and I Club will not pay claimants direct.
There may be exceptions, for example, in case of oil spills from tankers
when the Liability Convention applies, and also when the P and I Club
has given a letter of undertaking providing a guarantee of payment of the
shipowners liabilities, but in most cases the P and I Club still insists
that the principle should be maintained that the shipowner pays first.
32
Appendix 1
Issues to be considered when developing
local oil pollution emergency plans
Section 1
The focus of this section is on planning policy and administration.
Section 2 will focus on operational matters.
A INTRODUCTION
Purpose and objective
Authority and jurisdiction
Definitions and acronyms
Geographic boundaries (local, area)
B RESPONSE SYSTEM AND POLICIES
Consider and describe the relationship of the various response
plans and systems with which this plan should be compatible.
C ORGANIZATION
Planning organization
Response organization
D PLAN REVIEW
Revision/update requirements
Exercises/drills
E TRAINING, EXERCISES AND DRILLS
Training
Exercises and drills
F AREA ASSESSMENTS
Area of responsibility
Planning committee organization(s)
Area spill history
Threat analysis
G HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY
Public health and safety
Worker health and safety
H SCENARIO DEVELOPMENT
Scenarios should be explored that range from routine operational
spills to the worst-case spill.
I APPLICABLE DOMESTIC AND INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
33
Section 2
The focus of this section is on operational considerations, not policy.
Each chapter and subchapter should have a corresponding checklist
developed to assist responders.
A INTRODUCTION
B JURISDICTIONAL BOUNDARIES
C NOTIFICATIONS
Required notifications
Local notifications
International notifications
D COMMAND POST
Policy and procedures for establishing
Staffing
Supplies
E DATA COLLECTION
Receipt of initial report
Tracking spill movement (aircraft, spill models)
Shoreline impact reports/assessments
F OPERATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Spill funding procedures
. Accessing funds
. Documentation and cost-recovery procedures
. Damage-assessment procedures
Required reports
. Pollution reports POLREPs
. After-action reports
G LOGISTICS
Permits required
Personnel and personnel support
Transboundary movement of equipment and personnel
Information resource hardware
H SPECIALIST TEAMS
Specialized response teams
Media and public relations specialists
Hazardous materials response team
Specialized salvage teams
34
I RESOURCE DIRECTORY
Coast Guard
Navy
Environmental agencies
Fire departments
Police departments
Hospitals
Port authority/harbourmasters
Marine Pilots Association
Salvage companies/divers
Towing companies
Laboratories
Water intake facilities
Environmental interest groups
Airports and aircraft rental
Trucking companies/car rentals
Weather service agencies
Media contacts
Volunteer organizations
Natural resource trustees/administrators
Local emergency managers
Fishing fleets
Vessel operators/agents
Vac/tank truck companies
Public transportation and transportation-maintenance
agencies
J COMMUNICATIONS
Communications plan
Resources
K SENSITIVE AREAS
Identification
Prioritizing
L MECHANICAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES
M NON-MECHANICAL RESPONSE STRATEGIES: DISPERSANTS,
CHEMICAL AGENTS, IN-SITU BURNING AND OTHER SPILL-
MITIGATING SUBSTANCES, DEVICES OR TECHNOLOGY
N SITE HEALTH AND SAFETY PLAN
35
Appendix 1
O TRANSPORT, STORAGE AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE
P FUNDING AND COST DOCUMENTATION
Q PUBLIC AND MEDIA RELATIONS
R DEMOBILIZATION AND TERMINATION OF OPERATIONS
36
Appendix 2
Oil pollution emergency plans for offshore units,
seaports and oil handling facilities
List of essential elements
A Underlying philosophies
1 Safety of life
2 Fire fighting and safety of navigation
3 Pollution prevention
routine operations
blowout prevention for offshore units
4 Response to pollution
5 Consistency with national response system
6 Tiered response philosophy
B Responsibilities/reporting
1 The roles and responsibilities of the major organizations which
could be involved are clearly stated and agreed.
2 Operators responsibilities are clearly established.
3 Established reporting/consultation arrangements with appro-
priate authorities
4 A predetermined reporting format to allow evaluation and
classification of the emergency.
C Response
1 Established procedures to stop the spilling of oil as fast as
possible (e.g. oil flow shutdown; blowout prevention, etc.)
2 Personnel trained in above procedures.
3 Implement procedures for warning or evacuation of
endangered areas.
4 Access to specialist teams and resources (e.g. for blowouts on
offshore units).
37
D Oil spill clean-up
1 Information on characteristics of oil(s).
2 Oil spill drift- and fate-prediction techniques available for use
in response
3 Identification of resources which could be impacted
4 Arrangements in place for rapid deployment of tier 1 response
at the spill site
5 Access to tier 2 and tier 3 resources equipment and personnel
6 Established chain of supply to access and deploy such equip-
ment
E Training and exercises
1 Training and exercise programmes established to ensure that
the response activity can be effectively executed.
F Public information
38
Appendix 3
Outline of a national oil pollution emergency plan
1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 Authority and applicability
1.3 Scope
1.4 Definitions and abbreviations
2 RESPONSIBILITY AND ORGANIZATION FOR RESPONSE
2.1 Duties of national leadership
2.2 National response system
2.3 National response priorities
2.4 On-Scene Commanders duties and responsibilities
2.5 Notifications
2.6 Inter-agency participation and support
3 PREPAREDNESS AND PLANNING
3.1 National policy
3.2 Planning and co-ordination structure
3.3 National plan
3.4 Area plans
3.5 Local/industrial facility plans
3.6 International arrangements
linkage with other national plans (bilateral agreements)
co-ordination with regional arrangements for oil pollution
response
policy and procedures for requesting international
assistance
policy and procedures for giving international assistance
3.7 Drills/exercise programme
39
4 RESPONSE OPERATIONS
4.1 General pattern of response
4.2 Command structure
4.3 Communications/command facilities
4.4 Specialist teams
4.5 Multi-regional response
4.6 Health and safety
4.7 Response technology
4.8 Administration/logistics
4.9 Funding, reimbursement, claims
5 REPORTS AND COMMUNICATIONS
5.1 Communications systems
5.2 Pollution reports (POLREPs)
5.3 Post-incident review
40
Appendix 4
Suggested outline for an international oil pollution
emergency plan
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.3 Scope and geographic coverage
1.4 Definitions and abbreviations
2 POLICY AND RESPONSIBILITY
2.1 Exchange of information
2.2 Designation of national authorities and points of contact
2.3 Assumption of lead role
2.4 Response planning
2.5 Joint training and exercises
3 RESPONSE ELEMENTS AND PLANNING
3.1 Assumption of lead role
3.2 National On-Scene Commander (NOSC)/Supreme On-Scene
Commander (SOSC)
3.3 Emergency Response Centres/Joint Emergency Response
Centre
3.4 Support teams
3.5 Command structure
3.6 Communications arrangements
3.7 Response planning
3.8 Response strategy
4 RESPONSE OPERATIONS
4.1 Response phases
4.2 Spill surveillance and forecasting
4.3 Requests for assistance
4.4 Joint response operations
41
4.5 Use of non-mechanical response methods
4.6 Requests for additional assistance
4.7 Termination of joint operations and deactivation
5 REPORTS AND COMMUNICATIONS
5.1 Communications system(s)
5.2 Initial warning system
5.3 Pollution reports (POLREPs)
5.4 Post-incident reports
6 ADMINISTRATION AND LOGISTICS
6.1 Logistics
6.2 Funding
6.3 Customs, immigration and overflight procedures
6.4 Health and safety
6.5 Documentation of clean-up costs
6.6 Revisions to the plan
7 PUBLIC INFORMATION/PROTOCOL
7.1 Public information office
7.2 Press releases/press conferences
7.3 Protocol
ANNEX 1 National directory of points of contact and response
personnel
ANNEX 2 Map indicating geographical coverage and areas of
responsibility for participating States
ANNEX 3 Map showing possible sources of oil spills and
environmentally sensitive areas
ANNEX 4 Communications plan
ANNEX 5 Equipment inventories and listing of specialist personnel
ANNEX 6 National contingency plans of participating States
42
Appendix 5
Pollution reporting systems (POLREPs)
This appendix contains two examples of POLREP systems in use. The
first is an example of a POLREP system in use by the Bonn, Helsinki and
Copenhagen Agreements and the DENGER Plan (Denmark/Germany).
The second is an example of a POLREP system in use in the Caribbean.
EXAMPLE 1: BONN, HELSINKI AND COPENHAGEN AGREEMENTS POLREP SYSTEM
1 The pollution reporting systemis for use between Contracting Parties
for exchanging information when pollution of the sea has occurred or
when a threat of such is present.
2 The POLREP is divided into three parts:
.1 Part I or
POLWARN
(figures 15)
POLlution
WARNing
gives first information
or warning of the
pollution or the threat
.2 Part II or POLINF
(figures 4060)
POLlution
INFormation
gives a detailed
supplementary report
as well as situation
reports
.3 Part III or POLFAC
(figures 8099)
POLlution
FACilities
deals with requests for
counter-pollution
facilities or resources as
well as matters of
operational character
3 The division into three parts is only for identification purposes. For
this reason, consecutive figures are not used. This enables the recipient
to recognize, merely by looking at the figures, whether he is dealing with
part I (15), part II (4060) or part III (8099). This method of division
shall in no way exclude the use of all figures in a full report or the
separate use of single figures from each part or the use of single
figures from different parts mixed in one report.
4 When part I is used as a warning in the Helsinki Convention, in the
Copenhagen Agreement or in the DENGER Plan, it shall always be
transmitted with the traffic priority URGENT, but when used in the
Bonn Agreement the priority URGENT is optional.
5 Part II is the logical consequence of part I. Having transmitted part I,
the Contracting Party concerned can inform the other relevant
Contracting Parties of its assessment of the nature and extent of the
incident by using the appropriate figures from part II.
43
6 Part III is for the request for assistance and related matters
exclusively.
7 Detailed explanations of the different figures in parts I, II and III of the
POLREP are given in table 1.
8 Three examples of a POLREP in this system are given in table 2.
9 It must be possible to identify each POLREP and the person who
receives it must be able to check if he has received all of the reports
concerning that particular pollution or threat in question.
10 The POLREP is to be identified by a serial number, e.g. DK 2/3,
which means that it is a POLREP fromthe Danish authorities. The report
concerns the second pollution and it is the third report concerning this
pollution.
11 The last and final POLREP will show as follows: DK 2/5 FINAL,
which means that this is the fifth and final report concerning the
second pollution.
12 In order to keep the receivers of POLREPs informed about all of the
transmitted reports, the person who sends the POLREP must include
information after the serial number concerning who has received the
earlier transmitted POLREPs, e.g.:
DK 2/5 DK 2/1 for FRG and S
DK 2/2 for FRG
DK 2/3 for S
DK 2/4 for FRG and S
13 Concerning the figures 5, 60 and 99, it is emphasized that
ACKNOWLEDGE is made by the competent national authority with
reference to the serial number in question.
14 By answering a POLREP the serial number used by the transmitting
country is to be used as reference in the answer. However, it is not
necessary for countries to adhere to the POLREP system in responding
to POLREPs.
15 If the POLREP is used in exercises the text is to be introduced with
the word EXERCISE and finished with this word three times. Each of the
subsequent reports which deals with the exercise is to be introduced and
finished in the same format.
16 A summarized list of a POLREP is given on the following pages.
44
Summarized list of a POLREP
Address from ... to ...
Date Time Group
Identification
Serial number
Part I 1 Date and time
(POLWARN)
2 Position
3 Incident
4 Outflow
5 Acknowledge
Part II 40 Date and time
(POLINF)
41 Position
42 Characteristics of pollution
43 Source and cause of pollution
44 Wind direction and speed
45 Current or tide
46 Sea state and visibility
47 Drift of pollution
48 Forecast
49 Identity of observer and ships on scene
50 Action taken
51 Photographs or samples
52 Names of other States informed
5359 [Spare]
60 Acknowledge
Part III 80 Date and time
(POLFAC)
81 Request for assistance
82 Cost
83 Pre-arrangements for the delivery
84 Assistance to where and how
85 Other States requested
86 Change of command
87 Exchange of information
8898 [Spare]
99 Acknowledge
45
Appendix 5
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.
47
Appendix 5
C
O
N
T
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N
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S
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M
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K
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D
K
1
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1
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48
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l
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w
i
n
g
.
49
Appendix 5
C
O
N
T
E
N
T
S
R
E
M
A
R
K
S
4
5
C
U
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R
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4
6
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B
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L
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4
7
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4
8
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.
4
9
I
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Table 2
POLREP Example No. 1: Full report (parts I, II & III)
Address From: DK
To: FRG and NL
Date Time Group 181100Z June
Identification POLREP BONN AGREEMENT
Serial number DK 1/2 (DK 1/1 for FRG)
1 Date and time 1 181000Z
2 Position 2 55
o
30N - 07
o
00E
3 Incident 3 Tanker collision
4 Outflow 4 Crude oil, estimated 3,000 tonnes
41 Position and/or
extent of pollution
on/above/in the
sea
41 The oil is forming a slick
0.5 nautical miles to the
south-east. Width up to
0.3 nautical miles.
42 Characteristics of
pollution
42 Venezuela crude. Viscosity
3,780 cSt at 37.8
o
C. Rather
viscous.
43 Source and cause
of pollution
43 Danish tanker ESSO BALTICA of
Copenhagen, 22,000 GRT, call sign
xxx, in collision with Norwegian
bulk carrier AGNEDAL of
Stavanger, 30,000 GRT, call sign
yyy. Two tanks damaged in ESSO
BALTICA. No damage in AGNEDAL.
44 Wind direction and
speed
44 270 - 10 m/s.
45 Current direction
and speed and/or
tide
45 180 - 0.3 knots.
46 Sea state and
visibility
46 Wave height 2 m. 10 nautical
miles.
47 Drift of pollution 47 135 - 0.4 knots.
48 Forecast of likely
effect of pollution
and zones affected
48 Could reach the island of Sylt,
FRG or further south, NL on the
23rd of this month.
49 Identity of
observer/reporter.
Identity of ships on
scene
49 AGNEDAL, figure 43 refers.
51
Appendix 5
50 Action taken 50 2 Danish strike teams with high
mechanical pick-up capacity
en route to the area.
51 Photographs or
samples
51 Oil samples have been taken.
Telex 64471 SOK DK.
52 Names of other
States and
organizations
informed
52 FRG
53 [Spare] 53 DENGER PLAN is activated.
81 Request for
assistance
81 FRG is requested for 2 strike
teams with high mechanical
pick-up capacity.
82 Cost 82 FRG is requested for an
approximate cost rate per day of
assistance rendered.
83 Pre-arrangements
for the delivery of
assistance
83 FRG units will be allowed to enter
Danish territorial waters for
combating purposes or Danish
harbours for logistics,
informing SOSC beforehand.
84 To where
assistance should
be rendered and
how
84 Rendezvous 57
o
30N - 07
o
00E.
Report on VHF channels 16 and 67.
SOSC, Lieutenant Commander
Hansen in GUNNAR SEIDENFADEN,
call sign OWAJ.
99 ACKNOWLEDGE 99 ACKNOWLEDGE.
POLREP Example No. 2: Abbreviated report (single figures from part III)
Address From: FRG
To: DK
Serial number Your DK 1/2 refers
82 Cost 82 Total cost per day will be
approx...
84 To where assis-
tance should be
rendered and how
84 ETA FRG units at POLREP BONN
AGREEMENT DK 1/2 will be 182100Z.
52
POLREP Example No. 3: Exercise report
Address From: DK
To: N
URGENT
EXERCISE
Serial number Your DK 1/1
2 Position 2 57
o
50N - 10
o
00E
3 Incident 3 Tanker collision
4 Outflow 4 Not yet crude oil
5 Acknowledge 5 Acknowledge
EXERCISE EXERCISE EXERCISE
EXAMPLE 2: CARIBBEAN POLREP SYSTEM
CARIBPOLREP Format
1 The following is a summarized list of the composition of the
CARIBPOLREP message.
1.1 HEADING
.1 Date time group:
.2 From:
.3 To:
.4 Subject:
1.2 SITUATION
.1 Date and time
.2 Position
.3 Incident
.4 Outflow
.5 Characteristics of pollution
53
Appendix 5
.6 Source and cause of pollution
.7 Wind direction and speed
.8 Current or tide
.9 Sea state and visibility
.10 Drift of pollution
.11 Forecast
.12 Identity of observer and ships on scene
1.3 ACTION TAKEN
.1 Implementation of national contingency plan
.2 Incident surveillance
.3 Photographs or samples
.4 Names of other States informed
1.4 FUTURE PLANS
Various types of information, such as anticipated changes of command;
reducing information exchange to encompass only relevant, affected
parties; etc.
1.5 ASSISTANCE REQUESTED
.1 Source of assistance
.2 Estimated cost
.3 Pre-arrangement for delivery
.4 Assistance to where and how
.5 Other States requested
.6 Names and passport numbers of persons
.7 Description of equipment
.8 ETA and arrival information
.9 Place of embarkation
.10 Place of disembarkation
2 If the CARIBPOLREP is used in exercises, the text is to be introduced
with the word EXERCISE and finished with this word three times. Each
of the subsequent reports which deals with the exercise is to be
introduced and finished with the word EXERCISE (three times) as well.
54
CARIBPOLREP Explanation
REMARKS
3.1 HEADING
.1 Date Time Group: The day of the month as well as the time
of day of the message.
.2 From: Lead agency of the Island State or
Territory that is initiating the message.
.3 To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, US
Coast Guard, San Juan, Puerto Rico
requesting the US Coast Guard pass the
message to other Island States or
Territories. Lead agencies may pass
information directly to other Island
States or Territories that may be affected
by the spill.
.4 Subject: CARIBPOLREP, sequential number of the
report and the name of the vessel or
facility involved in the spill incident.
3.2 SITUATION
.1 Date and time: Date and time of the incident.
.2 Position: Position of vessel or vessels involved in
the incident. If source of spill is
unknown, location by latitude and
longitude in degrees and minutes and
may, in addition, give the bearings of and
the distance from a location known by
the receiver.
.3 Incident: The nature of the incident should be
stated here, such as BLOWOUT, TANKER
GROUNDING, TANKER COLLISION, OIL
SLICK, etc.
.4 Outflow: The nature of the pollution, such as
CRUDE OIL, CHLORINE,
DINITROPHENOL, etc., as well as the
total quantity in tonnes of the outflow
and/or the flow rate, as well as the risk of
further outflow. If there is no pollution
but a pollution threat, the words NOT
YET followed by the substance (for
example, NOT YET FUEL OIL) should be
stated.
55
Appendix 5
.5 Characteristics of
pollution:
Give type of pollution, e.g. type of oil with
its viscosity and pour point, packaged or
bulk chemicals, sewage. For chemicals,
give proper name or United Nations
Number, if known. For all, give also
appearance, e.g., liquid, floating solid,
liquid oil, semi-liquid sludge, tarry
lumps, weathered oil, discoloration of
sea, visible vapour. Any markings on
drums, containers, etc. should be given.
.6 Source and cause
of pollution:
e.g., from vessel or other undertaking. If
from vessel, say whether as a result of a
deliberate discharge or casualty. If the
latter, give brief description. Where
possible, give name, type, size, call sign,
nationality and port of registration of
polluting vessel. If vessel is proceeding on
its way, give course, speed and
destination.
.7 Wind direction
and speed:
Indicate wind direction and speed in
degrees and m.p.h. The direction always
indicates fromwhere the wind is blowing.
.8 Current or tide: Indicate current direction in degrees and
speed in knots and tenths of knots. The
direction always indicates the direction
in which the current is flowing.
.9 Sea state and
visibility:
Sea state indicated as wave height in feet.
Visibility is in nautical miles.
.10 Drift of pollution: Indicate drift course and speed of
pollution in degrees and in knots and
tenths of knots. In case of air pollution
(gas cloud), drift speed is indicated in
m/s.
.11 Forecast: e.g., arrival on beach, with estimated
timing. Results of mathematical models,
or computer trajectory modelling.
.12 Identity of observer
and ships on scene:
Indicate who has reported the incident. If
a ship, its name, home port, flag and call
sign must be given. Ships on scene can
also be indicated under this item by
name, home port, flag and call sign,
especially if the polluter cannot be
identified and the spill is considered to be
of recent origin.
56
3.3 ACTION TAKEN
.1 Implementation of
national
contingency plan:
Indicate if national contingency plan has
been activated. If appropriate, give name
of response agency and On-Scene
Commander.
.2 Incident
surveillance:
Indicate type of spill surveillance, such
as aerial or vessel. Number of overflights
per day, etc.
.3 Photographs or
samples:
Indicate if photographs or samples from
the pollution have been taken. Fax or
telex number of the sampling authority
should be given.
.4 Names of other
States informed:
Lead agency initiating message
concerning the spill incident should
name the other Island States that have
been notified directly. This is important if
the control of communications is being
passed to the US Coast Guard
Commander, Greater Antilles. If
communications are being passed,
identify Island States to whomthe alert is
to be readdressed.
3.4 FUTURE PLANS
.1 Future plans: Describe the action contemplated in
response to the discharge or threat of
discharge.
3.5 ASSISTANCE REQUESTED
.1 Source of
assistance:
Name of lead agency and name of Island
State or Territory and the type of
assistance required, in the form of:
specified equipment
specified equipment with trained
personnel
complete strike teams
personnel with special expertise
with indication of Island State or
Territory requested.
.2 Estimated cost: Requirements for cost information to
requesting Island State or Territory of
delivered assistance.
57
Appendix 5
.3 Prearrangement
delivery of
assistance:
Information concerning customs
clearance, access to territorial waters,
etc. in the requesting Island or Territory.
.4 Assistance to
where and how:
Information concerning the delivery of
the assistance, e.g. rendezvous at sea,
with information on frequencies to be
used, call sign and name of On-Scene
Commander of the requesting Island
State or Territory or land-based
authorities, with telephone number, fax,
or telex number and contact person.
.5 Other States
requested:
Only used, if not covered by 3.5.1, if
further assistance is later needed by
other Island States or Territories.
.6 Personnel names,
passport
nationality and
number:
Names of persons responding from an
assisting Island State, including their
passport numbers. This information is
necessary to facilitate rapid entry into
the requesting Island State or Territory.
.7 Description of
equipment:
A brief description of the equipment,
including serial and model numbers.
Also include a list of any component
parts that are being shipped with the
equipment.
.8 ETA and arrival
information:
Time and place of arrival of equipment
and of personnel should be given to
accommodate clearance with customs
and immigration officials in the
requesting Island State or Territory.
.9 Place of
embarkation:
The responding Island State should
include the airport or seaport where
responding personnel are departing
from. The information should give flight
names and numbers and/or vessel
names.
.10 Place of
disembarkation:
The responding Island State should give
the airport or seaport where responding
personnel will be arriving in the
requesting country.
58
.11 Spare: Any relevant information pertaining to
the spill should be included, such as
results of field inspections or surveys,
statements of ships personnel, vessel
and cargo owners and if the owners are
members of a co-operative association,
etc.
Example: CARIBPOLREP Message No. 1
(Heading)
Date Time Group: 181100GMT
From: Lead agency Grenada
To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, US Coast Guard,
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Pass to: Lead agency St. Vincent, Tobago, St. Lucia and Trinidad
for immediate alert
(Subject)
Caribpolrep No. 1: M.T. West Passage
(Situation)
Tankship M.T. West Passage on fire and in danger of sinking
Date and time: Fire reported 180745GMT
Position: Vessel at 128-30N 618-15W
Incident: Engine-room fire spreading to cargo tanks. Some crude
oil reported to be leaking. Risk of loss of vessel and
entire cargo of 156,000 tons. Oil is forming a slick to
the west.
Source of pollution: Ruptured cargo tanks 10 right, 10 centre
and 10 left.
Wind direction and speed: Wind is from 0908 at 10 miles per
hour.
Current: Current is towards 2708 at approximately 1 knot.
Sea state and visibility: Wave height 3 feet and visibility is
10 nautical miles.
(Action taken)
Air sea rescue units en route.
Crew still aboard the vessel.
Grenada lead agency activating national contingency plan and
has commenced aerial surveillance.
Names of other States informed: Inform all other Caribbean
Plan member Island States and
Territories for information
alert only at this time.
59
Appendix 5
Example: CARIBPOLREP Message No. 2
(Heading)
Date Time Group: 181645GMT
From: Lead agency Grenada
To: Commander, Greater Antilles Section, US Coast Guard,
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Pass to: Trinidad lead agency for action.
(Subject)
Caribpolrep No.2: M.T. West Passage leaking oil.
(Situation)
Tankship M.T. West Passage on fire, leaking oil, and in danger of
sinking.
Date and time: Fire reported 180745 GMT
Position: Vessel now dead in the water at 128-30N 618-15W
Incident: Vessel sustained engine damage from fire which
spread to cargo tanks and is out of control. Crew has
abandoned vessel and air sea rescue units are on
scene. Vessel contains 156,000 tons of Arabian crude.
Oil slick observed from aerial observations to be
spreading west-north-west. Slick 1/2 mile wide and 8
miles long.
Wind direction and speed: Wind is from 1408 at 15 miles per
hour.
Current: Current is towards 2708 at approximately 1 knot.
Sea state and visibility: Wave height 4 feet and visibility is
10 nautical miles.
Request assistance: Request vessel with dispersant spray
equipment and available dispersant
chemicals. Inform the Grenada lead agency
of the quantity and type available. Request
dispersant spray operating personnel to
accompany equipment.
Estimated cost: If known, cost of rental rate for dispersant spray
equipment, dispersant spray chemicals by the
drum and daily charges for operating personnel.
Assistance to where and how: Assistance needed at mobilization
area at the Port of St. George,
Grenada as soon as possible.
Please arrange air transportation
for equipment and operating
personnel.
60
(Action taken)
Grenada Response Agency assuming on-scene responsibility for
pollution abatement in Grenadas EEZ. Chemical dispersant
response to oil at sea initiated.
Names of other States informed: Pass to St. Vincent, Tobago, St.
Lucia for information.
61
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Guidelines for identifying response resources
Booms
Types
Total length*
Draught/Freeboard length and weight per unit*
Additional support equipment necessary
Design or intended use (e.g. use in open sea or sheltered water
operations)
Mobilization time{
Means of transportation required
Available transportation
Personnel for handling/operating
Procurement cost/m versus rental cost
Skimmers and other pick-up devices
Types, total numbers
Weight and size per unit*
operations)
Mobilization time{
Procurement cost versus rental cost
Estimated daily rental cost
Available equipment, not dedicated to oil spill response, that can
be used (pumps, etc.)
Mobile equipment for temporary storage of recovered oil
Types, total numbers/capacity*
operations)
* Dimensions and weights should be metric.

{ The time-lapse between request for and dispatch of equipment, vessels, etc.
62
Mobilization time{
Specialized shoreline clean-up equipment
Types/function
Design or intended use
Mobilization time{
Personnel for handling
Specialized vessels
Type, length, breadth, speed, function*
Fuel/dockage
Work-crew accommodation
On-board storage capacity in cubic metres (if applicable)
Application (open sea or sheltered waters)
Mobilization time{
Aircraft
Mission
dispersant application
surveillance
transport
Type, rotary/fixed wing
Operating speed
Specialized equipment
Endurance
Passenger capacity
Load capacity
Mobilization time{
Fuel/ramp requirements

63
Appendix 6
Dispersants
Types, total stock of each type in litres
System of storage
Method of application
Approval data (e.g. country of approval, approval number)
Toxicity and efficiency data (e.g. tests applied and results
obtained)
Types of spraying equipment required
Sources of supply and mobilization time{
Means of transportation required, capacity of unit
Estimated price/litre
Vessel and aircraft dispersant spraying equipment
Stocks held, by type and size*
Whether suitable for dispersant concentrate and in what ratio
Design or intended use
Mobilization time{
Means of transportation required, weight per unit*
Dispersant pillow tanks
Total stocks, by type and capacity and weight empty/full*
Means of securing on board
Mobilization time{
Means of transportation required, weight per unit*
Lightering equipment
Pumps, total stocks by type/capacity and weight including prime
mover*
Hoses, length, diameter and weight/section*
Fenders, total stocks by type/size and weight*
Estimated procurement cost
Mobilization time{

64
In-situ burning
Fire boom, amount*
Support equipment
Mobilization time{
Transportation/delivery
Ignition methodology
Procurement cost
Wildlife chemical treatment/rehabilitation
Bird scaring devices
Recovery/handling equipment (nets)*
Holding pens/facilities
Cleaning agents and supplies
Husbandry experts
Mobilization time{
Transportation/delivery (boats/trailers)
Cost of operations
Communications and auxiliary equipment
Equipment available
Mobilization time{
Portable equipment (on board and ashore)
Frequencies
Types of emission
Power source
Signalling lamps
Estimated daily rental cost versus procurement cost

65
Appendix 6
Section III
MANUAL ON
OIL POLLUTION
SALVAGE
1997 Edition
B
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION
London, 1997
Second edition 1997
Printed in the United Kingdom by the International Maritime Organization, London
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
ISBN 92-801-1442-5
IMO PUBLICATION
Sales number: IMO-566E
Cover photo Mega Borg, June 1990 (IMO photo library)
No part of this publication may, for sales purposes,
be produced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic,
magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
Foreword
This publication comprises section III of the Manual on Oil Pollution
prepared by the Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO.
Section I Prevention (out of print; revision under consideration)
Section II Contingency Planning (first published in 1978; revised
edition published in 1995)
Section III Salvage (first published in 1983; revised edition published
in 1997)
Section IV Combating Oil Spills (first published in 1988; currently
under review)
Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (to be
published in late 1997/early 1998)
The Manual on Chemical Pollution consists of two sections:
Section I Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (first
published in 1987, currently under review)
Section II Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (first
published in 1991)
The Salvage section of the Manual on Oil Pollution has been extended to
cover substances other than oil. The other above sections of the Manual
which relate specifically to oil pollution will, later, be extended to cover
substances other than oil.
The Marine Environment Protection Committee thanks the many
experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and who
contributed tables and diagrams, thereby making the publication of
this section possible in its present form.
It is advisable that the national contingency plan (see section II of the
Manual on Oil Pollution) contains information on where and how
resources for the purpose of quick and effective salvage may be available.
This section of the Manual is intended to provide guidance to
Administrations and officials involved with oil pollution casualties so
that they may effectively mitigate the effects of such accidents,
particularly in relation to the salvage of vessels and cargo.
While most oil pollution casualties are likely to involve tankers, it should
be noted that many dry cargo and passenger vessels have a bunker
capacity of several thousand tons and may therefore pose a serious
threat of oil pollution if involved in an accident.
iii
Acknowledgements
The illustrations from Reeds Commercial Salvage Practice in appendix 1
have been reproduced with the kind permission of Thomas Reed
Publications, 19 Bridge Road, East Molesey, Surrey KT8 9EU, United
Kingdom.
Tables 1-5 and figure 1 in appendix 2 and the table in appendix 3 have
been reproduced with the kind permission of the International Chamber
of Shipping and the Oil Companies International Marine Forum.
Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement has been reproduced in
appendix 4 with the kind permission of Lloyds of London, One Lime
Street, London EC3 7HA, United Kingdom.
iv
.
Contents
Page
1 Introduction
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Action by the shipowner in the event of a casualty. . . . . . . 2
1.3 Advice to masters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Position of the Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Intervention
2.1 Powers under the 1969 Convention and
the 1973 Protocol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
3.1 Article 221, Measures to avoid pollution arising
from maritime casualties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 International Convention on Salvage, 1989
4.1 Application of the Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Article 5(3) Salvage operations controlled
by public authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Article 6 Salvage contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Article 8 Duties of the salvor and of the owner
and master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.5 Article 9 Rights of coastal States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.6 Article 14 Special compensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5 Advice to Administrations
5.1 Planning prior to a casualty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.2 Customs and immigration facilitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5.3 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.4 Establishment and maintenance of liaison
with interested parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.5 Inventory of specialist salvage equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.6 Provision of harbours of refuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.7 Maintenance of records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.8 Action at the time of a casualty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
v
5.9 Action subsequent to a casualty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6 Salvage contracts
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
6.2 No cureno pay and service contracts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.3 Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Appendix 1 Information on salvage methods, specialized salvage
equipment and salvage techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Appendix 2 Rate of drift for disabled tankers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Appendix 3 Resistance to tow in still water conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Appendix 4 Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement
(LOF 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
vi
Manual on Oil Pollution III: Salvage
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General
1.1.1 Despite all efforts to reduce maritime accidents through improved
safety measures and technological advances in navigational aids, there
will be occasions where oil or other harmful substances are spilled from a
vessel as a result of:
.1 collision;
.2 grounding;
.3 striking a wreck or other obstacle;
.4 fire and/or explosion;
.5 failure or breakdown of machinery or equipment which results
in the impairment of the safety of navigation;
.6 structural failure;
.7 storm damage and ice damage;
.8 flooding; and
.9 sabotage.
Happy Traveller, March 1990 off Singapore
1
1.1.2 In most accidents the master, as representative of the vessel owner
and the cargo owner, will take immediate action to ensure the safety of his
crew, the preservation of the ship, and to stop or limit cargo outflow. The
master will also make arrangements, where necessary, for the salvage of
the vessel.
1.1.3 The salvors primary aim will, therefore, be the successful comple-
tion of his assignment, whereas the concern of the Administration may
additionally involve protection of local industry, fisheries, and mainte-
nance of the ecology of the area. It is important, therefore, that full co-
operation between all the parties concerned (Administrations, ship and
cargo owners, salvors, etc.) is arranged expeditiously and that, as far as is
possible, division of responsibility is worked out in principle and accepted
by all parties prior to or at the inception of any incidents. A guide to
Administrations, information on salvage methods, specialized salvage
equipment, and salvage techniques is attached at appendix 1.
1.1.4 The arrangements should also cover agreement on responsibility for
procurement of ancillary equipment which may be necessary and the
necessary financial resources.
1.2 Action by the shipowner in the event of a casualty
1.2.1 In most cases the shipowner or operator will be fully aware of any
potentially hazardous situation in which his vessel is involved. If in the
masters judgement or as a result of the advice to the master by the
operator, it is considered desirable, salvage assistance will be arranged on
commercial terms. Such salvage contracts are usually with a firm of
professional salvors who are experienced in the highly specialized
requirements for successful salvage.
1.2.2 Prior to the 1980s, virtually all contracts were on a no cureno pay
basis by which the salvor received no remuneration if the ship was not
brought to a place of safety. Under these terms, the overriding incentive for
the salvor was to get the stricken vessel to a place of safety even though in
extreme cases it might be necessary to jettison some of the cargo in order
to do so.
1.2.3 The primary concern of a shipowner or operator in such circum-
stances must be the safety of those on board the vessel. The master, as the
owners representative, must be well aware of the need to seek outside
assistance wherever it is necessary. In the special case of oil tankers, the
help and expert advice which generally can be provided by the cargo owner
is also at the disposal of the vessels master and owner. Recognizing that,
in the case of oil tanker casualties, Governments had the right and duty to
intervene to prevent damage to their coastal environment, an agreement
was reached in 1980 between a number of influential organizations under
the aegis of Lloyds of London under which, in the case of laden oil tankers
only, there would be a departure from the normal no cureno pay principle
so that a salvor could recover his out-of-pocket costs even in cases where
the vessel and its cargo were a total loss.
2
1.2.4 Thus, unless an Administration under its national law or under the
provisions of the International Convention relating to Intervention on the
High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969 (Intervention 1969),*
as amended by the Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas in
Cases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973 (1973 Intervention
Protocol), if it is a Contracting Party thereto, has taken powers to intervene
because of a grave and imminent threat of pollution of its shores, the
salvage operation will be dealt with between the owner/operator and the
salvor, with both parties complying with the requirements of Administra-
tions as directed.
1.2.5 The award to the salvors in the event of successful salvage is (in
default of agreement between the parties) decided by arbitration. The cost
of any oil pollution claims as a result of an accident involving a tanker are
usually recoverable under the International Convention on Civil Liability
for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 (1969 Civil Liability Convention),
{
and the
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund
for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 (1971 Fund Conven-
tion).
{
In the case of both laden and unladen tankers, the compensation
schemes allow reimbursement for preventative measures which include
salvage operations that minimize or prevent pollution damage, even in the
event of an incident where no oil is spilled, provided there is grave and
imminent danger of pollution damage (1992 Protocol to the 1971 Fund
Convention).
}
For hazardous noxious liquid substances, compensation will
be covered under the International Convention on Liability and Compen-
sation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and
Noxious Substances by Sea, 1996 (1996 HNS Convention), when it enters
into force.
1.3 Advice to masters
1.3.1 The various aspects of vessel salvage are covered by the joint
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)/Oil Companies International
Marine Forum (OCIMF) publication Peril at Sea and Salvage A Guide for
Masters (4th edition). Appendix 2 to this Manual has been drawn from
information contained in that publication.
1.3.2 Timely reporting is required under the International Convention for
the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of
1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78),
}
and the International Convention
on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-Operation, 1990 (1990
OPRC Convention),
||
and should be made to the coastal State(s) concerned
* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-402E.
{
Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-410E
{
Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-520B.
}
Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-456E.
}
||
3
Chapter 1
in accordance with IMO resolution A.648(16),* General principles for ship
reporting systems and ship reporting requirements, including guidelines
for reporting incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful substances
and/or marine pollutants. Some States might delineate further in local
regulations concerning under what circumstances reports of casualties
need to be made.
1.3.3 Emergency response on board ships should be carried out in
accordance with regulation 26 of Annex I to MARPOL 73/78 and IMO
resolution MEPC.54(32),
{
Guidelines for the development of shipboard oil
pollution emergency plans. Such response should take into account the
directions given by the coastal State(s) authorities.
1.3.4 Emergency response procedures on board ships are often different
than for similar incidents on land. Land-based responders might not be
familiar with shipboard response techniques thereby inadvertently
causing damage to the vessel or causing injury to themselves, the local
population, or the environment. Additionally, as a result of the automation
of shipboard systems, the trend has been towards smaller crew sizes. With
smaller crew sizes the land-based response support required during an
emergency increases. Accordingly, the master and the shipowner should
partner with the local authorities of the ports the ship visits to:
.1 identify the response needs of the ship;
.2 identify the response capabilities of the ship and the port;
.3 identify any shortfalls in response capability;
.4 establish response agreements and develop contingency plans
as appropriate; and
.5 eliminate response capability shortfalls.
1.4 Position of the Administration
1.4.1 A major part of an Administrations contingency planning must of
necessity be related to mitigating damage from pollution in the event of a
casualty. One of the most important contributions to this is ensuring,
where possible, the prompt and efficient salvage of the ship and cargo. This
may well involve such associated disciplines as emergency lightering
arrangements and fire-fighting aboard the ship. Thus, the prompt
availability of portable pumping equipment, particularly submersible
pumps with appropriate power packs, fenders of appropriate size, and
lightering craft, as well as other equipment not normally carried by ships
or salvage tugs, will be of considerable importance. An assessment of the
risk to shorelines, fisheries, and local industry needs to be carried out by
the Administration as a matter of urgent priority. The immediate and
future actions to be taken by the ships master, the operator (and in some
{
4
cases the cargo owner), and the salvor need to be taken into account in
reviewing the overall situation, in order that an agreement can be reached
with the Administration on the action to be taken.
Chapter 2
Intervention
2.1 Powers under the 1969 Intervention Convention and
the 1973 Intervention Protocol
2.1.1 The Administration, if it is a Party thereto, should be aware of the
powers conferred upon it by the 1969 Intervention Convention as
amended by the 1973 Intervention Protocol, to intervene in casualty
situations which pose a threat of pollution to its coastline or adjacent
waters. As a generality, it should be borne in mind by the authority or
official exercising powers under the 1969 Intervention Convention*
on behalf of an Administration that these only apply after a casualty (as
defined in the Convention) has occurred and when there exists a grave and
imminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollution or
threat of pollution of the sea. The term high seas for the purpose of the
above Convention and Protocol means those waters beyond the territorial
sea.
2.1.2 What constitutes a grave and imminent danger can only be decided
at the time, taking into account the type and quantity of the pollutant, the
circumstances surrounding the casualty, the existing and forecast
weather, the range and strength of tides and currents, availability of
salvage equipment and expertise and such other factors as may be
peculiar to that particular incident.
2.1.3 Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that the interests of the
shipowner, the salvor and the cargo owner might not always coincide and,
in those cases, it may become necessary for the coastal State to intervene
in order to reconcile these differences in its own best interest. In other
cases, the need to intervene may not arise if agreement exists between all
parties.
2.1.4 It should be remembered that whenever these powers have been
exercised, the Administration should be prepared to defend its actions as it
could be held responsible for costs incurred by unreasonable and
excessive exercise of the powers.
2.1.5 Finally, there will come a stage when one of the parties considers
that the threat is no longer grave or imminent, and a decision will have to
be taken whether and when intervention should cease.
* Further powers may be available under national legislation.
5
Chapter 2
2.1.6 Administrations should satisfy themselves that they have access to
the expertise which will be required to enable them to assess marine
casualties and related salvage operations and to exercise their intervention
powers in an effective and timely manner. This expertise might be
available from within the Administration or from elsewhere, for instance,
from the IMO panel of experts or from other States.
Chapter 3
United Nations Convention on
the Law of the Sea
3.1 Article 221, Measures to avoid pollution arising
from maritime casualties
3.1.1 Article 221 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS), gives States the right, pursuant to international law, both
customary and conventional, to take and enforce measures beyond the
territorial sea proportionate to the actual or threatened damage to protect
their coastlines or related interests, including fishing, from pollution or
threat of pollution following from a maritime casualty or acts relating to
such a casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major
harmful consequences. This article generalizes the above-mentioned
1969 Intervention Convention and the 1973 Intervention Protocol.
Chapter 4
International Convention on Salvage, 1989*
4.1 Application of the Convention
4.1.1 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 Salvage
Convention), replaces, for States which become party to both, the 1910
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law relating to
Assistance and Salvage at Sea (Brussels Convention). A salvage operation
means any act or activity undertaken to assist a vessel or any other
property in danger in navigable waters or in any other waters. Any other
property is defined as any property not permanently and intentionally
attached to the shoreline and includes freight at risk. Also included in the
definition are aircraft used in salvage operations or even wrecks that might
be salvaged. The Convention does not apply to the sea only, but also to the
inland waters of a State.
* The International Convention on Salvage, 1989, entered into force on 14 July 1996. Refer to IMO
sales publication number IMO-450E.
6
4.1.2 Some of the highlights of the Salvage Convention, 1989, are
discussed in paragraphs 4.2 4.6.
4.2 Article 5(3), Salvage operations controlled
by public authorities
Article 5(3) stipulates that the extent to which a public authority under a
duty to perform salvage operations might avail itself of the rights and
remedies provided for shall be determined by the law of the State where
such authority is situated.
4.3 Article 6, Salvage contracts
According to article 6, the master shall have the authority to conclude
contracts for salvage operations on behalf of the owner of the vessel. The
master or the owner of the vessel shall have the authority to conclude
such contracts on behalf of the owner of the property on board the vessel.
See chapter 6 of this section for more information on contracts.
4.4 Article 8, Duties of the salvor and of
the owner and master
Article 8 imposes a duty on the salvor to exercise due care while carrying
out salvage operations, to prevent or minimize damage to the
environment.
4.5 Article 9, Rights of coastal States
(Article 9 printed in its entirety)
Nothing in this Convention shall affect the right of the coastal State
concerned to take measures in accordance with generally recognized
principles of international law to protect its coastline or related
interests from pollution or the threat of pollution following upon a
maritime casualty or acts relating to such a casualty which may
reasonably be expected to result in major harmful consequences,
including the right of a coastal State to give directions in relation to
salvage operations.
4.6 Article 14, Special compensation
4.6.1 The 1989 Salvage Convention keeps up the normal principle of no
cureno pay, but according to article 14, the salvor, who has carried out a
salvage operation in respect of a vessel which by itself or its cargo
threatened damage to the environment and failed to earn reward because
the operation has not had a useful result, shall be entitled to a special
compensation from the owner of that vessel equivalent to the salvors
expenses as herein defined. The special compensation might be increased
up to a maximum of 30% of the expenses incurred.
4.6.2 Also, upon the request of the salvor, a person liable for payment due
under the Convention shall provide satisfactory security for the claim,
including interest and costs of the salvor (article 21).
7
Chapters 3, 4
Chapter 5
Advice to Administrations
5.1 Planning prior to a casualty
5.1.1 An appropriate authority within an Administration should be
designated to receive all information relating to a maritime casualty or a
potential casualty and to take effective action thereon.
5.1.2 This will require establishment of a permanently manned system
which can:
.1 rapidly notify all relevant authorities involved;
.2 establish the facts and assess the damage potential of the
incident;
.3 establish and maintain contact with all parties concerned
(authorized shipowner, cargo owner, salvors, insurance interest,
etc.);
.4 decide whether salvage activities being undertaken by the
owner are adequate for the circumstances both present and
foreseen;
.5 decide what additional steps should be taken, if any, by the
Administration to facilitate salvage and prevent pollution;
.6 organize the prompt availability of specialist assistance and
special salvage materials and make the necessary financial
arrangements therefor;
.7 review the suitability of specific locations to be designated
harbours of refuge (see 5.6) where distressed vessels can more
rapidly and safely be attended to and their pollution potential
eliminated or substantially reduced and to establish such
locations together with appropriate equipment; and
.8 maintain detailed records of actions taken, costs incurred,
damage sustained and remedial actions for subsequent review
and preparation of claims.
5.2 Customs and immigration facilitation
All the foregoing steps should be taken in the closest co-operation with
those authorities who will have responsibility for clean-up of pollution.
Also, prior joint arrangements should be made to expedite the temporary
importation and customs clearance of all salvage related and pollution
clean-up material. Facilitation of entry of the technical experts required
to deal with the casualty should be arranged. The Administration might
also wish to avail itself of the services of an independent expert (see
article IV of the 1969 Intervention Convention and article VII of the
1990 OPRC Convention) and special arrangements should be made to
facilitate entry.
8
5.3 Communications
It is essential to keep telegraphic authorities and maritime radio stations
aware of the specific point to which advisory messages or requests for
assistance should be communicated and where necessary to ensure
priority handling of such traffic. Administrations may prefer to des-
ignate in advance a specific channel for emergency use only, together
with detailed arrangements.
5.4 Establishment and maintenance of liaison
with interested parties
5.4.1 The parties having special interests related to salvage operations
are:
.1 shipowners and operators,
.2 insurance companies (P&I),
.3 cargo owners and their insurers,
.4 salvors, and
.5 Administrations.
5.4.2 Various books of reference, such as Lloyds Register and Clarksons
The Tanker Register, will give the details of a vessel, its owner and operator,
as will the specialized marine computer data banks. If ownership has
changed, a facsimile or telex to the reference consulted will rapidly provide
the new information. The ship should, in any case, provide the name and
address of the owner. Details of professional salvors in the area may be
obtained from local or international sources.
5.5 Inventory of specialist salvage equipment
5.5.1 In addition to the equipment which is normally carried on a salvage
vessel, it is essential to be aware of the availability and location of other
equipment which may be needed to facilitate the salvage of the vessel.
Items such as:
.1 lightering vessels,
.2 fenders of appropriate size,
.3 portable pumping equipment (particularly submersible pumps)
with appropriate power packs,
.4 fire-fighting equipment suitable for marine use, and
.5 portable inert gas generating equipment,
should be located and catalogued. Arrangements should be made for the
immediate release of these items in case of an emergency and the
appropriate office which can authorize release should be clearly
identified. Financial arrangements for the provision of such equipment
should also be worked out in advance. For example, many authorities
require a letter of credit or bank guarantee as a prerequisite for the
release of equipment.
9
Chapter 5
5.5.2 Studies should be carried out as to the practicability of acquiring
and storing of any specialist equipment which is not readily available from
sources near at hand. In this regard, discussions with neighbouring
Administrations with a view to establishing regional or sub-regional
stockpiles can be advantageous. Information on specialized salvage
equipment and techniques is provided at appendix 1.
5.6 Provision of harbours of refuge
5.6.1 Authorities, mindful of the risks involved, may be reluctant to accept
a distressed ship which may leak a pollutant. However, it is rarely possible
to deal satisfactorily and expeditiously with a casualty in open sea
conditions and the longer a damaged ship is forced to remain at the mercy
of the open sea, the greater is the risk of its condition deteriorating and
thereby becoming a greater pollution hazard.
5.6.2 Authorities should be encouraged to identify potential harbours of
refuge or safe havens. The provision of special sheltered areas as
harbours of refuge or safe havens should be carefully examined, but if
such areas cannot be determined, authorities should be encouraged to
permit (with all reasonable precautions, e.g. a requirement that the salvor
could not disengage before the owner has complied with all required
preventive measures and ensuring adequate arrangements for
compensation are in place) a distressed vessel to enter its harbour to
facilitate its salvage and minimize damage. If a harbour of refuge or a safe
haven cannot be identified, the possibility of using another sea area
should be examined.
5.6.3 Article 11 of the 1989 Salvage Convention requires States Party to
the Convention to take account of the need for co-operation between
various parties concerned in a salvage operation, including public
authorities, when considering admittance to ports of damaged vessels.
5.6.4 Local conditions and the nature of the incident will determine what
factors need to be considered when identifying harbours of refuge. A
harbour of refuge should provide safe access to the ship in distress with a
minimal amount of threat to local populations and the environment. Some
harbours may provide an excellent refuge because of their accessibility
and the protection they provide from seas and weather; however, they may
also be environmentally sensitive. These harbours should not be excluded
from designation as harbours of refuge if actions can be taken to achieve a
reasonable level of protection to the environment. Some items to consider
when designating a harbour of refuge:
.1 threat to local populations (direct exposure to threats such as
fire, explosion, water and air pollutants; indirect exposure
through facility air and water intakes, etc.);
.2 threat to environmentally sensitive areas;
.3 access availability for response resources (piers, docks, bulk-
heads, roads, airports, equipment staging area, etc.);
10
.4 access availability by the stricken and response vessels
(channel width and depth, aids to navigation, anchorages and
moorings, etc.);
.5 proximity to response resources (salvage vessels/equipment,
fire-fighting equipment, rescue and medical services, etc.); and
.6 proximity to support services (water, electricity, command
centre, living accommodations, etc.).
Note: It will often be difficult to predesignate harbours of refuge and the
decision will often be taken after the salvage has started. The above
items, however, remain applicable in such a case.
5.7 Maintenance of records
5.7.1 The costs connected even with a minor incident may be consider-
able. It is important, therefore, to maintain detailed records of any sums
expended in connection with preventive measures, equipment costs,
transport, etc., in order to subsequently submit a claim to the appropriate
body. Compensation for pollution risks involving oil tankers is usually
covered under the provisions of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, the
1971 Fund Convention and the 1992 Protocols to these Conventions. It is
desirable, therefore, to establish the identity of the tankers P&I Club
(which insures the polluter under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention) and
to establish contact as quickly as possible with its representatives and, if
appropriate, the International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPC
Funds) which administer the 1971 Fund Convention and the 1992 Fund
Convention.
5.7.2 If the Administration is a Contracting Party to the 1969 Intervention
Convention and decides to use its powers thereunder, it is imperative to
keep a detailed record of actions taken, the reasons therefor, and the
alternative courses considered with reasons for their rejection. Such
information may be needed if the Administrations actions are
subsequently challenged in the courts as the Convention permits. In most
cases, however, close and continuing co-operation with the interested
parties will result in actions being taken with the agreement of all
concerned.
5.8 Action at the time of a casualty
.1 Immediately on receipt of a report from a vessels master of an
incident involving discharge or probable discharge of a harmful
substance,* which may be in the form of an Advisory or Security
Message,
{
all interested authorities with responsibilities under
the States contingency plan should be alerted.
* Refer to IMO resolution A.648(16), General principles for ship reporting systems and ship reporting
requirements, including guidlelines for reporting incidents involving dangerous goods, harmful
substances and/or marine pollutants; see IMO sales publication number IMO-516E.
{
For further information refer to the ICS/OCIMF publication Peril at Sea and Salvage A Guide for
Masters (4th edition).
11
Chapter 5
.2 A preliminary assessment of the environmental damage poten-
tial should be made using local meteorological information and
forecasts. The tables and diagrams at appendix 2 used in
conjunction with local information will assist in this process.
.3 Contact should be made with the owners representative if it
appears that a potentially hazardous situation exists, to
establish what action is being taken by the ship and its owners.
.4 When dealing with an incident involving a tanker, estimates of
the probable drift of a disabled tanker may be made using the
information contained in appendix 2. Similarly, information on
resistance to tow for various sizes of tankers is provided at
appendix 3.
.5 Should the results of 5.8.2 and 5.8.3 indicate that further steps
are desirable, action should be taken to start moving any
necessary ancillary equipment to the scene.
.6 When a report of a marine accident or Request for Assistance is
received, authorities should be advised to activate their
contingency plan.
.7 An evaluation of the situation and an assessment of its
environmental damage potential (see 5.8.2) must be made. This
should include a review of actions already being taken by the
owner to salvage the vessel and of the resources at his disposal
and those available to the salvor.
.8 Review of this evaluation will require a decision as to whether:
.8.1 the situation is covered by the actions already taken by the
owner and salvor;
.8.2 supplementary assistance by the Administration is necessary
or desirable to ensure minimum overall damage to the local
environment; or
.8.3 full intervention by the Administration is necessary where
such action is appropriate and permitted either under local
law in territorial seas or under the 1969 Intervention
Convention if the Administration is a Contracting Party
thereto.
.9 Where the decision is that referred to in 5.8.8.1, continuous
monitoring of the situation should be maintained with supple-
mentary action being taken by the Administration if requested
by the owner or salvor or if a review of the situation indicates
unsatisfactory performance by the owner or the salvor.
.10 Where the decision is taken on the basis of 5.8.8.2, immediate
steps should be taken to get on site all the additional personnel
and materials deemed necessary to permit a successful
conclusion to the endeavour. All interested parties should be
advised of the action being taken and a careful record of actions
taken and costs incurred must be kept. Provision of such
12
ancillary equipment may require the activation of regional
assistance arrangements or a request for assistance to another
Administration. Such actions will be facilitated where prior
attention to the necessary financial arrangements has been
given.
.11 Where a full governmental intervention is taken under appro-
priate law, the owner and salvor must be advised immediately
with confirmation in writing and a decision must be made as to
whether any salvor already appointed is to be retained by the
Administration or the salvors services dispensed with. The
Administration may decide to appoint its own salvage master or
contractor who will then take over responsibility for the whole
operation. In such cases, it will be imperative to maintain
detailed records of all actions taken as set out in 5.8.8.3 in order
to justify these if they are subsequently challenged.
.12 All actions taken should be subject to continuous review in the
light of changing circumstances and regular advice on the latest
situation should be communicated to all interested authorities.
5.9 Action subsequent to a casualty
.1 As soon as possible after the emergency is over a review of the
events should be undertaken in order to identify those
successes which can be built upon and the items where
performance needs to be improved. Learning the lessons from
each occurrence will greatly improve overall casualty response.
A summary of lessons and successful techniques employed can
be of considerable benefit to other Administrations and should
be circulated through IMO channels for their benefit.
.2 Detailed claims for expenses incurred in the incident should be
submitted as soon as possible and it is advisable to notify the
appropriate body of any intention to submit such a claim
immediately following the incident.
Chapter 6
Salvage contracts
6.1 General
While under maritime law the right to perform salvage exists
independently from contract, it is the generally accepted practice for
salvage services to be rendered under contract terms.
13
Chapter 6
6.2 No cureno pay and service contracts
Such contracts may be on a no cureno pay basis, in which the salvors
remuneration is determined after completion of the salvage operation by
agreement between the parties or, in the event of failure to agree, by
arbitration, or a service basis. Service contracts normally specify the
particular service to be performed on a lump sum or a daily rate basis
with any additional work carried out being subject to further payment.
6.3 Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement
6.3.1 The most widely used and best known of the salvage contracts is
Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement (usually referred to as Lloyds
Open Form (LOF 1995)) and, subject to the Special Compensation
provision of article 14 of the 1989 Salvage Convention, this Agreement
operates on a no cureno pay basis. For ease of reference, a copy of LOF
1995, which incorporates the 1989 Salvage Convention, is included at
appendix 4. While this should always be referred to for detail, the following
is a summary of its major principles:
.1 The salvor agrees to use his best endeavours to salvage the
vessel and its cargo and take said vessel and cargo to a named
place or place of safety.
.2 In addition the salvor agrees to use his best endeavours to
prevent or minimize damage to the environment. (It should be
noted that the obligation upon the salvor under LOF 1995 to
use his best endeavours is considered to be a more onerous
obligation than that contained within the 1989 Salvage
Convention, where the obligation requires the salvor to use
due care.)
.3 Under article 6 of the Convention, the master has the authority
to conclude contracts on behalf of the owner of the vessel, and
the master or owner of the vessel has the authority to conclude
such contracts on behalf of the owners of the property on board
the vessel, i.e. the cargo.
.4 If the salvage is successful the remuneration will be on the
normal no cureno pay principle, pursuant to the provision of
article 13 of the Convention, provided always that the award,
exclusive of interest and any recoverable legal costs, may not
exceed the salvaged value of the vessel and other property.
.5 If the salvage has involved a threat of damage to the environ-
ment, and the salvor is unable to earn an award under article 13
at least equivalent to the special compensation assessable
under article 14, the salvor is entitled, subject to the provisions
of the article, to recover from the shipowner, expenses incurred
by the salvor as defined in the article. If the salvor has prevented
or minimized damage to the environment, the salvor is entitled
to an increment on these expenses of up to 30%, or up to 100% if
14
the tribunal considers it fair and just to do so. Any remunera-
tion payable under article 13 is deduced from this special
compensation.
Important note: When there is environmental urgency, negotiation of a
contract should not delay the salvage operation. Both the 1989 Salvage
Convention, and the 1969 Intervention Convention and the 1973
Intervention Protocol empower the coastal State(s) to take measures to
avoid such delay.
15
Chapter 6
Appendix 1
Information on salvage methods, specialized
salvage equipment and salvage techniques
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The purpose of this appendix is to provide Administrations with
some understanding of what is involved in a salvage operation, in order
that due consideration of salvage as a pollution response can be included
at the time overall contingency plans are made or reviewed. In order that
the terms used in salvage can be understood, a brief description of the
more usual salvage methods is given below, which is followed by examples
of specialized salvage equipment. Specialized techniques used in salvage
operations are also summarized.
1.2 It should be stressed that salvage is a highly technical and complex
process which, whenever possible, is best placed in the hands of
professional salvors.
2 SALVAGE METHODS
2.1 Lightering
2.1.1 In many cases of stranding and grounding involving a vessel, the
required lift to free the vessel can be obtained by transferring the cargo
into suitable vessels (or ashore), by bringing the receiving vessel as close to
the casualty as is safe and pumping the cargo from the casualty to the
receiving vessel by means of transfer hoses and, where necessary, utilizing
inflatable or Yokohama fenders, portable pumps and inert gas equipment.
2.1.2 When the necessary reduction in draft has been obtained, towing is
usually employed to refloat the vessel under controlled conditions.
2.1.3 Transfer of cargo is also employed where it is desirable to reduce the
pollution risk or to minimize the risk of fire or explosion.
2.2 Air lift
The displacement of water by air pressure, particularly where tanks have
been opened to the sea during the casualty, is another means of obtaining
lift to free a damaged vessel. If possible, cargo or bunkers should be
removed from damaged tanks prior to pressurization in order to minimize
the risk of pollution. When cargo or bunkers cannot be totally removed,
whenever possible, a water interface between the cargo and damaged areas
open to the sea should be maintained in order to prevent the expulsion of
pollutants by the pressurized air above the liquid.
17
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18
Reproduced from Reeds Commercial Salvage Practice
19
Appendix 1
2.3 Tidal lift and heaving
2.3.1 The methods of salvage known as tidal lift and heaving require
the employment of heavy rigging called beach gear. Originally beach gear
was supplied to salvage tugs to supplement their pulling power in the days
when pulling forces were fairly modest. Nowadays the increase in power
and manoeuvrability of tugs, coupled with significant reductions in
manning levels, has resulted in the decline in outfitting of beach gear to
the point that this method is now rarely, if ever, employed.
2.3.2 During the tidal lift method, beach gear is drawn up tight at low tide
and uses the lift on the salvage vessel from the rising tide to pull on the
stranded vessel. The process is repeated, with the beach gear re-rigged, to
fit the changing situation each tidal cycle. Great forces are involved, but
the energy expended by the salvage ship is not large.
2.3.3 The ground leg of beach gear consists of an anchor and wire rope to
carry the load. The anchor must have both great weight and exceptional
holding ability in a wide range of bottom conditions.
2.3.4 During the heaving method, the force is provided by heaving on the
towing lines with a winch or hydraulic ram. In heaving gear, at the end of
the ground leg, a series of blocks is used to increase the pull. A
dynamometer or tensiometer must be used to monitor the tension in each
leg. Several legs of beach gear may be needed to free a large vessel. Heavy
weather conditions may provide the energy needed to move the vessel in
the direction of the tow.
2.4 Towing
2.4.1 Towing relies on the power supplied from the salvage vessel to
generate the moving force. Modern tugs are usually twin screw and are
equipped with nozzles around their propellers. This significantly increases
their towing power and this, coupled with the use of bow thrusters and
high-performance rudders, improves on their manoeuvring ability.
Frequently, a combination of towing with other methods will be used.
2.4.2 For a towing attempt, a wire rope is used as the towline, sometimes
in conjunction with a nylon spring and/or a chafing chain. Modern salvage
tugs are equipped with powerful towing winches and may carry tow wires
of up to 2,000 m in length and 76 mm in diameter. The salvage vessel
builds up power thrust slowly, and at the same time must monitor towline
tension carefully.
2.4.3 Regulation V/15-1 of the International Convention for the Safety of
Life at Sea, 1974, as amended (SOLAS 1974),* sets forth requirements for
towing arrangements on tankers. It states that all tankers of not less than
20,000 tonnes deadweight shall be fitted with a towing arrangement at the
first scheduled dry-docking, but not later than 1 January 1999.
20
2.5 Refloating or breaking out stranded vessels
There are several methods to reduce the power needed to refloat a stranded
vessel. Lightering the cargo, if possible, is often the quickest and most
effective method. If the sea-bed is exposed for at least part of the tidal cycle,
the ground beneath the ship can be removed, either by excavating
equipment if exposed, or by scouring from the propeller wash of small
support ships, high velocity water or air streams, or even with carefully
placed explosives. Scouring is usually necessary to prevent damage from
natural scouring at each end of the ship caused by wave and current
action. When scouring or digging out a vessel, extreme care should be
taken to avoid excessive hogging or sagging stresses which could break the
ship. Another method of reducing the refloating force is to use pontoons, or
even barges, rigged alongside, to support part of the weight of the vessel.
21
Appendix 1
3 SPECIALIZED SALVAGE EQUIPMENT
3.1 Salvage vessels
3.1.1 In the past two decades the number of dedicated salvage vessels has
declined. Salvage vessels have become larger and faster, and there is a
consequent need for fewer vessels. Also, this is due in part to advances in
technology. Examples of such advances include: better navigation systems
and shipboard backup systems which have reduced the number of
casualties requiring salvage services; the use of heavy lift ships to move
damaged vessels to repair yards thereby reducing the need for ocean
towing services, which in the past was a major source of revenue for
dedicated salvage vessels; and the development of portable, flyaway
salvage-related systems, such as those in the areas of fire-fighting and
lightering. With the reduction in dedicated salvage vessels has come a
reduction in the number of trained salvors.
3.1.2 There are several types of salvage vessels, most of which are
designed for a specific purpose. The type of vessel used in any salvage
operation will be determined by the circumstances of the incident and the
availability of specialized equipment.
3.1.3 The common characteristics of most specialized salvage vessels are:
.1 open working space on deck for rigging beach gear and other
equipment;
22
.2 adequate cargo space for salvage gear;
.3 accommodation for specialists working on the salvage; and
.4 a large working area and structure designed for lifting heavy
weights.
3.1.4 Salvage ships may range from 100 m ships built specially for rescue
and salvage, to 30 m all-purpose tugs. Almost any ship built for offshore
support duties may serve as a vessel of opportunity for salvage work.
3.2 Descriptions of typical ships used for salvage
3.2.1 Ocean-going salvage tugs
(Note: There are very few ocean-going salvage tugs in operation today)
The crew on such tugs are experienced in salvage work. Some tugs also
carry divers and riggers who are equally experienced in such work.
Equipment includes portable generators, compressors, diesel, hydraulic
and electrical submersible pumps, welding and cutting gear and other
salvage tools as well as work boats needed for a wide range of salvage and
repair work. These vessels may also carry fire-fighting and pollution
combating equipment.
Ocean-going salvage tug Fotiy Krylov (length 97.6 m, breadth 19.36 m,
depth 9.00 m). Photo courtesy of Tsavliris Salvage International Limited.
23
Appendix 1
3.2.2 Coastal and harbour tugs
These tugs are smaller and less powerful than the deep-sea tugs and have
a much shorter range of operation. Such vessels will not normally carry
any salvage material but, operating close to shore, can quickly acquire any
necessary specialized equipment. Many of these vessels (especially those
based near oil installations) carry considerable equipment for combating
oil pollution as well as fire-fighting capability. These tugs usually lack
experienced salvage personnel.
Coastal/harbour tug Smit Siberie (length 28.6 m, breadth 8.7 m,
depth 4.2 m). Photo courtesy of Smit Tak BV, Rotterdam,
Netherlands.
3.2.3 Diving inspection salvage vessels
These vessels are specifically designed to work in remote locations when
access to modern port and engineering facilities are not available. They
carry a great deal of equipment and can be self-supporting for a
considerable period. Such vessels can perform towing duties but their
power is much less than that of a deep-sea tug. They are often equipped
with limited lifting capacity which is designed for deep-water recovery.
24
Diving inspection vessel Smit Orca (length 49.87 m, breadth 11.79 m,
depth 4.73 m). Photo courtesy of Smit Tak BV, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
3.2.4 Coastal and inland waterways salvage vessels
These are smaller and less well equipped than the diving inspection deep-
sea salvage vessels and must rely on availability of facilities and
equipment from nearby shore facilities.
The capabilities of these vessels vary in proportion to their size. Fire-
fighting and portable salvage pumps are normal equipment on this type of
vessel.
This type of vessel can also do some coastal work, especially when weather
conditions are favourable, but many specialized types can only work in
calm, inland waters. They may have a multitude of special duties to
perform. Because of their small size they are very handy and can do all
kinds of jobs for which it would be difficult to use large salvage vessels.
3.2.5 Floating cranes and sheer-legs
These specialized heavy-lifting vessels can only operate in limited open-
water sea conditions. However, such vessels can also be of considerable
assistance in the later stages of a salvage operation when the casualty has
reached a place of safety.
Some of these units are self-propelled but many such vessels must be
towed to the scene. They provide a large, fairly stable work platform with
lift capability which can be in excess of 3,000 tonnes. They can also carry a
sizeable amount of salvage material. They are usually equipped with lifting
25
Appendix 1
gear such as sheer-legs, heavy derricks with powerful winches and, in
some cases, revolving cranes.
Coastal/Inland waterways salvage vessels Salvage Chief and Dolfijn
(length 50.65 m, 24.0 m; breadth 12.78 m, 5.84 m; depth 2.69 m, 2.47 m).
Photos courtesy of Union de Remorquage et de Sauvetage SA, Belgium
(Salvage Chief) and Van den Akker, Netherlands (Dolfjin).
26
Orange Coral (Fukuda Salvage & Marine Works)
4 SALVAGE TECHNIQUES
4.1 Damage inspection
4.1.1 The most effective inspection of damage to a ship may be performed
by an experienced salvage diving team coupled with a salvage engineer, all
under the direction of a professional salvage master. With the support of
technological advances, such as improved diving hardware, hand-held
underwater television, ultrasonic capability, etc., the information neces-
sary to assess the extent of damage and prepare an effective remedy can be
accomplished within a very limited time frame.
4.1.2 Considerable advances have been made in the area of underwater
surveillance and detection equipment. Underwater television is a valuable
aid to the effective inspection of a casualty and can be operated by a diver,
by suspension from a frame lowered from the surface or by attachment to
a remotely operated submersible vehicle (ROV). A typical underwater TV
system would include:
.1 TV camera in watertight housing;
.2 lighting and ballast in watertight housing;
.3 a pan and tilt unit in watertight housing;
.4 control console, monitor and video recorder; and
.5 heavy-duty cable and reel.
27
Appendix 1
Photo courtesy of Van den Akker, Netherlands
4.1.3 If the system is to be used in or near oil or chemical spills, it is
imperative to recognize the need for safety of operation and it should be
noted that all components of the system listed above are available in
explosion-proof models.
4.1.4 The following characteristics are also desirable in the systems:
.1 equipment should be compatible with fluctuating power
supplies from portable generators without distortion of the
picture;
.2 maximum resolution is desirable, with water-corrected lenses in
camera optics, and a wide-angle (minimum of 90
o
) field of view;
.3 the control console should include remote focus, pan and tilt
control, with pan and tilt ranges of 180
o
;
.4 lights should rotate in pan and tilt with the camera;
.5 lightweight components should be used where practicable;
28
Photo courtesy of Van Den Akker, Netherlands
.6 corrosion resistant materials should be used for wet cases; and
.7 provide permanent record of viewing in the form of a video or
still photos.
4.1.5 Various sizes and complexity of ROVs are available to suit the work
from the simple roving underwater eye (TV) to powerful and complex
manipulating appendages which can grip, cut, and lift to carry out
underwater tasks.
4.2 Divers
4.2.1 Frequently a salvage operation cannot be accomplished successfully
solely from the surface. In such circumstances, the services of divers who
can operate underwater televisions, make damage surveys, perform
underwater cutting and welding, locate and recover small or medium-
sized objects, and patch hull damage from the outside, can be used. Divers
should not be used, however, if the work can be done effectively and safely
from the surface. In any event, only experienced salvage divers should be
used on all but the simplest tasks. They should operate under the control
of a professional salvage master.
4.2.2 There are two techniques used by divers: self-contained underwater
breathing apparatus (scuba) and surface-supplied air through a hose.
Scuba divers have more mobility, as they are essentially weightless while
in the water. Their support equipment is minimal, so that they can arrive
at the scene quickly by any available means of transportation. Scuba
divers are limited to short spells on each dive and to shallow depths by the
limited air supply carried.
29
Appendix 1
4.2.3 Surface-supplied divers, however, have an unrestricted air supply
and can work at almost any depth needed for salvage. The diver can select
from a range of weights, allowing him some choice between freedom of
movement and a strong stance for heavy work, but his mobility is quite
limited unless he is working on a fairly level bottom. Surface-supply
systems include more support equipment, and will arrive at the scene
later. For both surface-supplied and scuba diving operations, voice
communications with the surface are desirable. Since few vessels have a
loaded draft of over 21.4 m, depth is rarely a problem to a surface-supplied
diver with portable equipment.
4.2.4 Safety is the primary concern in any diving operation. Many hazards
face a salvage diver, including surf and turbulence, current, cold, limited
visibility, closed spaces, propeller and vessel intake dangers, and pollution.
A diver cannot work where turbulence (e.g. from wave action) will make it
difficult to keep his balance or if he will have to work near a vessel moving
with the waves. Diving is not recommended if a current is present in excess
of 1 knot for scuba and 3 knots for surface-supplied. The ocean is almost
everywhere colder than normal body temperature, so that chilling is
always a problem for the diver, even in tropical waters. In limited visibility,
the diver might not be able to clearly see the work being performed or
determine his location or the location of potential dangers, and may thus
become disoriented.
4.2.5 Two great threats to a diver are entrapment and the oil or chemical
spill. A diver may enter a confined space and become trapped when debris
falls, the ship shifts from the current or waves, or if anything else blocks
his exit. A diver carrying his own supply of air will run out of air very
quickly. If the diver cannot communicate with the surface, no one will
realize his problem until he is overdue. When a diver enters a confined
space, he must assume that he will become trapped, and prepare for it: he
must have surface-supplied air with voice communications, a lifeline, and
a standby diver ready to come to his aid. Divers should not enter water
where chemicals have been spilled without a fully encapsulated,
chemically compatible suit. Hazardous material spills may damage the
equipment and may be toxic to the diver. Precautions similar to those for
hazardous materials are recommended in the case of major oil spillage.
4.3 Damage control
4.3.1 The immediate aim of a salvage response is to prevent the damage
sustained by the casualty from worsening, to minimize the possibility of
further damage and then to patch or repair existing damage sufficiently to
enable the vessel to be moved to a place of safety. Where there is a threat of
pollution, the salvors concern is also to reduce flooding and loss of cargo.
If lightering or cargo transfer is not possible, patching all or some of the
damage will help to minimize outflow.
4.3.2 Patches for holes can be made of many materials, and are frequently
improvised from the materials available on board the casualty. The salvor
will normally come equipped with additional specialized tools and
30
material. Wood is the most common patching material, in the form of plugs
and wedges for small holes, planks for medium holes, and beams and
plywood for large patches which are assembled on the site. With a wood
patch, caulking materials, such as oakum, rags, fibre waste, and rubber
sheeting, are very useful in providing a tighter seal. In a limited number of
cases, metal plates can be used for patching material. Metal may present
difficulty since the use of welding or cutting apparatus may be hazardous
where there has been or is a danger of oil or hazardous material outflow.
4.3.3 Large holes may be patched by pouring concrete into forms over the
hole. This will require moving the ingredients and mixing equipment to the
site, but concrete patches, often called cement boxes, are effective and
durable.
4.3.4 Collision mats are convenient temporary patches. Heavy canvas, or
mattresses sewn together, coated with tar and weighted with chain, can be
used on shallow holes in the hull. Reinforcing the mat with timber will
make it more effective. Collision mats lack rigidity, however, and excessive
pressures or wave action might cause them to leak.
4.3.5 A specialized type of patch is the cofferdam. This is essentially an
entirely new bulkhead, built in place or installed after assembly on the
salvage vessel. It can be used both outside and inside the hull. After the
cofferdam has been installed, the space behind can be pumped out. A
partial cofferdam can be built, just tall enough to reach above the water
level, but it is more sensible to build a full seal. A cofferdam will require a
large amount of timber, accurate carpentry, and availability of access to
the hole. It is usually applied to isolate large holes in the hull.
4.3.6 Occasionally, water-displacing materials such as foam, or poly-
urethane balls or pellets, are used in salvage. The foam, usually of
urethane composition, is forced into a flooded compartment under
pressure. As it expands, it displaces the water and then sets. The
bulkheads and overhead in the space are provided with some extra
support as well. This technique is fairly sophisticated and requires the
availability of specialized equipment and experienced operators for its
success. It is difficult to remove if the ship is to be repaired. Urethane foam
is sensitive to temperature, pressure and current. Its application therefore
has limitations. Urethane foam fumes may also be toxic and care must be
taken to protect against inhalation as well as skin contact. Polyurethane
balls or pellets, which are more easily removed at repair ports, have been
used with limited success. Although easier to remove than foam, they are
difficult to place and environmentally objectionable if they escape into the
open water. Polyurethane has been replaced by materials that are less
damaging to the environment.
4.3.7 When the structure of the ship is threatened, or to support a large
patch or cofferdam, shoring may be used. Shoring is wedged into place
between a firm foundation and the part in need of support. Heavy beam
31
Appendix 1
timbers are the usual shoring material, although some ships carry
adjustable steel shoring. This comprises a long screw jack with adjustable
end fittings to wedge it into place.
4.4 Fire prevention
4.4.1 The threat of fire is of major concern in accidents involving tankers
carrying oil products and hazardous materials. With tanker casualties, in
addition to the problems posed by pollution, tanks may be open to the sea,
oil may have escaped in considerable quantity and inert gas systems
(where fitted) may be inoperable or may have been shut down. In such
cases, there is a very high risk that any source of ignition will result in a
serious fire.
4.4.2 To reduce this high risk of fire, certain precautions which can be
taken are as follows:
.1 use of explosion-proof electrical devices;
.2 restriction of electrical devices to an absolute minimum;
.3 minimize the loss of oil, if practicable;
.4 keep tank openings closed except for essential operations;
.5 if tanks must be opened, use wire mesh flame arrester screens
(open tank lids and hatches allow oxygen to enter the tank and
hydrocarbon vapours to escape to the atmosphere, thus
creating two potential hazards);
.6 care in the use of metallic or spark-producing tools;
.7 use of spark arrestors in prime mover exhaust outlets; and
.8 grounding of all equipment.
4.5 Fire-fighting
4.5.1 In the event of a fire breaking out, the primary aim should be to
contain the fire, prevent it from spreading, reduce the area and severity of
the fire, and ultimately extinguish it.
4.5.2 Oil products on fires may generate large quantities of heavy black
smoke and therefore breathing apparatus for fire-fighting personnel is
desirable and, in many cases, essential. For oil fires, the use of foam
systems is preferred. Foam is more effective than water since its
smothering action excludes the oxygen needed to sustain combustion,
whereas the main value of water is for cooling. Foam, properly applied,
persists as a blanket for some time, thereby providing some protection
against reignition. When applying foam, responders should ensure a
sufficient quantity of foam is available to cover the area desired. To prevent
a reflash, enough backup foam will also be needed on scene to replace
foam that has dispersed or broken down.
4.5.3 Certain fire-fighting and rescue techniques commonly used by land-
based fire-fighters are not applicable on board a ship, and if used, could
further endanger a ship and result in injury or death. Most commercial
32
vessels do not have sufficient crew sizes to sustain an extended fire-
fighting effort, and, because of the increased urgency associated with a
shipboard fire, salvors with fire-fighting capability may not be available in
time for the emergency. For these reasons, ship operators may be hesitant
to request assistance from land-based fire-fighters. Vessel operators
should liaise in advance with local authorities to determine local capability
and make plans for joint fire-fighting efforts. Administrations are
encouraged to have port fire-fighting contingency plans that identify local
resources which are capable of fighting shipboard fires. This is
particularly important in busy port areas with large populations, and
where cruise ships, with their large number of passengers that may need
to be rescued, make port calls.
4.5.4 Chemical fires require highly trained personnel and specialized
equipment. Ignorance of the chemical characteristics involved may worsen
or elevate casualty consequences since improper technique can cause a
toxic or explosive event. In short, chemical fires usually require a
compatible chemical response rather than the simple use of water. The
identification of the chemical characteristics is therefore of critical
importance to ascertain the appropriate response. Containerization, with
incompatible as well as unidentified cargo all commingled, poses a special
risk to the marine fire-fighter. It also complicates severely the decision on
the appropriate application of fire-fighting technique. Trained, experienced
chemical fire-fighting capability is of course the preferred solution.
4.6 Pumping systems
4.6.1 The motive power for most pumping systems is supplied by a
portable diesel hydraulic unit. A typical small unit, which can be moved
around fairly easily, weighs less than 700 kg and is enclosed in a floatable
case which is roughly 1.2 m on each side. A larger unit, which cannot be
moved once it has been placed aboard, weighs around 1,950 kg and is
usually built into an open frame 1.5 m wide, 1.5 m high, and 2.7 m long.
Both units need a fuel tank which can be a collapsible rubber-coated fabric
bladder holding some 200 l, weighing some 200 kg when full, which can
supply 4 to 8 h of fuel, depending on the engine and load. The starting
system for the diesel engine should not be electric; a hydraulic motor start
with hydraulic pressure in an accumulator supplied by a hand pump or a
small bottle of compressed nitrogen is the usual method.
4.6.2 Portable pumps for oil are usually submersible pumps. Discharge
hoses from these pumps are typically 15 to 20 cm in diameter, in 15 m
lengths. These can be coupled together and to the pump, to provide the
exact hose length needed. A typical small-sized pump will be 25 cm in
diameter, 1 m long, and weigh approximately 90 kg. Such pumps require a
hydraulic supply and their performance depends on two main factors: the
viscosity of the oil and the length and size of the discharge hose. These
factors can reduce both rate of flow and the discharge head. Two thousand
centistokes is regarded as the upper limit of kinematic viscosity of the oil
33
Appendix 1
and 90 m is the limiting length of discharge hose which the pump can
handle. Under these extreme conditions, the flow rate would be too low to
be of practical value.
4.6.3 A larger pump is typically 30 cm in diameter, 1.2 m long and weighs
approximately 130 kg. Reasonable pumping rates can be achieved with
viscosities as high as 10,000 centistokes and up to 150 m of hose.
Performance of most submersible pumps will be between the two examples
given here.
4.6.4 The 32 cm standard butterworth opening for tank cleaning is that
most often used as the access for putting a submersible pump into a tank.
Portable pumps are available for use in this manner but, where a larger
opening can be safely used, the range of suitable pumps will be increased.
4.6.5 Hydraulically driven pumps capable of passing small pieces of
debris and fire-fighting pumps can be used for pumping out a damaged
ship or for ballasting the vessel to adjust the trim. Another important
device for pumping water is the eductor, which is capable of dealing with
any debris which will pass through the throat of the venturi. Eductors
have no moving parts, which makes them ideally suited for use in debris-
filled spaces, or where there is a danger of fire. They can be driven by a fire-
fighting pump. Care in the operation of eductors is important, however,
since a restriction in the eductor discharge can result in further flooding of
the compartment.
4.6.6 In any pumping operation, care should be taken to keep hydro-
carbon vapours to a minimum since the presence of such vapours can
present explosion hazards. Care should be taken to ensure that any
vapour present is below the lower explosive limit as measured by an
explosimeter. The presence of hydrocarbon vapour should be monitored in
all enclosed spaces on board a casualty and even in depressions on the
open deck. Hydrocarbon vapours are heavier than air and may thus form
dangerous pockets in such places.
4.7 Sources of further information
4.7.1 Janes Ocean Technology. This yearbook describes in detail systems
that are operating today. It contains sections specifically devoted to tugs
and supply vessels suitable for salvage, and to oil spill systems. The special
feature of the book is the extensive geographic information with lists of
companies working in specific areas. Order from: MacDonald and Janes
Publishers Ltd., 8 Shepherdess Walk, London N1 7LW, United Kingdom.
4.7.2 Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering. This is a valuable
source book containing detailed technical summaries of many of the areas
with which a salvor must be familiar, including chain, wire rope, rigging,
towing, diving, and ocean operations. Order from: McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020, USA.
34
4.7.3 Reeds Commercial Salvage Practice (ISBN 0 947637 400). This is an
excellent resource for marine salvage practices currently employed, and
includes extensive background theory and written descriptions of the
various salvage practices available with supporting figures, diagrams and
tables. The illustrations shown in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.5 of appendix 1 have
been reproduced with the kind permission of Thomas Reed Publications,
19 Bridge Road, East Molesey, Surrey KT8 9EU, United Kingdom.
35
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Rate of drift data for disabled tankers*
Tables 15 and figure 1 are included here only as an indication of the drift
of a disabled tanker and hence of where a grounding might occur in a
given set of circumstances. However, the behaviour of individual ships
may differ from these general results. The charts are intended to enable
those concerned with a tanker casualty to anticipate the area of drift of a
disabled tanker, based on considerable research into this problem as
validated by actual correlation tests carried out at sea.
Tanker Drift Data
Table 1 VLCC with bulbous bow
CONDITION
(Loaded/Ballast
and Trim)
MODEL UPRIGHT LIST: 6.5
o
(LOADED)/8.5
o
(BALLAST)
RUDDER
AMIDSHIP
RUDDER
35
o
DOWNWIND
RUDDER
AMIDSHIP
RUDDER
35
o
DOWNWIND
A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C
LOADED 1.4 m STERN 125 203 2.3 106 198 2.7 078 198 2.4 088 210 2.7
LOADED 2.0 m STERN 095 190 2.3 100 194 2.4 - - - - - -
LOADED 5.2 m HEAD 120 209 2.7 155 207 2.5 - - - - - -
BALLAST 5.3 m STERN 093 150 3.3 105 140 3.7 090 157 3.4 090 180 3.0
BALLAST 12.5 m STERN 090 158 3.2 100 144 3.6 - - - - - -
BALLAST 5.5 m HEAD 070 181 3.0 084 173 3.0 - - - - - -
Table 2 VLCC with cylindrical bow
CONDITION
(Loaded/Ballast
and Trim)
MODEL UPRIGHT LIST: 6.5
o
(LOADED)/8.5
o
(BALLAST)
RUDDER
AMIDSHIP
RUDDER
35
o
DOWNWIND
RUDDER
AMIDSHIP
RUDDER
35
o
DOWNWIND
A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C
LOADED 1.4 m STERN 070 160 2.3 110 128 2.5 VAR 149 2.2 088 190 2.3
LOADED 2.0 m STERN 090 154 2.4 070 123 2.5 - - - - - -
LOADED 5.2 m HEAD 060 150 2.3 090 190 2.4 - - - - - -
BALLAST 5.3 m STERN 087 150 3.1 105 148 3.3 090 145 3.2 098 145 3.3
BALLAST 12.5 m STERN 110 145 3.7 105 141 3.5 - - - - - -
BALLAST 5.5 m HEAD 100 146 3.4 120 144 3.4 - - - - - -
Table 3 Small/Medium tanker (single screw, plain bows)
DWT
Condition
37,000 dwt 88,000 dwt
A
o
B
o
C A
o
B
o
C
LOADED 079 166 1.8 080 166 1.9
BALLAST 065 143 2.7 063 135 2.7
* Tables 15 and figure 1 and the table in appendix 6 are reproduced with permission from the
International Chamber of Shipping and the Oil Companies International Marine Forum, who have
jointly published Peril at Sea and Salvage a Guide for Masters (4th edition) (ISBN 1 85609 0329).
For a full explanation of these data, the original publication should be consulted. Order it from:
Witherby and Co. Ltd., 32-36 Aylesbury Street, London EC1R 0ET, United Kingdom.
36
Gas Carrier Drift Data
Table 4 52,000 m
3
LPG carrier (plain bow)
Table 5 125,000 m
3
LNG carrier (bulbous bow)
WIND/WAVE
ANGLE
A
o
B
o
C
-40
o
070 146 1.5
-20
o
081 184 1.2
0
o
093 104 0.6
+20
o
093 170 1.8
+40
o
097 175 1.7
WIND/WAVE
ANGLE
A
o
B
o
C
-40
o
065 187 2.4
-20
o
070 220 2.3
0
o
090 152 1.5
+20
o
090 178 2.4
+40
o
094 180 2.0
Note: the results of the data given in tables 15 are for Beaufort wind force 7.
Figure 1 Legend for tables 15
37
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Resistance to tow in still water conditions*
Size of ship
being towed
Angle of yaw
Resistance to tow (tonnes)
Speed through water
2 knots
Speed through water
3 knots
24,000 tonnes
deadweight
0
o
10
o
20
o
30
o
2.3
5.5
8.7
13.0
4.3
11.4
18.7
28.3
68,000 tonnes
deadweight
0
o
10
o
20
o
30
o
4.7
10.8
17.3
25.8
8.5
25.5
37.0
56.0
112,000 tonnes
deadweight
0
o
10
o
20
o
30
o
6.2
14.8
23.4
35.0
11.3
30.5
50.2
76.5
260,000 tonnes
deadweight
0
o
10
o
20
o
30
o
7.9
15.2
39.6
51.8
14.0
30.0
85.0
112.7
Note: Depending on sea conditions, the forces can be three times greater than
those tabulated.
* This table indicates the magnitude of the forces involved when a ship is being towed in still water.
The table takes account of a combination of speed, yaw and a 20-knot wind. For further details, the
publication Peril at Sea and Salvage A Guide for Masters should be consulted (see appendix 2 for
ordering details).
38
Appendix 4
Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement
(LOF 1995)*
97505
* Form LOF 1995 is reprinted in its entirety with permission of Lloyds of London, One Lime Street,
London EC3M 7HA, United Kingdom.
39
Appendices 3, 4
40
41
Appendix 4
42
43
Appendix 4
44
MANUAL ON
OIL POLLUTION
SECTION IV
.
COMBATING OIL SPILLS
B
INTERNATIONAL
MARITIME
ORGANIZATION
London, 2005
Published by the
2nd edition, 2005
Printed in the United Kingdom by the Bath Press, Bath
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1
ISBN 92-801-4177-5
IMO PUBLICATION
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
Preface
The Manual on Oil Pollution comprises six sections:
Section I Prevention (out of print)
Section II Contingency Planning (revised edition published 1995)
Section III Salvage (revised edition published 1997)
Section IV Combating Oil Spills (contained in this publication)
Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response
(published 1998)
Section VI IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification
of Oil Spills (published 1998)
This edition of Section IV draws on the experience and lessons learned by
Governments and industry in responding to marine oil pollution world-
wide during the last thirty years. It builds on earlier editions, first
published in 1972 and revised in 1980 and 1988, and provides a clear and
concise overview of the present level of knowledge, expertise and under-
standing in the field of oil spill response.
It covers the behaviour and fate of different types of oil when spilled and
the effects on marine and coastal resources. Guidance is given on aerial
surveillance, the at-sea measures of containment and recovery and the use
of chemical dispersants, and a new chapter has been included on in situ
burning. Shoreline clean-up strategies and techniques, and waste manage-
ment and disposal are described, and a new chapter has been added on
bioremediation measures. In view of the growing awareness of the
difficulties inherent in dealing with spills of heavy fuel oil and emulsified
fuels, a new, separate chapter has been devoted to the current state of
knowledge and experience in dealing with them. Guidance is provided on
training, exercises and equipment maintenance and storage, and informa-
tion is also given on liability, compensation and cost accounting.
In 1990 the International Convention on Oil Pollution, Preparedness,
Response and Co-operation was adopted by IMO. This Convention calls on
Contracting States, amongst other things, to co-operate and to exchange
information on matters related to response to oil pollution incidents. This
section of the Manual provides useful information with regard to the
preparation of national and/or regional systems for preparedness and
response. The information is intended for Governments, particularly those
of developing countries, and industry, on the most appropriate means of
dealing with marine oil spills. The information is intended for Govern-
ments, particularly those of developing countries, and industry, on the
most appropriate means of dealing with marine oil spills.
iii
The revision of this section of the Manual on Oil Pollution was undertaken
by the Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC)
Working Group and approved by the Marine Environment Protection
Committee (MEPC) of IMO. The MEPC wishes to express its appreciation to
the many experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and who
contributed photographs, illustrations and reference data, making this
publication available in its present form.
iv
Manual on Oil Pollution IV: Combating Oil Spills
Contents
Page
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2 Types of oil
2.1 Crude oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Petroleum products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 3 Fate of oil spills in the marine environment
3.1 Properties of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Natural weathering processes acting on spilled oil . . 10
3.3 Movement of oil slicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Combined movement, weathering processes
and modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 4 Effects of oil on marine and coastal resources
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Ecological effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3 Recreational beaches and sea areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.4 Ports and marinas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.5 Industrial installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.7 Marine mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.8 Sea turtles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.9 Marine birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.10 Coral communities and ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.11 Wetland communities and ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.12 Nature reserves and marine parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Chapter 5 Situation evaluation and response options
5.1 Source identification and incident details . . . . . . . . . 41
5.2 Prevention or reduction of further spillages . . . . . . . . 41
5.3 Aerial surveillance, including remote sensing . . . . . . 42
5.4 Assessment of the threat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.5 Spill response options and their limitations. . . . . . . . 48
v
Page
Chapter 6 Containment and recovery of oil
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.2 Containment booms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3 Recovery devices skimming equipment . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 Temporary storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.5 Integrated containment and recovery operations. . . . 90
6.6 Recovery of subsurface oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.7 Sorbents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Chapter 7 Chemical dispersion
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.2 Dispersants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.3 Application techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Chapter 8 In situ burning
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.2 Features of in situ burning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.3 Environmental and health considerations . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4 Safety considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 9 Shoreline response
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.2 Pre-spill contingency planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.3 Shoreline spill assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.4 Shoreline cleanup methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.5 Managing shoreline response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.6 Site restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.7 Care of wildlife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Chapter 10 Bioremediation
10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.2 Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.3 Bioremediation techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.4 Opportunities for bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.5 Contingency planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
vi
Page
Chapter 11 Management and disposal of oil and oily debris
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.2 Types of collected material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.3 On-site temporary storage and separation
for liquids and solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.4 Land transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.5 Waste treatment methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.6 Waste disposal methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.7 Reclamation of oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.8 Stabilization of oiled beach materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.9 Direct disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.10 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.11 Bioremediation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11.12 Dune disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chapter 12 Spills of heavy fuel oils features
and countermeasures
12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
12.2 Characteristics of heavy fuel oils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
12.3 Behaviour of heavy fuel oils when spilled. . . . . . . . . . 174
12.4 Response strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter 13 Training, exercises, equipment maintenance
and storage
13.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
13.2 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
13.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
13.4 Equipment maintenance and storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Chapter 14 Cleanup cost considerations
14.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.2 Factors affecting response costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3 Compensation for response costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Table of useful conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
vii
Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction
The prevention of marine pollution is one of the most important objectives
of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and considerable
success has been achieved with the average amount of oil spilled each
year having decreased more than ten-fold from the peak of the mid-1970s.
IMO has been instrumental in reducing these discharges over the years
through various international conventions, the most important being the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973,
as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). This
improvement in performance is demonstrated in the statistics of
accidental oil spills world-wide from tankers, combined carriers and
barges (figure 1-1).
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
World Seaborne Oil Trade Numbers of Spills >7 tonnes per year
World seaborne oil trade
(billion tonne-miles)
Numbers of spills
>7 tonnes
World seaborne oil trade Number of spills >7 tonnes per year
Figure 1-1 Comparison between the number of spills 47 tonnes
and world seaborne oil trade: 19742001 (Source: ITOPF)
The incidence of accidental spills greater than 7 tonnes (50 barrels) has
decreased substantially since 1974. As a result, the number of spills in
1999 was less than one quarter of the number in 1974. The number of
spills has remained low in recent years despite an upturn in seaborne oil
trade, which is now approaching the high levels of the mid 1970s .
1
A significant number of accidental tanker spills less than 7 tonnes
(50 barrels) occur during loading and discharging operations (35%)
(figure 1-2). For spills between 7 and 700 tonnes (505,000 barrels),
loading and discharging operations still remain a significant cause (29%),
along with collisions (22%) and groundings (19%). However, for spills
greater than 700 tonnes (5,000 barrels) the major causes are collisions
(28%) and groundings (34%).
MARPOL 73/78 has now been ratified by most member countries of IMO.
Besides limiting the overall amount of oil entering the sea, MARPOL 73/78
requires that any discharges of oil are made in accordance with strict
operational procedures such that the oil does not form a persistent slick
requiring any cleanup response. In addition to operational issues,
MARPOL 73/78 also provides a framework for the design and construction
of oil tankers, which should contribute significantly to further reductions
in the occurrence of oil spills in the future.
36
28
6
7
2
0
15
5
0
2
24
28
3
18
34
7 7
13
2
1
7
28
15
12
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
C
o
n
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
o
f
e
a
c
h
C
a
u
s
e
(
%
)
Loading /
Discharging
Bunkering Other
Operations
Collisons Groundings Hull Failure Fires /
Explosion
Other
<7 tonnes 7-700 tonnes >700 tonnes
Figure 1-2 Accidental tanker spills and their causes: 19742001
(Source: ITOPF)
To supplement MARPOL 73/78, IMO has played a major role in reducing
the risk of oil spills from all ships by promoting greater safety and
operating standards such as through the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 1974), together with its associated Protocol of
1978. More recent IMO initiatives include the International Safety
Management Code (ISM Code) to ensure safety at sea, prevention of
human injury or loss of life and avoidance of damage to the environment,
in particular, to the marine environment.
2
Despite the improvements that have already been achieved, oil spills will
continue to occur. They can have a serious impact on coastal activities and
those who use or benefit from the resources of the sea. In most cases, such
damage is temporary and caused primarily by the physical properties of oil
creating a nuisance and hazardous conditions. However in some
situations many years may be required for recovery to take place and on
rare occasions, the damage may be irreparable. The impact on marine life
is compounded by toxicity and tainting effects resulting from chemical
composition of the oil, as well as by the diversity and variability of
biological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution. However damage to
the environment can be minimized if correct counter measures are taken
promptly.
This section of the Manual on Oil Pollution is intended to provide an
overview of the practical response measures that are available to deal with
such oil spills. During the time since first publication in the 1970s, there
have been a number of developments, particularly with regard to oil
containment booms and recovery techniques, oil dispersant chemicals,
bioremediation, in situ burning, waste management and disposal. The
variety of different types of oil being transported around the world has also
increased and more recently there has been a growing recognition of the
particular difficulties posed by spills of heavy oils such as ships bunkers.
While this section of the Manual has been generally developed to deal with
ship source spills, many of the issues and features presented can also be
applied to oil spills from other marine sources such as offshore
installations.
As with previous editions, this revised Manual on Oil Pollution is not an
exhaustive treatment of the subject of marine oil spill response. Rather, its
purpose is to provide a clear and concise overview of the response options
available, their main features and the key issues involved. This will assist
those persons in Government and industry charged with the response to
marine oil spills, in the selection of the most appropriate cleanup
measures for a particular situation. A bibliography is also provided in
this Manual as a guide to relevant sources of further and more detailed
information and reference.
Chapter 1 Introduction
3
Chapter 2
Types of oil
2.1 Crude oils
Crude oils are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons of varying molecular
weight and structure comprising the three main chemical groups:
paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic. These hydrocarbons range from
simple, highly volatile substances to complex waxes and asphaltic
compounds which cannot be distilled. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, vana-
dium, nickel, mineral salts, etc. may be present in various combinations.
The characteristics of most crude oils fall within the following ranges:
Table 2-1 Range of characteristics of crude oils
Specific gravity, kg/m
3
at 15/158C
800 to 980
Initial boiling point,8C 30 to 125
Kinematic viscosity, cSt, at 408C 3 to 100 (but can be as much
as 20,000)
Pour point 8C 30 to +25 (but can be lower, or
as high as 40)
Flashpoint, (Abel) 8C 18 to 190
Sulphur, % wt. 0.08 to 5
Wax, % wt. up to 15
Asphaltenes, % wt. up to 5
Vanadium, ppm V 5 to 170
The names of crude oils are often associated with or have been derived
from their geographical source, e.g. Alaska North Slope Crude. Each crude
oil has unique physical and chemical properties and these can vary both
between oils from the same area and between different regions of the
world. Their physical properties and how they behave when spilled,
together with their chemical properties, which determine their toxicity, are
important factors influencing the oil spill response and the effect they can
have on various marine resources.
Lighter, more volatile crude oils tend to be highly fluid and spread rapidly,
have a strong odour, a high evaporation rate and are usually flammable.
They penetrate porous substrates, but do not tend to adhere to hard
surfaces. They may be highly toxic to humans, fish and other biota.
Heavier, less volatile crude oils have a variety of characteristics depending
on their specific properties; these are described in more detail in chapter 3.
They are fluid to varying degrees, have a range of evaporation rates and
may be flammable. As temperature increases, their tendency to penetrate
porous substrates can increase, but the more viscous and sticky crude oils
do not penetrate readily. They adhere to hard surfaces but may be removed
5
using a variety of techniques; described in chapter 9. With lower volatility,
toxicity is also lower, but some biota can be affected by physical
smothering. Some of the heavier crude oils are solid at ambient temper-
atures and they are relatively non-toxic and do not penetrate porous
surfaces. When heated they may melt and form a coating on hard surfaces,
which can sometimes be difficult to remove.
2.2 Petroleum products
The products derived from refining crude oils have chemical and physical
characteristics that depend on the nature of the crudes and the various
processes to which they have been subjected. Many refined products
generally tend to have well defined and predictable characteristics since a
product like gasoline and petroleum contain similar hydrocarbon com-
pounds within a narrow distillation temperature band. However, residual
fuel oils such as intermediate (medium) and heavy fuel oils are more
diverse. Such oils often consist of viscous and tarry residues of crude oil
refining with complex mixtures of heavy aliphatic and aromatic com-
pound, bitumens and asphaltenes. Waxy residues from crude oil storage
tank cleaning may also be added to the residues from crude refining. Such
residues are then blended with light fuels or products to meet viscosity
and flashpoint specifications. The characteristics of a certain intermediate
or heavy fuel oil will depend on the crude(s) from which the residue is
derived, as well as the nature of any oils or other products blended in to
allow the fuel to meet a particular performance requirement.
The typical characteristics provided in table 2-2 give an indication of the
properties of various petroleum products. It should be noted that the
requirements in various countries for presenting characteristics of a
petroleum product actually being carried in bulk, may vary and call for
more detailed information than is given in table 2-2.
Table 2-2 Typical characteristics of petroleum products
Gasolines
(motor spirit)
Specific gravity, 15/158C
Boiling range, 8C
Kinematic viscosity, cSt @ 158C
Flashpoint 8C
0.68 to 0.77
30 to 200
0.65
15 to 40
Kerosene Specific gravity, 15/158C
Boiling range, 8C
Flashpoint 8C
0.78
160 to 285
1,48
3570
Diesel fuels
(gas oils)
Boiling range, 8C
Flashpoint 8C
0.81 to 0.85
180 to 360
1.3 to 5.5
(grade dependent)
3570
Fuel oils
(light, medium
and heavy)
Flashpoint 8C
0.925 to 0.965
49 to 862
70 upwards
6
Gasoline is a lightweight product that flows easily, spreads quickly, and
may evaporate completely in a few hours under ambient conditions. It
poses a risk of fire and explosion because of its high volatility and
flammability, and is generally more toxic than crude oil. Kerosene is a
lightweight product that flows easily, spreads rapidly, and evaporates
quickly.
There are various names that can often be used to describe different fuel
oils. They can be called Bunker A, B, C; Fuel Oil No.2, 4, 5, 6; Intermediate
Fuel Oil (IFO 180); or Heavy Fuel Oil (IFO 380). The relationship between
different classifications is not always clear but the Bunker A-C scale and
the ASTM fuel oil scale are roughly equivalent, as shown in table 2-3. The
IFO scale specifies the viscosity of the oil in centistokes (approximately
equivalent to mPAs) at 508C.
Table 2-3 Bunker scale, ASTM fuel oil numbers
and IFO numbers
Examples
Bunker
scale
ASTM
FO No.
IFO No.
Light fuels, diesel, domestic
heating oil
A 2
Diesel, gas oil, light fuel for marine
engines
B 4 60
Heavy gas oil, intermediate fuel oils B 5 180
Heavy fuel oils for marine engines
and industrial burners
C 6 m380
It should be noted that in France, and possibly some French speaking
countries world-wide, heavy fuel oils which are commonly referred to as
bunker C or IFO 380 are also called fuel oil no. 2, which differs from the
convention given in table 2-3. This illustrates that it is very important to
establish the actual properties of the oil spilled, to confirm its likely nature
and thus behaviour.
2.2.1 Lubricating oils
These are highly refined oils which, depending on their application, vary
widely in specific gravity and viscosity. A wide range of additives is used in
these oils, many of which are surface active compounds. Certain
lubricating oils contain additives that may present a hazard to human
health and/or the environment when spilled.
2.2.2 Other petroleum products
Less common than the oils listed above, but increasingly used as fuels for
industrial power generation, are bitumen and newer products known as
emulsified fuels. These may have densities that approach or exceed that
of seawater and have very high viscosities at ambient temperatures.
Further information on the characteristics of these oils is provided in
chapter 12.
Chapter 2 Types of oil
7
2.3 Persistent oils
The term persistent is used to describe those oils which, because of their
chemical composition, are usually slow to dissipate naturally when spilled
into the marine environment and are therefore likely to spread and require
cleanup. Non-persistent oils tend to evaporate quickly when spilled and do
not generally require extensive cleaning up.
Whilst the term persistent is not precisely defined in any convention or
international standard, generally, oils that are normally termed persistent
include crude oils, fuel oils, heavy diesel and lubricating oils. Non-
persistent oils include gasoline, light diesel oil and kerosene. For spill
responders, this term is a useful first indication of whether an oil will
persist when spilled into the marine environment, calling possibly for a
significant and prolonged response.
8
Chapter 3
Fate of oil spills
in the marine environment
When oil is spilled at sea, it undergoes a number of physical and chemical
changes, some of which lead to its disappearance from the sea surface,
while others cause it to persist. Although spilled oil is eventually
assimilated by the marine environment, the time involved depends on
the initial physical and chemical characteristics of the oil and the natural
weathering processes that can take place.
3.1 Properties of oil
Individual properties are very important since they influence an oils
behaviour on the sea surface and its rate of dissipation by natural
processes.
3.1.1 Density (specific gravity)
This dictates the buoyancy of an oil on water and it influences spreading
and natural dispersion. The density of an oil is expressed either in units of
mass per unit volume kg/m
3
(note that specific gravity is the measure of
an oils density in relation to freshwater, whose density is 1 kg/m
3
), or in
terms of API gravity; in accordance with the following formula:
API
141:5
specific gravity
131:5
As a general rule, oils with a low density (high API gravity) tend to have low
viscosities and contain a high proportion of volatile components.
3.1.2 Boiling point and boiling range
The rate at which an oil evaporates is indicated by its initial boiling point
and boiling range. The lower these are, the faster evaporation will occur.
3.1.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of an oil indicates its resistance to flow. High viscosity oils
flow with difficulty, whilst those with low viscosity are highly mobile.
Viscosities decrease with increasing temperature, thus seawater temper-
ature and absorption of heat from the sun will affect the apparent viscosity
of spilled oil.
9
3.1.4 Pour point
The pour point of an oil is the temperature below which the oil will not
flow. This effect is the result of the formation of an internal micro-
crystalline structure. If the ambient temperature is below the pour point,
the oil will behave as a solid.
3.1.5 Flashpoint
The flashpoint is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour exists
above the spilled oil to yield a flammable mixture. This is an important
factor in relation to the safety of cleanup operations. Many freshly spilled
oils may be easily ignited until the more volatile components have
evaporated and dispersed in the atmosphere.
3.1.6 Solubility
Some components of oils are soluble in water. Generally the more volatile
components are also the more soluble. Although solubility is small relative
to evaporation, it can be significant for toxicity to marine life.
3.1.7 Asphaltene content
Asphaltenes play a major role in the formation and stability of water-in-oil
emulsions. Low asphaltene oils generally do not form stable emulsions.
The behaviour of spilled oil is influenced by its properties
3.2 Natural weathering processes acting on spilled oil
Oil spilled on the sea undergoes a series of processes collectively known as
weathering which will change its characteristics and behaviour. The main
factors affecting the behaviour of oil are:
10
physical characteristics of the oil, in particular, specific gravity,
viscosity and boiling range;
composition and chemical characteristics of the oil;
meteorological conditions (sea state, sunlight and air
temperatures); and
characteristics of the seawater (specific gravity, currents,
temperature, presence of bacteria, nutrients and dissolved
oxygen and suspended solids).
A knowledge of these processes and how they interact to alter the nature of
oil is valuable when responding to spills. Figure 3-1 depicts the processes
and figure 3-2 shows how the relative importance of the processes vary
with time.
Weathering Processes
Figure 3-1 Processes taking place after an oil spill
Figure 3-2 Time span and relative importance of processes
acting on an oil spill
11
3.2.1 Spreading
When an oil spill occurs at sea, oil will float and begin to spread, with the
exception of a very few oils whose density exceeds that of seawater and
which therefore sink. Spreading of an oil slick on the sea surface is a rapid
and dominant process at the time of a release. Initially the most important
factor causing the oil to spread is its weight and the oil begins to spread
out as a coherent slick. Viscous oils will spread more slowly than oils with
low viscosities. Oils spilled on the sea at a temperature below their pour
point hardly spread at all.
Within a few hours the slick begins to break up and form narrow bands or
windrows parallel to the wind direction. At this stage the viscosity of the
oil becomes less important since further spreading is primarily due to
turbulence at the sea surface. Spreading rates vary due to differences in
the oceanographic conditions such as currents (both residual and tidal)
and wind speed. In some 12 hours of a spill, the oil can already be
scattered over an area of several square kilometres or more, thus limiting
the possibility of effective cleanup.
As the oil continues to spread it can become scattered over very large sea
areas. Except in the case of small spills of low viscosity oils, spreading is
not uniform and large variations of oil thickness occur within a slick.
Thicker, broken patches of oil may often be found in relatively small areas
surrounded by much larger expanses of sheen or even open seawater.
Waves and turbulence at the sea surface also act on the slick to produce
droplets with a range of sizes. The larger ones rise back to the surface
behind the advancing slick where they usually coalesce to form a ragged
tail (figure 3-3).
3.2.2 Evaporation
The most important process removing the oil from the water surface is
evaporation. The speed and extent of the evaporation depends mainly on
the proportion of low-boiling fractions in the oil. Evaporation rates also
depend on initial spreading of the oil since the larger the surface area the
faster the light components will evaporate. Rough seas and higher
temperatures and wind speeds also tend to encourage faster evaporation.
Generally, volatile components with boiling points up to 2008C will be
evaporated within 24 hours. Light oils such as gasoline, kerosene and light
fuel oil may evaporate completely within a few hours and light crudes can
lose up to 40% during the first day. Heavy crudes and fuel oils undergo
much less and in some cases virtually no evaporation. A major
consequence of evaporation will be an increase in density and viscosity
of any remaining oil.
12
Figure 3-3 Spreading of oil on the water
Spreading of oil on the water
13
3.2.3 Natural dispersion
Usually liquid oils will disperse as droplets under moderate to rough sea
conditions. The oil droplets will disperse through the upper layers of the
sea and will be suspended in the water or rise back to the surface
depending on the density difference between the oil and water and the size
of the droplets. The formation of small oil droplets greatly increases the
contact between water and oil and degradation of the oil by micro-
organisms is enhanced. The relationship between wind, wave height and
sea state in open seas is shown in table 3-1.
The rate of natural dispersion, together with evaporation, largely
determines the lifetime of oil on the sea surface. Natural dispersion
reduces the volume of the oil at the sea surface and reduces evaporative
loss, but it does not lead to changes in the physical and chemical
properties of the spilled material in the way that evaporation does. Most
small slicks of lighter oils will disappear within a few hours through this
natural dispersion, providing there is sufficient wave action.
3.2.4 Water-in-oil emulsion
Some crude and fuel oils exhibit a tendency to absorb water droplets to
form a water-in-oil emulsion. The most noticeable feature of a stable water-
in-oil emulsion is its red-brown or orange colour. Because of its
consistency it is often referred to as chocolate mousse.
Water-in-oil emulsion
The stability of an emulsion is largely dictated by the asphaltene content of
the oil. Those with more than 0.5% tend to form stable emulsions whilst
those containing less are unlikely to be stable. The sea state is important
14
to emulsion formation and in calm waters emulsification is less apparent,
although with some very light oils it may still occur with only minor wave
action. More commonly, in sea states associated with winds of Beaufort
Force 3 and higher, many lighter oils have a tendency to form emulsions
that incorporate 6080% seawater by volume in just a few hours. Water-in-
oil emulsion can be generated with some crude oils in areas with wavelets/
chop of less than 100 mm (4). These would be considered to be calm
conditions. In contrast, highly viscous oils may only reach up to half this
volume under the same or stronger sea conditions, and this after a few
days.
The viscosity of water-in-oil emulsions is much higher than that of the oil
from which they were formed. They are usually thixotropic, which means
that they may be relatively fluid when being stirred about by waves, etc.,
but become stiffer when resting on still water or on a beach. The density
also increases and can approach that of seawater. If absorption of
suspended solids occurs the oil may eventually sink. The formation of
water-in-oil emulsions can increase the volume of the spill by a factor of up
to 5. The stability of emulsions depends on the composition of the oil and
its temperature. In hot climates, emulsions may break down under certain
conditions.
15
Table 3-1 Description of weather and sea conditions
Beaufort scale of weahter and sea conditions
Beaufort
wind
force
Mean
wind
speed
in knots
Limits
of wind
speed
in knots
Descrip-
tive
term
Sea criterion
(see photographs in Marine Observers
Handbook H.M.S.O.)
Probable
height of
waves in
metres
Probable
maximum
height of
waves in
metres*
Measured at
a height of 10 m
above sea level
0 00 Less
than 1
Calm Sea like a mirror.
1 02 1-3 Light
air
Ripples with the appearance of scales are
formed, but without foam crests.
0.1 0.1
2 05 4-6 Light
breeze
Small wavelets, still short but more pro-
nounced, crests have a glassy appearance
and do not break.
0.2 0.3
3 09 7-10 Gentle
breeze
Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of
glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered white
horses.
0.6 1.0
4 13 11-16 Moderate
breeze
Small waves, becoming longer, fairly frequent
white horses.
1.0 1.5
5 19 17-21 Fresh
breeze
Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced
long form, many white horses are formed
(chance of some spray).
2.0 2.5
6 24 22-27 Strong
breeze
Large waves begin to form, the white foam
crests are more extensive everywhere (prob-
ably some spray).
3.0 4.0
7 30 28-33 Near
gale
Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking
waves begins to be blown in streaks along the
direction of the wind.
4.0 5.5
8 37 34-40 Gale Moderate high waves of greater length, edges
of crests begin to break into spindrift. The
foam is blown in well-marked streaks along
the direction of the wind.
5.5 7.5
9 44 41-47 Strong
gale
High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the
direction of the wind. Crests of waves begin to
topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect
visibility.
7.0 10.0
10 52 48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging
crests. The resulting foam in great patches is
blown in dense white streaks along the di-
rection of the wind. On the whole the surface
of the sea takes a white appearance. Tum-
bling of the sea becomes heavy and shock-
like. Visibility affected.
9.0 12.5
11 60 56-63 Violent
storm
Exceptionally-high waves. (Small and me-
dium-sized ships might be for a time lost to
view behind the waves.) The sea is completely
covered with long white patches of foam lying
along the direction of the wind. Everywhere
the edges of the waves crests are blown into
froth. Visibility affected.
12 64
and
over
Hurr-
icane
The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea
completely white with driving spray, visibility
very seriously affected.
14
or
over
* These columns are added as a guide to show roughly what may be expected in the open sea, remote from land.
In enclosed waters, or when near land with an offshore wind, wave heights will be smaller, and the waves
steeper.
Notes
.1 It must be realized that it may be difficult to estimate wind force by the sea criterion. The wind force and
direction may therefore be estimated by other means, e.g. the feel of the wind or the smoke, making due
allowance for course and speed of ship (see Marine Observers Handbook).
.2 The lag effect between the wind getting up and the sea increasing should be borne in mind.
.3 Fetch, depth, swell, heavy rain and tide effects should be considered when estimating the wind force from
the appearance of the sea.
16
3.2.5 Other processes
Other processes also contribute to the fate of spilled oil. The lightest
compounds in the oil can, to a certain degree, be dissolved in the water
(termed dissolution). Solar radiation over the oil film can promote
oxidation reactions that change the structure of the hydrocarbon
molecules in the oil.
An additional process is the biodegradation of some oil components.
Seawater contains a range of marine micro-organisms such as bacteria,
moulds and yeasts which can utilize oil as a source of carbon and energy.
Such organisms are widely distributed throughout the worlds oceans
although they tend to be more abundant in polluted waters, such as those
that receive industrial discharges and untreated sewage. Each micro-
organism tends to degrade a specific group of hydrocarbons and whilst a
range of bacteria exist which between them are capable of degrading most
of the wide range of compounds in crude oil, some components are
resistant to such attack. At sea, the creation of oil droplets, either natural
or by chemical dispersion, increases the oil/water interfacial area available
for biological activity and so enhances biodegradation.
The processes of dissolution, oxidation and biodegradation tend to be more
significant in tropical and sub-tropical environments. However, they are of
minor significance to the on-water phase of cleanup operations as their
combined contribution to the reduction of the volume of oil on the water
surface or to a change in its properties is very small.
Because the density of both seawater and of oil varies with temperature,
the oil may alternate between positive and negative buoyancy. Thus oil
may temporarily submerge to a limited depth, only to rise to the surface
again within hours or days. Oil that is buoyant in seawater may submerge
in coastal areas where freshwater influences decrease the density of the
upper layer of water.
Very few crude oils are sufficiently dense or weathered to such an extent
that their residues will sink. Sinking is usually brought about by adhesion
of particulate matter to the oil. Some heavy crudes, as well as most heavy
fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsions require very little particulate matter to
exceed the specific gravity of seawater. There is also a possibility of tar
balls forming. Tar balls or tar lumps are compact semi-solid or solid
masses of highly weathered oil formed through the aggregation of viscous,
high molecular weight hydrocarbons with sediments and debris present in
the water column. Tar balls can form anywhere at sea and some of these
sink to the bottom as a result of their high specific gravity. They can be
transported either floating on the water surface or along the sea-bed and
may eventually arrive on beaches.
In coastal areas, oil may be carried by surface currents and winds onto
shorelines and into estuaries, and be deposited in the intertidal zone.
Some of this oil may be lifted off again and re-deposited in the same area or
carried to other places, through tidal action. Depending on the shoreline
profile, sediment/substrate characteristics and available wave energy; oil
17
may thus be deposited on the surface in the higher reaches of the
intertidal zone, become mixed with surface sediments, or on occasion be
buried in layers under the beach sediments. Erosion or scouring of oiled
beach sediments can remobilize some of this oil which may then be
deposited in shallow subtidal zones.
Sometimes stranded oil may become buried
3.3 Movement of oil slicks
An oil slick will rarely stay in the same position, tending to move under the
combined influence of winds, waves, tides and currents. The movement of
surface waters in the sea, due to the wind, waves and currents, is difficult
to predict due to the many parameters involved. However, some general
features of oil slick movements on the sea surface have been observed in
oil spill incidents. The downwind portion of the slick will generally be
thicker than the upwind or trailing portion of the slick. While the slick is
drifting, it will generally become elongated and will form windrows. The
speed with which an oil slick drifts under the influence of the wind
depends on wind strength and oil thickness, but typically in open water, it
will move at about 3% of the speed of the wind measured 10 m above the
water surface.
3.3.1 The influence of currents
If the wind is negligible, which is rarely the case, the oil will move only
under the influence of currents or tides. Current regimes may be constant
but more commonly vary in strength and direction over time. The strength
18
and direction of tides will influence the movement of the slick in the short
term. However, tidal currents rarely cancel each other completely, and this
gives rise to a residual current which will determine the long-term
movement of the oil slick.
3.3.2 Assessment of the drift of a slick
Having calculated separately the wind induced effect and the surface water
current, the movement of a slick on the surface can be determined by
drawing a vector diagram. This can be represented by the following
simplified formula:
V
oil
V
current
V
wind
x Q
in which:
V
oil
velocity of the oil
V
current
velocity of seawater
V
wind
velocity of wind at a height of 10 m
Q empirically established wind speed factor (usually about
3%)
The movement of the oil can be determined by the technique illustrated in
figure 3-4.
Figure 3-4 The influence of 3% of the wind speed
combined with 100% of the current speed results
in the movement of oil from A to B
3.4 Combined movement, weathering processes
and modelling
The different processes that change the oil properties and encourage
spilled oil to be removed from the water surface, or to remain for longer,
have been described briefly. All these processes are dependent on a
number of factors, such as oil type, temperature, weather and sea
conditions. The processes of spreading, evaporation, dispersion, emulsifi-
19
cation and dissolution are most important during the early stages of a spill
whilst oxidation, sedimentation and biodegradation are more important
later on and determine the ultimate fate of the oil. To understand how
different oils change over time whilst at sea, one needs to know how these
weathering processes interact. To predict this, some models have been
developed based on oil type.
One such model uses the half-life for a group of oils classified roughly
according to their density, to describe the persistence and the time needed
for the oil to dissipate. Generally, oils with a lower density will be less
persistent but some apparently light oils can behave more like heavy ones
due to the presence of waxes. The half-life is the time needed for 50% of the
oil to disappear fromthe sea surface. After six half-lives have passed, about
1% of the oil will remain. This model is shown in figure 3-5. Weather and
climatic conditions will alter the rates shown, for example; in rough
weather a group 3 oil may dissipate in a timescale similar to a group 2 oil.
Although simple models, such as this, cannot predict the changes an oil
undergoes very precisely, they can provide a broad indication of whether
an oil is likely to dissipate naturally or whether it will reach the shoreline.
This information can be used by spill responders to decide upon the most
effective spill response techniques and whether such techniques can be
initiated quickly enough.
The volume of oil and oil-in-water emulsion remaining
on the sea surface is shown as a percentage of the
volume spilt.
Oils are grouped according to specific gravity.
Group I : S.G. <0.8 e.g. Gasoline Kerosene.
Group II: S.G. <0.8-0.85 e.g. Beatrice crude,
Abu Dhabi crude, gas oil.
Group III: S.G. >0.85 e.g. Arabian light crude,
Iranian heavy crude.
Group IV: S.G. >0,95 e.g. Heavy fuel oil, Minas crude.
The rate of removal of oil from the sea surface according to their physical properties.
Figure 3-5 The rate of removal of oil from the sea surface
according to their physical properties
20
Group Specific Gravity API Gravity
Group I 5 0.8 445
Group II 0.8 0.85 45 35
Group III 0.85 0.95 35 17.5
Group IV 40.95 5 17.5
Many computer models of varying sophistication have been developed
more recently for predicting the physical and chemical changes of the oil
and its movement (trajectory) on the sea surface. These models can only
provide a reliable output if the input information is correct. The results will
stand or fall with the input data and accurate information, particularly on
winds and currents, may not be available. Reliance on simple formulae
using limited information can still give predictions that are useful and
adequate for on-scene commanders during cleanup operations. The
prediction of the fate of an oil spill, based on an understanding of the
weathering processes, supplemented by reference to reliable modelling,
and backed up by regular surveillance and monitoring in the field, is one of
the most important aspects for an optimal oil spill response.
21
Chapter 4
Effects of oil on marine
and coastal resources
4.1 Introduction
Research in the 1970s and 1980s led to a dramatic increase in the
awareness and understanding of the effects of oil on the marine environ-
ment. Ongoing research continued to add to this, and more recently has
been supported in the 1990s by comprehensive studies following major oil
pollution cases. The following discussion therefore reflects some thirty
years of research and study, from which an extensive range of knowledge
has been established, confirmed by experience in the field.
The effects of a particular spill situation will depend on many factors.
These include the volume of the oil spilled, its physical, chemical and
toxicological characteristics (particularly those that determine the oils
ability to persist in the environment) and condition (as a floating slick or
dispersed in the water column); local conditions at the time of the spill (e.g.
temperature, wind); time of year; the presence of structures or resources in
the path of the spill; and location of the spill in relation to the nature and
mixing of sediments, sea bottom topography and geomorphology of the
coast. The variability of these and other factors and their interaction can
lead to a wide range of ecological, economic and physical effects.
Oiled shoreline
23
The topic discussions that follow are not intended to suggest any
particular order of priority with regard to effects. The ultimate value
placed on various impacts will depend upon the circumstances surround-
ing the particular spill event.
A distinction should be made at the outset between the effects of spilled oil
itself and the effects of cleanup measures. Major categories of remedial
(control and recovery) measures include manual, mechanical and
chemical means. In some instances, the remedial measures themselves
may have adverse consequences, which are more fully discussed in
subsequent chapters.
4.2 Ecological effects
Depending upon the factors noted in the introduction to this chapter, there
can be a variety of ecological effects resulting from a spill. These may
include physical and chemical changes in habitats; changes in growth,
physiology and behaviour of individual organisms and species; toxicity
and increased mortality in individual organisms and species and
destruction or modification of entire communities of organisms through
the combined effects of toxicity and smothering.
4.2.1 Physical contamination of biota and habitat
Floating oil may contaminate mammals, birds, and sea turtles that swim
or dive through the surface of the water. If fishing activities take place in
the immediate vicinity of a spill, fishing gear and catch are likely to be
contaminated as a result of contact with oil floating on the surface,
dispersed or suspended in the water, and on rare occasions, with oil that
has settled on the seabed. Any sunken oil may cover valuable habitats (for
example, spawning grounds for herring).
The magnitude and persistence of oil contamination in the intertidal zone
depend greatly on the geomorphology and the sediment characteristics of
the coast. Steep, exposed rocky coasts tend to deflect the wave energy and
hold floating oil away from shore. Long-termeffects are likely to be minimal
on the ecosystems of such areas, where oil does not persist and rapid
recolonization by plants and animals may occur.
On fine sandy beaches the oil is likely to remain on the surface where it
can be removed. However, in some instances, oil on sandy beaches may be
covered by the sand and emerge again later due to the action of wind and
tides. On beaches of cobble, gravel or even coarse sand, the oil may
penetrate with the tidal water table down to hard substrata.
In sheltered tidal flats, mangroves and saltmarshes, oil can penetrate into
the anoxic muds, facilitated by animal burrows, decaying root masses and
interstitial water movement where it may cause local biological effects for
long periods. In such areas, biota are susceptible to physical smothering in
the early stages of a spill and may exhibit chemical contamination of their
tissues for extended periods.
24
4.2.2 Ecotoxicology
In addition to the direct physical effects of smothering or fouling, much of
the mortality that occurs during the early stages of an oil spill results from
toxicity of the more water-soluble, lighter aromatic components of oil.
These more toxic components (e.g. alkyl-substituted benzenes and
naphthalenes) generally disappear relatively quickly. The toxicity of a spill
to marine organisms therefore varies according to the presence and
amount of these components in the oil and whether they have dissipated
before exposure to the organisms in question. The more toxic oils, such as
gas oil and kerosene contain higher proportions of a variety of more toxic
components, but they also tend to dissipate quickly and leave little residue.
Crude oils and mediumfuel oil contain less toxic components but are more
persistent and can still exhibit toxicity to marine organisms. Heavier crude
oils contain lower amounts of toxic components but heavy fuel oils may
contain light products blended in, which are more toxic to marine
organisms than the heavy fuel designation might otherwise suggest.
Bioassays have been used extensively to estimate the toxicity of different
oil types to different species and life stages of organisms. Most tests have
measured the mortality of test organisms during an acute exposure period
(usually 96 hours). The 96-hour LC-50 (concentration of oil producing
mortality of 50% of the test organisms over the specified period) for most
organisms tested falls in the range of 0.5 mg/ to 10 mg/ (parts per
million). Standard toxicity test conditions, however, may have limited
relevance to actual field exposures in open water habitats, which usually
are more dynamic and transient. Also, since laboratory tests cannot readily
estimate reproductive potential or survival of organisms under field
conditions, these bioassay results represent very incomplete information
about the potential long-term effects of an oil spill in the natural
environment. Nonetheless, they do provide a measure of the potential for
toxicity of a spill during its early stages when concentrations of oil in the
water column are highest. The highest concentrations of oil measured in
the water column during most spills have generally been in the range of
0.2 mg to 0.5 mg/. Much higher concentrations of 0.5 mg/ to 1.0 mg/
have been measured under surface oil slicks within 20 km of a subsurface
blow-out. Near the wellhead, measured concentrations exceeded 10 mg/
in surface waters. However, concentrations in this range are very short-
lived, and exposure of water column organisms to these levels is likely to
be short-term.
The effects of acute toxicity during the early stages of an oil spill may be
local or transient or may persist for several years after the spill depending
on the size, location and season of the spill and the impacted species. If the
spill occurs during a peak period of reproduction, the entire current-year
class of organisms in the immediate area of the spill could be lost, along
with the adults and juveniles. Effects of such magnitude, however, have
rarely been observed on a population scale. The ultimate impact on the
population depends on the life span, adult mobility and reproductive
strategy of the species (i.e. planktonic versus sessile larvae). Species with
25
short life cycles, high adult mobility and/or planktonic larvae typically
exhibit only short-term effects. Long-term effects may be evident in
localized or confined areas where oil is highly persistent.
4.2.3 Bio-accumulation and tainting
Organisms that survive the initial effects of a spill take up petroleum
compounds, both from the surrounding water and sediments, and from
contaminated food, and may deposit them in their tissues. In these
instances, it is often difficult to assess the specific, long-term toxic effects
of petroleum compounds on organisms, as these components commonly
act together with other toxic substances already present in the marine
environment. However, it can be generally stated that vertebrates
metabolize and eliminate aromatic compounds very rapidly and efficiently,
whereas invertebrates metabolize aromatic compounds slowly and
inefficiently. In rare cases, accumulated concentrations may reach levels
high enough to affect behaviour (e.g. ability to escape predators), growth or
reproduction and may lead to disease or early death.
Seafood may become tainted if directly exposed to oil
Fish, crustaceans and molluscs that are exposed either to high concen-
trations of oil, or to moderate concentrations for long periods, may acquire
an objectionable, oily odour or flavour, and, as a result, the flesh may be
unmarketable. This is a temporary problem since the components causing
the taint are lost when normal conditions are restored or when the
26
organisms are maintained in clean water. Depending on the type of oil and
prevailing hydrographic and meteorological conditions, tainting may
persist for periods ranging from a few days to several months. External
contamination does not necessarily lead to tainting of the flesh, and will
vary as the lipid content and metabolic rates of the organism change with
season. Because of the serious economic consequences arising from a loss
of sales, considerable care is necessary to prevent contaminated fish and
shellfish from reaching the market. Ideally this should involve organized
tasting and chemical analysis by qualified personnel at the time of the
spill. This issue is described in more detail in the IMO/FAO publication
Guidance on managing seafood safety during and after oil spills.
4.2.4 Rates of recovery
Ecological recovery of a spill-impacted area is not dependent solely on the
amounts and composition of contaminants that persist after a spill.
Repopulation usually occurs through several phases, involving different
species at different times. Recovery rates depend on the population
dynamics (reproduction, growth and maturation) and ecological interac-
tions (predation, competition, etc.) of replacement species well after toxicity
has decreased below significant levels.
In general, recovery of populations is very rapid in the water column.
Significant effects on plankton populations have not been observed in
open water, and those seen in near-shore systems have been local and
transitory, with full recovery in a few weeks. Toxicity and malformations
have been observed in the floating eggs and larvae of some fish species.
However, effects on subsequent year-class strength or overall productivity
are unknown because of high natural variability. Short-term, sublethal
effects on local finfish populations have been observed in heavily oiled
areas after some oil spills, but effects on region-wide productivity were
small or not detectable.
After initial destruction of intertidal or benthic organisms, resistant or
opportunistic species may undergo dramatic population increases and
fluctuations in the affected area. Repopulation by the original species may
sometimes be slow. Some near-shore benthic communities oiled by a
major crude oil spill began to show significant recruitment only in the
second year and recovery was still not complete after three to four years in
the most heavily impacted areas. Damage to marshy areas or mangroves
can be transitory, but in other cases may persist for decades if the loss of
vegetation leads to extensive erosion and changes in soil characteristics or
elevation. Damage may also continue if oil persists in the sediment or in
surface tar mats.
4.3 Recreational beaches and sea areas
Interference with recreational use and enjoyment of coastal areas is a
common feature of many oil spills. Bathing, diving, fishing, boating, and
other watersports may all be disrupted, particularly when the oil is washed
ashore. Tourists can leave the affected resorts or may entirely avoid the
27
area if there is a general perception of it having been polluted. As a result,
hotel and restaurant owners and others who gain a livelihood from the
tourist trade can be affected. The economic damage is greatest if the spill
occurs just prior to or during a major tourist season. Impacts are typically
short term and recreational activities normally resume shortly after
cleanup has been completed, although small island states whose
economies rely largely on tourism may experience relatively greater and
longer impacts as a result of the spill.
Amenity activities can be disrupted by oil pollution
The need to restore a high degree of cleanliness rapidly at important
amenity sites may call for highly effective cleaning techniques, but these
may also be harmful to local marine life. Certain activities may damage
natural sea defences leading to potential erosion problems. Sea walls,
harbours, and other man-made structures can also be affected by severe
cleaning measures. Care must be taken to ensure that effects of such
remedial measures are minimized, and that restoration of recreation and
amenity areas is balanced against potential adverse ecological impacts.
4.4 Ports and marinas
A major oil spill occurring within, or in close proximity to ports, harbours
and marinas could have far-reaching effects on a variety of activities and
resources. These might include commercial vessel and cargo handling
operations, ship building and repair, passenger ferry services, watersport
activities and waterfront tourist attractions, as well as any environ-
mentally sensitive sites present within the area. In major ports, the
potential for serious economic consequences is high, due to indirect costs
28
associated with measures that might need to be taken during the response
and cleanup itself.
The principal concern at the outset of an oil spill is one of public and vessel
safety. Spills that occur in areas where the oil remains confined increases
the initial risk of fire or explosion. Public and vessel safety must be
addressed immediately and the necessary actions that are taken to
mitigate potential safety hazards could be economically costly. Areas may
need to be closed or access temporarily restricted for vessels, vehicles, and
personnel. Operations such as welding, cutting, or other spark-generating
activities may need to be restricted or prohibited until the risk of fire
hazard no longer exists. Such restrictions and interferences may affect
normal operations in the port, harbour, or marina, to the extent that the
indirect costs could exceed the direct costs associated with any physical
damage from collision, explosion or fire, loss of cargo and cleanup.
Actions taken to minimize or prevent the spread of floating oil, such as the
deployment of booms, or the closure of dock or lock gates, may affect vessel
transits through the affected area. Depending on the nature and extent of a
spill, these restrictions could be broad in scope and may need to be
continually adjusted to reflect the changing situation.
Various port operations may be affected
Direct contamination of vessel hulls, mooring ropes, fenders, and work
access points such as steps, ladders, and slip-ways is a common
occurrence. An oily film may adhere to surfaces extending between the
high-water and low-water marks of all structures and objects subject to
29
tidal influence. Inclement weather can impede cleanup efforts and can
serve to spread the oil more quickly to unaffected areas. Restrictions on
normal activities may be needed or imposed until such time as safe
working conditions have been restored and cleanup has advanced
sufficiently to allow normal operations to resume.
Interrupting, restricting, or prohibiting normal shipping and commercial
port and harbour activities, commercial and sport fishing, recreational
boating, or other waterborne activities at port and harbour facilities and/or
marinas could affect many segments of the local economy and extend to
those of other communities. In addition, unsightly oil-covered docks, boat
hulls and other structures, as well as the persistence of an oily smell, may
discourage recreational and commercial use of waterfront facilities, and
adversely affect tourism in the area. Some ports and harbours may also
contain environmentally important areas, whose features and sensitivity
to oil pollution are described elsewhere in this chapter.
4.5 Industrial installations
Industries that rely on seawater for their normal operations can be
impaired or damaged by oil. Power stations, in particular, are often located
close to the coast in order to have a ready supply of large quantities of
seawater for cooling. If a substantial quantity of floating or sub-surface oil
is drawn into the intakes, it may pass through the protective screens
normally present to remove debris and other material from the water. If oil
then reaches the heat exchangers there is a concern that their efficiency
may be lowered, or, in the case of very viscous or weathered oils, that the
condenser tubes may become blocked, necessitating a shutdown while
they are cleaned. In addition to the deployment of booms or nets across
water intakes when oil is confirmed to be close to the facilities, some
installations may operate at reduced power or even temporarily suspend
their operations. In practice, recorded instances of damage being caused to
heat exchangers are very rare.
Desalination plants may also be affected if oil is drawn into the water
intakes. The two processes widely in use for the production of drinking
water from seawater are multistage flash distillation and reverse osmosis.
The distillation process would be affected in a similar way to the condenser
tubes in power stations and the membrane filters in reverse osmosis
installations could be damaged if oil were to reach them. Installations
usually have filters and pretreatment processes that prevent the
condensers and membranes from being contaminated during normal
operations. In addition to any measures being taken during an oil spill to
protect the intakes, an added precaution may sometimes be taken to
interrupt or slow down operations to avoid any possible damage, but
potentially causing temporary water supply problems for consumers.
30
4.6 Fish
4.6.1 Direct oil spill effects
Direct kills of adult fish have been observed at only a few oil spills. At other
major spills, some fish were found to have ingested oil and oil
contamination of muscle tissue was found in several instances, giving
rise to tainting. Reproductive effects have been noted after some incidents.
Some laboratory experiments have indicated that fish eggs are very
sensitive to extremely low levels of petroleum hydrocarbons and reduced
hatching of fish eggs has been attributed to oil exposure at some spills.
4.6.2 Sub-lethal effects
The effects of sub-lethal exposures of fish to petroleum have been
extensively examined in laboratory experiments. In some cases, exposure
to realistic concentrations (i.e. similar to those observed under field
conditions) have produced effects on reproductive processes including
behaviour, fecundity, and success of fertilization and hatching; have
induced aberrations (e.g. of development, behaviour, biochemical
processes, and subcellular structure) that could lead to premature death
through increased susceptibility to predation or disease; and also induced
carcinogenesis and mutagenesis. Some of these laboratory observations
have been supported by field observations, either under spill circum-
stances or in chronically contaminated marine environments. Detectable
effects have usually been confined to the immediate vicinity of the spill, or
the effects of the oil have been obscured by the presence of other
contaminants at the site.
The formation of tumours has been detected in field populations of fish
and molluscs, and the incidence of tumours has been related to exposure
to polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons or petroleum products arising from
sources other than oil spills.
Existing data indicates biomagnification of hydrocarbons does not occur
in marine food webs, and the concentrations of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons in human foods of marine origin are not usually high
compared with other dietary sources. Consumption of fish and shellfish
from coastal areas that receive repeated oil spills along with chronic
discharges of oily wastes from ships or from land-based sources would,
however, increase the intake of hydrocarbons by human consumers.
4.6.3 Long-term effects on fish stocks
Fish stocks probably have not been affected significantly by individual oil
spills, isolated in time and space from others. While it is clear that large
spills can impact local populations or year-classes of fish for periods of up
to two years, these effects have not been detectable in regional catch data.
The lack of demonstrated effects is due to many factors, including
confinement of serious effects to localized areas, ability of adult fish to
avoid the spill, ability of adult and juvenile fish to repopulate an impacted
area after the spill has dissipated, the dispersion and transport of fish eggs
and larvae from adjoining areas, the high degree of natural variability in
31
fisheries populations and in the levels and effects of overfishing. As a
result of the mobility of the fish and the other sources of variability in the
catch data, it is unlikely that changes in future catches can be attributable
to spill effects, except in extremely localized or confined areas, or in areas
subjected to repeated spills and discharges.
4.6.4 Fish and shellfish farming and seaweed cultivation
Fish and shellfish that are confined in floating cages or in near-shore
enclosures or pens cannot escape from the path of an oil spill, and may
suffer mortality or tainting unless they can be removed prior to arrival of
the oil. Organisms that may be suspended in the water column beneath
floating racks or buoys (e.g. oysters, seaweed, kelp) are less subject to direct
mortalities from oil spills. Contamination of these organisms may still
occur through bio-accumulation of dispersed or dissolved oil, or through
physical contact with floating oil, as they are harvested. If bio-
accumulation and tainting are minimal, recovery of the harvest may be
satisfactory following a period of depuration either on site after the spill
has dissipated or by relocation.
Intertidal areas of shellfish culture are particularly susceptible to spill
effects. The shoreline effectively traps any oil that may be transported
there and holds it while successive tides deposit and redeposit it in the
intertidal zone. Wave action may disperse the oil throughout the shallow
water column and mix it into sediment layers. Together, these processes
can cause direct physical contamination of the shellfish; bio-accumulation
and tainting of the edible tissues and persistent chemical contamination
of the sediment, rendering the environment potentially unsuitable for
shellfish production for several years. In areas remote from the spill,
shellfish may be saved by immediate harvest before the spill arrives.
Shellfish in moderately contaminated areas may be relocated to clean
areas for depuration or cleansing of the tissues. Shellfish in more heavily
contaminated areas might have to be destroyed. Where sediments have
been contaminated, restoration may be accelerated in a number of ways
during shoreline cleanup.
32
Seaweed cultivation in the inter-tidal zone
Economically important algae and other plants in the intertidal zone may
be broken away from their rocky substrata by the weight of oil clinging to
the fronds. Small decreases in population density may occur for a year
after the spill. Cultured seaweed grown on floating nets are particularly
prone to contamination by floating or dispersed oil. Submerged plants,
such as kelps, are less vulnerable to spills because of the depths at which
they occur.
4.6.5 Commercial considerations (fisheries)
Apart from the effects of oil on fish stocks, an oil spill can have an
immediate physical and economic impact on fishing activities. Fishing
ports may be unusable, either because they are contaminated by oil or
because they have been closed to avoid contamination. Fishing vessels
and gear may be fouled by oil. Fishing grounds, regardless of whether or
not stocks have been damaged by oil, might be inaccessible either because
of oil or because of counter-pollution activities in the area. The oil
contamination might present fire or health hazards to fishermen.
Clearly all these factors are likely to have an effect on the amount of fish
available to be sold but, in addition, adverse publicity arising from the
incident might lead to public concern about the quality of fish on the
market. This can result in loss of sales over a wider area than that actually
affected by the spill.
33
Fishing vessels in port
4.7 Marine mammals
Many types of marine mammals (including seals, otters, whales, porpoises,
dolphins, walruses and dugongs etc.) can be observed in areas affected by
oil spills, either swimming in oil covered waters or in some cases, coming
ashore, for example to breed. These observations suggest that these
mammals do not actively avoid oil, at least under some circumstances.
Most reports of spill effects on marine mammals involve oil fouling of the
pelage or fur of seals and otters. Although mortalities have no doubt been
associated with oil exposure in some cases, the actual cause of death for
an oiled marine mammal found dead on a beach is difficult to establish
with certainty.
4.7.1 Kinds of effects
Exposure to oil may occur through physical contact with floating,
dispersed or stranded oil, by ingestion of oil or contaminated food or by
inhalation.
Animals that depend on fur or hair for thermal insulation (such as otters
and fur seals) suffer loss of body temperature when their fur is fouled with
oil. Most other sea mammals rely on blubber and vascular constriction for
controlling their body temperatures and thus are more resistant to the
thermal effects of oiling.
Marine mammals confined close to the source of a spill, or surfacing
repeatedly in fresh oil slicks, will inhale vapours of petroleum. While
prolonged inhalation of high vapour levels could cause death or nervous
system damage, short-term inhalation is likely to produce only mild
34
inflammation of mucous tissues. Because the volatile components of oil
disappear within hours of a spill, animals away from the immediate area of
a spill are not likely to suffer serious consequences of inhalation.
Mammals other than otters are unlikely to consume significant quantities
of oil except through ingestion of contaminated food. During feeding,
baleen whales may encounter oil dispersed in the water column, but they
are more likely to consume oil that was ingested first by their
zooplanktonic prey.
4.7.2 Seals and otters
During pupping season, seals are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Seal
pups may be smothered by thick deposits of oil. New-born seals possess
little fat and depend on their fur for temperature regulation, and therefore
are susceptible to hypothermia as a result of oil fouling. Oiled fur seal pups
suffer from high rates of mortality. Because seals are sensitive to all types
of disturbances when pups are present, wildlife management officials
should be consulted in carrying out cleanup activities near breeding or
pupping areas.
35
Fur seals and pups during breeding season
Unless otters are quickly and properly cleaned, fouling of their fur is likely
to cause death, either through hypothermia or as a result of oil ingestion or
aspiration of oil into the lungs during grooming. Although ingestion of oil
for short periods usually does not result in serious effects, prolonged
consumption may lead to organ damage and hormonal imbalances.
4.7.3 Other marine mammals
Documented effects of oil spills are rare or non-existent for most other
marine mammals, including walruses, whales, porpoises and manatees.
Due to their herbivorous habits, it is possible that ingestion of oil, for
example by manatees, could disrupt the normal digestive functions of
microbes in the gut; but this has not been documented.
4.8 Sea turtles
Sea turtles can be exposed to spilled oil while feeding, surfacing to breathe
or nesting on beaches contaminated by stranded oil. Observed effects
include toxic responses to vapour inhalation and oil ingestion, interference
with salt gland function, skin irritation and lesions, and blockage of throat
passages by ingested oil and tar balls. Fresh oil is also highly toxic to turtle
eggs, especially during the later stages of development.
4.9 Marine birds
Aquatic birds are the most visibly vulnerable to oil spills. Many species
depend on the sea and coastal areas for food and nesting habitat. Some
species reside permanently in one area, while others migrate seasonally
over long distances. Those species that spend most of their time on the
water, stay in groups, and have a low reproductive rate, are particularly
vulnerable to oil spill effects. In addition, some species (auks and sea
ducks) cannot fly during their moulting period, and others (penguins) do
not fly at all. Sea-birds may come into contact with floating oil at sea by
swimming into the slick, diving through it or surfacing into it from below.
Shorebirds may also be impacted while feeding or nesting on oiled
beaches.
4.9.1 Direct physical effects
High mortality is likely when sea-birds encounter oil at sea because it clogs
the interstitial spaces of the feathers which provide thermal insulation
and water repellency for the bird. Loss of insulation leads to increased
metabolic activity and depletion of energy reserves leading to hypothermia.
The loss of repellency allows water to soak the plumage, decreasing
buoyancy and increasing the energy required for the bird to remain afloat.
During extended periods of stormy weather, birds may be more vulnerable
due to limited feeding and diminished energy reserves, and starving
results. While drowning and hypothermia are considered the principal
causes of death for oiled birds, sea-birds that ingest oil may also starve to
36
death due to the formation of bleeding ulcers on the mucous membranes
of the birds stomach and guts. Even a small patch of oil on the birds
plumage may lead to death through the causes noted above and most sea-
birds usually die within days after fouling by oil.
4.9.2 Long-term effects
Birds are known to ingest oil, both through preening of their oiled plumage
and through consumption of contaminated food. In laboratory experi-
ments with birds, oil ingestion has led to a variety of pathological effects,
along with depression of egg production, decreased hatching success, and
reduced growth in young birds. Direct application of fresh oil to the surface
of incubating eggs (as may occur if a brooding adult were to become oiled)
can also cause abnormal development or death of the embryo. During one
actual spill, shorebirds avoided the oiled beaches along the coast and
moved to less preferred feeding habitats. Oiled shorebirds also spent less
time feeding than did unoiled birds. The significance of these effects has
not been demonstrated under major spill conditions in the field, but it is
likely to be small relative to the direct mortalities due to oiling.
Sea-birds are vulnerable to oil pollution
4.9.3 Effects on populations
With only a few possible exceptions, oil spills appear not to have had major
effects on the overall populations of the species involved. The annual
mortality may be naturally high for many species of sea-birds, especially
during winter storm events, relative to mortality caused by spills. Species
that are dispersed over large ranges, therefore, are unlikely to suffer
notable population decreases except on small and local scales. By contrast,
37
species that are very restricted in their ranges, or that congregate at some
time of year in a restricted location, are much more vulnerable to impacts
from a major spill. Most vulnerable, perhaps, are those species with limited
ranges that are subjected to repeated spills and low-level oil pollution from
nearby shipping routes or oil terminals. Once impacted by a spill, local
populations may recover quickly if the mortality is minimal.
4.10 Coral communities and ecosystems
Coral reefs are highly productive ecosystems in tropical and sub-tropical
areas of the world supporting a diverse range of organisms, including
many commercial fish species. Coral reefs may be important in providing
income to local communities through tourism and they also act as a
barrier, reducing coastal erosion. Their location in near-shore waters
means they can potentially be affected by oil spills. In more recent years,
field studies have been made of the effects of oil spills, and research is
ongoing. Further information is available in the IMO publication Field
guide for oil spill response in tropical waters.
4.10.1 Effects on corals
The likelihood of oil affecting corals depends on factors such as the size of
the spill and type of oil, the type of coral reef and its depth, the local wave
energy and the current state of stress of the corals (arising from other
external influences, such as sediment loading).
The greatest damage is likely to occur through physical smothering if an
oil slick is stranded on the upper parts of the reef (the reef flat) at low tide.
Submerged reefs may be exposed to oil droplets in the water, especially if
the oil is either dispersed through high wave energy or by the application
of chemical dispersants. If oil slicks float over submerged reefs, without
significant dispersion, adverse effects are likely to be minimal and recovery
very rapid. Deep corals are unlikely to come into contact with oil unless it
adheres to sediment particles that are being deposited on the coral.
Oil spills have occurred in the vicinities of coral reefs and near shorelines
with fringing intertidal reef communities. These spills have caused
substantial mortality among the fish and invertebrates (including lobsters,
crabs, gastropods, bivalves, octopus, sea urchins, sea stars, and sea
cucumbers) in intertidal areas, on the surfaces and margins of coastal
fringing reef platforms and in adjacent shallow subtidal areas. Natural
algal species and sea grasses were also destroyed in many of these areas.
In general, however, the subtidal reef corals tend to survive these
individual events.
Many corals generate large quantities of mucus when exposed to oil and
this may protect them from more serious damage. Exposure of corals to
dispersed oil causes a variety of responses that may influence the long-
term effects of pollution. Oiling impairs the reproductive process, reducing
both the numbers of breeding colonies and the number of larvae produced
per coral head and decreasing the rate of larval settlement on artificial
38
substrates. Some coral larvae are ordinarily released only at night and
exposure causes premature release of the larvae and decreases chances of
their survival. Impaired feeding responses have also been noted in corals
exposed to oil. These reproductive and feeding effects may account for
decreases in coral and fish diversities observed in areas near oil terminals
where there is considerable tanker traffic and where more regular, small
operational spills may occur.
Dense growths of green algae frequently appear in impacted reef zones
after the initial mortalities associated with a spill. These blooms probably
result from an abundance of available nutrients and the absence of large
populations of grazing organisms. After the initial toxicity has dissipated,
recruitment of planktonic larvae and adult organisms can begin from
nearby unaffected areas. Recovery of impacted reef communities occurs in
most cases within a few years.
4.11 Wetland communities and ecosystems
The plant communities of coastal areas are important for their contribu-
tion of organic production to coastal marine ecosystems, provision of
habitat to large numbers of marine invertebrates and vertebrates, and
stabilization of shorelines against the erosion effects of sea and wind.
These plant communities (mangrove forests in tropical areas and salt
marshes at higher latitudes) and their associated fauna are highly
vulnerable to impact from oil spills in coastal waters.
4.11.1 Factors affecting impacts of oil
Saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems possess several physical features in
common which contribute to their sensitivity to oil spills. These include a
network of channels that help to transport oil deep into the vegetated
coastal margin; low wave energy (so that natural dissipation is minimal)
and a preponderance of fine, highly organic, anaerobic sediments that
entrap the oil and hold it for long periods. Mangroves are particularly
sensitive because a coating of oil may impede the uptake of oxygen
through the pores on their aerial root systems.
4.11.2 Effects, persistence and recovery
The immediate effects of an oil spill in temperate saltmarsh systems are
destruction of invertebrates and those portions of the marsh plants above
ground. Unless the marsh area is subjected to very rapid erosion, or to
physical disruption of surface sediments (i.e. during cleanup operations),
the extensive underground root system of the plants is likely to survive the
oiling. If the sediment surfaces are not greatly disturbed, recovery of the
plant community usually begins within one year, although the plants may
exhibit reductions in growth and reproductive capacity and abnormalities
in seed formation. Vegetative recovery is likely within three to ten years,
even though oil components will probably persist in the soft, fine-grained
sediments for up to ten years or more. Disruption or removal of sediment
surfaces and the underground root system, by contrast, may result in very
39
long-term changes in nutrient content of the sediments and prolong the
process of recovery.
Oiled mangrove
Oiling of mangroves decreases the rate of successful rooting in seedlings.
Mature trees are generally less sensitive than young trees. Minor oiling of
plant aerial roots can usually be survived. Severe oiling leads to partial or
complete loss of leaves, and trees that lose all their leaves generally do not
recover. Partially defoliated trees, however, may begin recovery within four
months, although recovery varies according to the severity of the initial
impact. Functional recovery of an impacted area may take five to ten years,
including recovery of the leaf canopy and the detritus cover on the root
mats. A totally devastated mangrove forest may take several decades to
return to a fully mature state. Restoration of both mangrove and saltmarsh
communities may be enhanced by artificial reseeding or by transplanting
young plants from other unaffected areas.
4.12 Nature reserves and marine parks
Effects of oil on nature reserves and marine parks will vary, depending
upon the ecological characteristics of the area and the particular species
they support. Effects may be especially significant with regard to nature
reserves and marine parks that have been accorded special status in
recognition of their unique characteristics or because they support rare,
endangered or threatened species. Oil spilled in such areas may result in
irretrievable loss. For this reason, special protection is advised for those
areas. See the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II Contingency Planning.
Nature reserves and marine parks that are established primarily for
recreational purposes will suffer consequences similar to other recrea-
tional areas. Such consequences are often temporary.
40
Chapter 5
Situation evaluation
and response options
5.1 Source identification and incident details
In the case of major oil spills, it will not usually be difficult to identify the
origin of the oil and to obtain information about its characteristics.
However, smaller oil slicks may appear in harbours, anchorages and
coastal waters whose origins are unknown. Unless the incident is
witnessed, identification of the source can be difficult, although chemical
analysis can assist in such identification.
Initial reports of an incident may be received from any one of a number of
sources including the general public. Attempts must be made to learn as
much as possible about the incident, to identify those responsible for the
spill, to monitor developments and to pass information promptly as it is
received to the Government agencies and any other organizations
responsible for dealing with the oil spill. The type of information required
is outlined in the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II Contingency Planning.
Should an oil spill originate from an offshore installation, the operators of
the installation will normally be the source of information. Usually,
information about the type of oil together with an estimate of the quantity
will be readily available.
In the case of spills fromcertain vessels, information may be available from
the ships Master or other designated person on board, in accordance with
the spill notification and reporting procedures set out in a shipboard oil
pollution emergency plan. The type of information that this may include, is
outlined in the IMO publication Guidelines for the development of
shipboard oil pollution emergency plans.
For oil handling facilities onshore, as with offshore installations, the
operators of the facility will normally be the source of information and
details of the type and quantity of oil should be readily available.
5.2 Prevention or reduction of further spillages
Should a vessel have been involved in an accident leading to an oil spill,
the first and most important oil spill response action is, if possible, to
prevent further spillage and this must be given utmost priority.
The master of the ship should be asked to identify the damaged tanks and,
if possible, to transfer the oil contained in those tanks to any other, intact
tank space available, provided this does not endanger the integrity or
stability of the ship.
41
Consideration should be given to transferring some or all of the oil to
another ship or ships to stop the outflow of oil and to allow the vessel to
proceed safely to a suitable port for complete discharge and for repairs.
This transfer operation needs experience, expertise and usually specialized
equipment, such as pumps, which will often be provided by the shipowner,
cargo owner or salvage company, under the supervision of an appropriate
Government agency. The whole operation will have a much greater chance
of success if it can be conducted under calm water conditions and this
possibly means moving the damaged ship to a more sheltered position.
The overall risk of further spillage is thereby reduced, but it may then
mean that the operation takes place much closer to shore than it otherwise
would.
Should the vessel be aground, in such a position that another ship cannot
get alongside, it may be possible to use a shallow draught barge or floating
storage tank to remove part of the oil cargo and bunker fuel. Alternatively,
floating hoses may be used to transfer the oil to a ship in deeper water.
Such operations will call for the expertise and experience only likely to be
found in a salvage company, tanker operator or Government agency.
Additional information on oil cargo recovery and vessel salvage matters
may be found in the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, Section III Salvage, and
the ICS/OCIMF publication Peril at Sea and Salvage A Guide for Masters.
5.3 Aerial surveillance, including remote sensing
Information concerning the movement and behaviour of oil that has been
spilled is of vital importance in determining the overall response strategy
and choosing specific response options. An indication of the oils move-
ment and behaviour might be derived from the prediction methods
described in chapter 3, but more reliable information must be obtained
from visual sightings and the best way to obtain this is from an aircraft.
Surveillance from the air should be conducted by trained observers who
can accurately identify and assess oil on the water surface, supported
when appropriate by the use of electronic sensors as described later in this
chapter.
The purpose of aerial surveillance is:
.1 to determine the size, quantity and location of the spill;
.2 to determine the movement of the oil;
.3 to note changes in the appearance and distribution of the oil
over time;
.4 to guide any vessels combating the oil spill, in order to ensure
cleanup operations at sea are carried out in the most effective
way,
.5 to forecast which marine and coastal resources or areas are
under threat; and
.6 to observe and report on effectiveness of response measures.
42
At the outset of an incident, reports from surveillance flights are vital to
establish a picture of the scale and nature of the pollution problem.
Subsequent flights should be made regularly and the results used to best
advantage in planning and controlling ongoing operations. As the pollution
situation is brought under control, with oil at sea having largely dissipated
or come ashore, and the at-sea operations scaled down or stopped, the
need for flights will reduce and the frequency may be steadily decreased
and then terminated. The role that aerial surveillance plays in the overall
spill response must be clearly understood, with the frequency, extent and
timing of flights during the ongoing response being tailored to suit clearly
defined objectives, so that the benefits of these surveillance operations can
be maximized.
Aerial surveillance aircraft
Safety must always be of paramount importance and the aircraft pilot
should be consulted on all aspects of the surveillance operation. Those
taking part must be briefed regularly on the safety features of the aircraft
and procedures to be followed in the event of an emergency. Suitable
personal protective equipment and clothing should be available and used
as appropriate.
Suitable aircraft, which may be fixed-wing aircraft or helicopters, should
have good all-round visibility and appropriate navigational aids and
communications equipment. When selecting an aircraft, consideration
needs to be given to the location of the spill and the sea and coastline areas
to be surveyed. Over near-shore waters the flexibility of helicopters
provides an advantage in surveying intricate coastlines. The use of
43
helicopters to monitor or direct certain components of an oil combat
operation can also be advantageous. Over open sea, there is less need for
rapid changes in flying speed, direction and altitude and instead the speed
and range of fixed-wing aircraft, when doing surveillance, may be
desirable. If dedicated aircraft are not available, consideration should be
given to use of suitable Government, commercial or private aircraft.
National regulations may demand multi-engined aircraft for long-range
operations over the sea.
There should preferably be two observers on a flight, although if one is able
to readily observe the entire sea and coast area beneath the aircraft, the
second observer is not essential. However, the same observer(s) should
carry out a series of flights to ensure continuity and consistency of
reporting.
If a large sea area has to be searched, a flight plan must be prepared in
advance using all available information, including the prediction methods
described in chapter 3, to reduce the search area. Various search patterns
have been devised for search and rescue, and these may be used for aerial
surveillance of oil spills, the most likely pattern being a ladder search, (see
figure 5-1).
When planning a ladder search, attentionmust be paid to visibility, altitude,
the likely flight duration and fuel availability, together with any advice the
pilot may give on operational or safety aspects. Visual surveillance is
usually conducted from an altitude of 300 m500 m (1,000 ft1,500 ft). It
can be difficult to distinguish between floating oil and a variety of other
phenomena so initial sightings of suspected oil must be verified by
overflying the area at sufficiently lowaltitude to allowpositive identification.
Figure 5-1 Movement of oil from A to position B three days later,
predicted by combining 100% of the current speed and 3% of the
wind speed as shown. The arrows from A represent current,
wind and oil movement for one day. A cross-wind ladder
search pattern is shown over position B.
44
As oil spreads and the thickness reduces, its appearance changes from
black or dark brown coloration of thick oil patches to iridescent and silver
sheen at the edges of the slick. A common feature of spills of crude spills of
crude oil and some heavy fuel oils is the rapid formation of emulsion which
are characterised by brown/orange coloration and a cohesive appearance.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between oil and a variety of other,
unrelated phenomena. It is necessary to verify initial sightings of
suspected oil by overflying at a sufficiently low altitude to allow positive
identification. Phenomena that often lead to mistaken reports of oil
include: cloud shadows, ripples on the sea surface, differences in the
colour of adjacent water masses, suspended sediments, floating or
suspended organic matter, floating seaweed, algal/plankton blooms,
seagrass and coral patches in shallow water and industrial discharges.
It is very hard to assess accurately the quantity of oil observed at sea, due
to the difficulties of gauging the thickness and coverage. The information
provided here is not intended as guidance for mounting surveillance
operations to detect illegal discharges under international regulations
such as MARPOL. However, by considering certain features, it is possible
to assess the correct order of magnitude of an oil spill, which will help
when planning the required level of response.
Aerial observation of oil pollution at sea
Oils with low viscosity spread very rapidly and so oil layers can quickly
reach an average thickness of about 0.1 mm. However, the thickness of the
oil layer can vary considerably within a slick or patch of oil from less than
0.001 mm to more than 1mm. For more viscous oils the oil thickness can
45
remain well in excess of 0.1mm. The appearance of oil can give an
indication of its thickness (table 5-1).
Some oils form an emulsion, by inclusion of tiny water droplets, which
increases their volume, with typical water contents reaching approx-
imately 5075%. The thickness of emulsion can vary greatly, depending on
whether it is free floating, or held against a barrier such as a boom or the
shoreline. A figure of 1 mmmay be used as a guide, but a thickness of 1 cm
can be encountered. When the sea is rough, it may be very difficult or
impossible to see less buoyant types of oil as they can become swamped by
waves and remain just sub-surface. In cold water, some oils with high pour
points may solidify and the appearance of the visible portions may
disguise the total volume of oil present. Ice flows and snow in such
conditions can confuse the picture further.
In addition to the oils thickness, its area needs to be assessed, with due
account being taken of the patchy incidence or percentage coverage of the
floating oil, so that the actual areas of oil covered are estimated rather than
the general area of sea affected. If the aircraft is fitted with GPS (Global
Positioning System) equipment, this will enable the limits of the main
areas to be recorded relatively easily and accurately. If not, the extent of oil
must be established by a timed overflight at constant speed.
Table 5-1 A guide to the relation between the appearance,
thickness and volume of floating oil.
Oil type Appearance
Approximate
thickness
Approximate
volume
(m
3
/km
2
)
Oil sheen Silver 40.0001 mm 0.1
Oil sheen Iridescent
(rainbow)
40.0003 mm 0.3
Crude and fuel oil Brown to black 40.1 mm 100
Water-in-oil emulsion Brown/orange 41mm 1000
This demonstrates that although sheen may be observed covering a
relatively large area of sea surface, it makes a negligible contribution to the
volume of oil present. It is crucial therefore that observers are able to
distinguish between sheen and thicker patches of oil.
The data derived from the aerial surveillance must be presented promptly
to those making decisions about the response, usually a Government
agency. A record should be kept of continuous slicks, patches and streaks
of black oil and emulsion and expanses of brown, iridescent and silver
sheen. A range of other features may also be recorded, depending on the
circumstances, including response activities and environmental, commer-
cial and amenity resources potentially being affected the incident.
To assist in the detection and investigation of oil slicks at sea, various
remote sensing devices are available for fitting to a dedicated aircraft. No
single sensor can meet all detection needs and the most common
46
combination involves Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) and downward-
looking infra-red and ultra-violet detectors such as line scanners (IRLS and
UVLS) or imaging systems such as Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR).
SLAR and IR/UV systems have been used fairly widely during oil spills.
SLAR can be flown at sufficient altitude to provide a rapid sweep over a
wide area, up to 20 miles either side of the aircraft. It may be used at night
and in poor weather conditions, and can assist in the early stages of a
response with locating a slick and defining its extent, but it cannot
distinguish between very thin layers of sheen and thicker oil patches so
the images need careful interpretation. An additional IR/UV system can
define the total extent of oil as well as providing qualitative information on
slick thickness and the areas of heavier pollution. The UV sensor can
detect, but not distinguish between, thin sheen and thicker oil, whilst the
IR sensor delineates thicker layers. FLIR works in similar fashion to
downward-looking IR/UV but points forward at an angle, so the images
need careful interpretation given the oblique view and changing effects
which can result from the angle of the sun.
Remote sensing equipment on aircraft using other techniques is being
developed to improve the quantification and characterization of oil. These
include laser flourimetry, microwave radiometry and spectrographic
imagers. However, the full potential of this equipment has yet to be
realized and is not presently available in many parts of the world.
Satellites with optical sensors or radar may be used to detect oil on water.
Optical sensors can only be used with clear skies, but radar sensors are
not limited by clouds although the resulting images need careful
interpretation. Satellite imagery has traditionally been constrained by a
long time-lag before images are delivered, so they have not generally been
suitable when rapid and regular information is required. However, some
commercial companies are developing faster services and so satellites may
offer more opportunity in the future.
The results from a remote sensing operation should always be co-
ordinated with and confirmed by the findings from visual observations.
In the right circumstances remote sensing can provide useful data to
assist with the response but all systems have inherent limitations. Remote
sensing should therefore be used in support of and not in place of visual
observation with trained and experienced observers.
5.4 Assessment of the threat
As information about an oil spill is received the response organization
must assess the threat it presents before deciding on appropriate action.
Factors to be considered in assessing the threat include:
.1 the size of the spill and the likelihood of further spills;
.2 the type(s) of oil physical and chemical characteristics;
.3 the weather including wind direction and force, sea state, sea
temperature, and tide or current;
47
.4 the position of the spill in relation to marine and coastal
resources;
.5 the likely movement of the spill; and
.6 areas and resources at risk, such as:
fisheries interests;
birds and other wildlife;
areas of particular environmental significance, e.g. marine
parks, nature; reserves and wetlands;
industrial users of seawater, e.g. power stations;
desalinization plants;
amenity beaches;
yachting and other recreational facilities; and
ports and harbours.
5.5 Spill response options and their limitations
For an oil spill response to be effective, an overall strategy needs to be
established and then adjusted in light of the changing pollution situation,
the sensitivity of areas likely to become affected, and the possible
measures that might be available to prevent or mitigate damage.
Responsibility for oil spill response and cleanup may lie with a national
authority, the polluter, or elsewhere as set out in the contingency plan. In
deciding what action to take, the relative importance of the various
resources at risk should be considered, and due account taken of the likely
success of available response measures at sea and the difficulties of the
subsequent shoreline cleanup.
Different views may be expressed during an emergency about the
importance of various resources. The relative order of importance of these
resources is likely to vary at different times of the year, for example, with
fish and bird breeding seasons or a tourist season. Decision-making will
be easier if environmental sensitivity mapping has been conducted in
advance and is used to assist those responsible for the resources to reach
a consensus, based upon the net environmental benefit of the various
response options available. These issues of NEBA and sensitivity mapping
are dealt with in more detail in the Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II
Contingency Planning, and the IMO/IPIECA Report Series, Volume 1,
Sensitivity Mapping for Oil Spill Response.
All response measures to deal with oil spills have limitations. Given
unfavourable circumstances, there is a real possibility that no effective
response will be available and the oil will have to be left to the effect of
natural forces. However, where response options can offer opportunity to
mitigate or prevent damage, decisions to implement them need to be taken
very rapidly. Some techniques, such as the application of dispersants and
in situ burning, have inherent limited windows of opportunity. While they
48
may offer an appropriate option at the outset of an incident, delays in their
selection or implementation may in practice rule them out as an effective
response option. It is important therefore that the criteria for selection are
clearly set out in the contingency plan, are fully understood by those
taking decisions and can be properly implemented as quickly as possible.
A combination of response options will usually be needed, particularly in a
large spill. As the pollution situation changes over time, some of these
response techniques become ineffective and will need scaling down or
terminating, while others become more appropriate and need to be
commenced or scaled up. Response options should therefore be continu-
ously re-evaluated. Only by having a good understanding of the features,
advantages and limitations of the different options, can those responsible
for responding to the spill make the best possible decisions and select the
most appropriate options and techniques to suit the circumstances.
The possible response options are:
.1 no action other than monitoring and evaluating the oil: This
might be the appropriate option, for example, if the oil is not
moving shoreward, or if no important resources are threatened,
or if the oil is breaking up and dissipating naturally or if
conditions are such that positive response actions are not
practicable;
.2 containment and recovery of the oil at sea: In some circum-
stances the appropriate response will be to contain floating oil
in booms towed behind vessels and to recover it from the sea
surface with a skimming device for storage on-board prior to
reprocessing or disposal on land. The advantages and limita-
tions of these techniques are described more fully in chapter 6;
.3 chemical dispersion of the oil at sea: In some circumstances the
appropriate response will be to enhance the dispersion of oil
from the surface into the water column by the application of
dispersant chemicals from boats, helicopters or fixed-wing
aircraft. The advantages and limitations of this technique are
discussed in chapter 7;
.4 burning the floating oil at sea: The containment and burning of
floating oil is a possible alternative to the more conventional
containment and recovery option, whereby the oil that is
contained in special booms is set alight and allowed to burn,
rather than having to be collected and then disposed of. The
advantages and limitations of this technique are discussed in
chapter 8;
.5 shoreline cleanup: In many circumstances, it is highly likely
that some oil will come ashore and shoreline cleanup will be
necessary. Practical advice on shoreline cleanup is to be found
in chapter 9, and further information specifically on the
techniques of bioremediation is provided in chapter 10.
49
There has been a growing awareness to the difficulties encountered in
responding to spills of heavy fuel oils and emulsified fuel oils. Additional
information specifically on the special features of responding to these
incidents is found in chapter 12.
50
Chapter 6
Containment and recovery of oil
6.1 Introduction
When oil is spilled at sea, measures should be taken to minimize pollution
damage to marine resources and the environment. As described in chapter
3, spilled oil will be carried by currents and blown by the wind, spreading
rapidly away from the spill site, forming scattered slicks and patches over
wide areas of sea. Generally, it would be preferable to deal with this oil
while it is still at sea, before it has had a chance to spread to such a large
extent, and before it reaches sensitive areas. One of the preferred methods,
where practicable, is to contain and recover it using specialized equipment.
One option is to pursue the oil with vessels towing booms to corral the
floating oil and using skimming devices to recover it off the sea surface for
temporary storage in tanks or other holding devices. Purpose-built vessels
have been constructed that have all of the necessary equipment and
facilities on board to recover oil without the need for booms. Alternatively,
more static measures may be used, positioning booms in places where
floating oil will naturally collect, either in open waters or more commonly
close to shore, ready for recovery using skimmers and pumps.
Containment and recovery of floating oil during calm sea conditions
51
The physical and chemical properties of oil can vary enormously and a
range of different equipment, particularly skimmers and pumps, but also
storage devices, may be needed depending on the particular type of oil to be
handled. In addition, the properties will change once the oil has been
spilled, for example with viscosity increasing rapidly as evaporation takes
place, or the formation of an emulsion. These changes can have a
significant influence on the effectiveness of the equipment, either calling
for modifications to be made in the equipment being used or even for
operations to be suspended altogether.
With oil spreading into scattered slicks and patches over a wide expanse of
sea, a containment and recovery response operation needs to be mounted
rapidly. Vessels should be guided by spotter aircraft to the heaviest
concentrations of oil to maximize encounter rates. Vessels must be
carefully controlled at low speeds to prevent oil escaping from the booms,
the booms themselves must function properly in the prevailing wave
conditions and skimmers need to be suited to the sea state and the
condition of the oil that is to be recovered.
Weather and sea conditions significantly influence the effectiveness of the
operations. Even in ideal, calm conditions, with the right equipment and
with operations well organized and controlled, generally only a relatively
small proportion of the spilled oil may often be recovered. Nonetheless,
containment and recovery operations offer opportunities to minimize
pollution damage to marine resources and the environment in the right
circumstances. The chance of success is greatest in sheltered waters, in
ports and harbours and, with appropriate vessels, equipment, monitoring
and control procedures and experienced operatives, in some open sea
areas.
In addition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures
are in place for containment and recovery operations which comply with
local and national legislation, and operators should be properly trained in
the execution of their operations.
6.2 Containment booms
6.2.1 Applications and standard features
In containment and recovery operations, booms may be used in a variety of
ways and for different purposes:
.1 to prevent the initial discharge from spreading, if used
promptly;
.2 to prevent both continuous and further discharges from
spreading;
.3 to corral oil for recovery, when used in conjunction with vessels
and skimming devices;
.4 to protect sensitive resources and environments;
52
.5 to deflect a spreading slick away from sensitive resources and
environments; and
.6 to deflect a spreading slick to areas which it can be more easily
recovered.
Containment booms generally consist of the following components:
.1 freeboard to prevent or reduce splash over
.2 subsurface skirt to prevent or reduce escape of oil under the
boom
.3 flotation by some buoyant material (often includes air)
.4 longitudinal tension member to withstand the effects of wind,
waves and current
.5 ballast to provide stability and keep skirt below water surface
.6 coupling to ensure good connection between adjoining
sections.
Figure 6-1 Typical boom components
6.2.2 Types of boom
There are many different types of boom to suit a variety of different needs
and conditions. While their structure may vary, they generally fall into four
main groups:
.1 curtain-type boom these generally have distinct buoyancy
chambers and a skirt. They include solid flotation, air-inflatable
and self inflatable
.2 fence boom including standard fence and external tension
member booms
.3 shore-seal boom comprise a combination of water-filled
chambers that seal the boom against the shore when the tide
is out and flotation chambers that keep the boom bouyant
when the tide is in; and
.4 fire-proof boom further information on this type of boom is
provided in chapter 8.
53
The following information provides an overview of the general features
associated with different types of boom. In spill response, equipment such
as booms can be used in a variety of ways and combinations, and there
may be some features, such as operating parameters, which may vary in
their application from those presented. Nonetheless, the information
provided can be used as broad guidance on the features generic to
particular types of boom. Photographs and typical schematic diagrams are
provided to illustrate the general principles.
6.2.2.1 Solid flotation curtain boom
These booms are generally constructed using hydrocarbon resistant
closed cell foam integrated into a fabric sleeve or pocket. The freeboard
ranges from 33% of overall boom height for calm protected and open water
booms to 50% of overall boom height for high current booms. Ballast is
usually provided using a chain, cable or weights. The boom fabric provides
the longitudinal tension member, enhanced sometimes with a chain and/
or cable ballast. In some cases, an additional cable tension may be pro-
vided above the flotation. To facilitate handling and deployment, these
booms are often supplied in 1525 mlengths and are joined by connectors.
Figure 6-2
Advantages Disadvantages
Puncture of flotation cylinder does
not result in measurable loss of
freeboard
Moderate to low cost
Available in a wide range of
configurations and material types
Large freeboard booms are bulky
and difficult to handle
Rectangular float booms do not
follow wave profiles well
Requires large storage space and
may be susceptible to deformation
during storage
54
6.2.2.2 Air-inflatable buoyancy boom
These booms have an inflatable air chamber to provide buoyancy. They are
generally constructed of PVC, polyurethane or nitrile/neoprene materials.
Flotation chambers are either divided into 23 m sections or run for the
entire length. The flotation chambers are normally fixed with non-return
valves and in some instances pressure relief valves. Ballast is provided by
a chain, cable or a water-filled compartment. Inflatable buoyancy booms
used for shoreline protection usually have two water-filled ballast
chambers in place of a skirt, allowing the booms to provide a positive
seal against the shoreline as the tide recedes. Air-inflatable booms are
often compact to store, have a high buoyancy to weight ratio and are well
suited for transportation by air to remote locations.
Figure 6-3
Generally good wave-following
characteristics
If divided air compartments are
provided, puncture leads to only
a partial loss of freeboard
A single large air cylinder
decreases inflation time (but
puncture can lead to total loss
of freeboard)
Requires little storage space and
can be stored and transported on a
reel system ready for deployment
Puncture may cause a total loss
of freeboard over the section
(separate compartments or
entire boom length)
If divided air compartments are
provided, it can be slow to deploy
as each compartment is inflated
individually
The reel systems for the largest
sized booms can be very heavy
55
6.2.2.3 Self-inflatable buoyancy boom
Self-inflating booms are constructed of PVC or polyurethane material and
are similar in outline to the air-inflated buoyancy booms. However, they
include a mechanism for automatically expanding the buoyancy chamber
and drawing in air once deployed. They utilize the boom fabric as a tension
member in combination with the ballast member which is usually
provided in the form of a chain. It should be noted that some variations
of air inflated booms exist where a separate mechanical system is used to
inflate the booms as they are deployed. These should more accurately be
considered as air-inflatable booms with enhanced inflation process.
Figure 6-4
Compartments are generally sealed
which reduces the chances of a
loss of freeboard over section
length
Single large air cylinder decreases
inflation time
Excellent for handling and storage
Quick to deploy
Well suited for air freight to remote
areas
Air compartments may be less
robust and easier to puncture,
leading to total loss of freeboard
over an entire section
Tend to be expensive and can be
difficult and expensive to repair
Can be difficult to recover onto
storage reel
56
6.2.2.4 Fence booms
Fence booms are constructed in a number of different ways. External floats
may be bolted onto a heavy PVC, polyurethane or nitrile/neoprene
sheeting. Flat closed-cell foam floats may be integrated into a lighter
PVC/polyurethane material. The latter may be constructed using sewing or
welding processes. Ballast may be provided using chain cable or weights.
Tension members may use one or all of the following: Skirt material, sewn
or welded webbing or the ballast member (chain or cable).
Figure 6-5
Quick to deploy
Excellent for handling and
compact storage
Booms can be of very simple
construction, and may even
include improvised materials
such as old conveyor belts with
externally bolted floats, making
them robust and relatively cheap
Poor wave-following characteristics
due to inflexibility of skirt and low
buoyancy-to-weight ratio.
Have a tendency to lay over under
the influence of winds and
currents
Physical damage may cause
instability and loss of freeboard
Sometimes difficult to handle
57
6.2.2.5. Fence boom with external tension member
These booms are generally constructed of PVC/PU material and are similar
in design to fence booms. They have a longitudinal tension member located
horizontally opposed, deployed in the direction from which prevailing
conditions are coming and attached to the boom at intervals. Their main
intended application is for strong wind and current conditions and in ice.
Whilst effective in such adverse conditions, they can be difficult to deploy.
Figure 6-6
Good for towing in high currents,
winds and seas
Excellent roll and heave response
Suited for infrequent large oil spills
in exposed water
External tension member gives
the boom excellent wave following
characteristics and reduces skirt
damage
Booms form a concave shape
under tow or when held against
a current which assists in
retaining oil
Difficult to rig, deploy, recover and
clean
Tension members can tangle
during deployment
Booms can only function in one
direction to the current
58
6.2.2.6. Shore-seal booms
These booms are generally constructed in PVC or polyurethane materials.
They comprise three separate chambers running the full lengths of each
boomsection. The top chamber is filled with air for buoyancy and the lower
pair are filled with water. When the tide recedes the boom provides a
positive seal against the shoreline while at other times it acts as a more
conventional floating barrier.
Figure 6-7
Excellent shore-sealing properties
Good wave following
characteristics
Requires little storage space
Single large air chamber decreases
inflation time (but puncture can
lead to a total loss of freeboard)
Generally less quick to deploy,
owing to the inflation and water
filling operations involved
Maintenance requirements after
use are generally more extensive
than for conventional booms
6.2.2.7. Alternative boom types
There are a number of other, alternative boom systems available that do
not fall into the main definitions described above. These include
pneumatic barriers, net booms and improvised barriers.
Pneumatic barriers
These employ a screen of air bubbles released below the water surface,
usually from a fixed pipe on the seabed. Rising air bubbles generate an
upward water flow which diverts horizontally at the surface. This current
flows in both directions away from the bubble stream and can retain
floating oil in low currents. The advantage of pneumatic barriers is that
they do not obstruct shipping traffic and are easily activated and so are
most commonly used as a contingency in ports. Disadvantages include
their limited effectiveness in deep water and strong currents and winds.
They are also susceptible to clogging by silt and require substantive infra-
structure (such as air compressors) to provide the levels of air required.
59
Net booms
A number of netting booms are available, designed primarily to contain
viscous oils. These are constructed on the same basis as fishing trawls.
They are prone to clogging and are difficult to clean once contaminated.
Improvised barriers
In remote locations, containment booms may be created locally from
readily available materials using the basic principles of boom design and
construction. Booms may be improvised using any materials that can float,
such as empty oil drums, logs, air bags, straw bales and naturally-
occurring sorbent materials packed into nets.
Improvised protection of fish farms using plastic sheeting
with subsurface skirt weighted by bricks suspended on rope
6.2.3 Selecting a containment boom
There are many features to be considered when selecting a containment
system and the choice of the most suitable boom for a particular situation
can have a significant influence on the success of the operation.
A boom needs to be large enough, strong and robust to withstand the
forces exerted on it. It must be sufficiently flexible to follow the prevailing
wave conditions, be made of tough material that will resist puncture (a
particular necessity for pressure-inflated booms), easily transportable to
site and readily deployable. It should also be readily visible in daylight once
deployed. There may be other conditions and criteria that also need
confirming for any particular situation under consideration, such as for
example, the suitability for deployment in ice conditions. Table 6-1
60
provides some general guidance on the selection of boom types for various
operating conditions.
Table 6-1 Boom selection for different operating conditions
Calm water
Calm water
current
Protected water Open water
Open rough
water
Wave height
(m)
5 0.3 5 0.3 01.0 02.0 42
Conditions small short non-
breaking waves
currents of
0.4 m/s or
greater
small waves and
some white caps
moderate waves
and frequent
white caps
large waves,
foam crests and
some spray
Suitable boom
type or group
Curtain
Fence
Curtain with
freeboard of 50%
of boom height
Fence
Curtain
Fence
Curtain
Fence with
external tension
support
Curtain
Boom height
(mm)
150600 200600 4501,100 9002,300 1,500+
Buoyancy-to-
weight ratio
3:1 4:1 4:1 8:1 8:1
Minimum tensile
strength of boom
(Newtons)
6,800 23,000 23,000 45,000 45,000+
6.2.4 Containment boom limitations and failures
Booms may fail operationally in one of five main modes: entrainment,
drainage, splash over, submergence and planing. Of course, booms can
also fail structurally if conditions become too severe.
Entrainment failure
In strong currents, a head wave is often generated upstream of the boom.
At high current velocities, turbulence occurs and the upstream end of the
slick detaches from the water surface and is carried underneath the boom
(figure 6-7). Typically this occurs when the difference in velocity between
the boom and the water exceeds about 0.350.5 m/s (approximately
0.71.0 knot). Entrainment failure can be delayed by reducing the
apparent velocity perpendicular to the boom by deploying the boom at
an angle to the current. Figure 6-8 shows current speeds that give a critical
velocity of no more than 0.7 knots perpendicular to the face of the boom for
various angles of deployment.
61
Figure 6-8 Boom failure:
Splash-over (1), Drainage (2), Entrainment (3)
Drainage failure
As oil collects at the boom face it increases in depth until eventually it
flows down the face of the boom, escaping to the other side. This loss is
known as drainage failure. It occurs because water at the boom face is
diverted downward, accelerating to keep up with water that is flowing
below and under the skirt. The critical velocity at which drainage failure
occurs depends on the skirt depth, oil viscosity, the oils specific gravity,
and the depth of oil being retained by the boom. This velocity is generally
greater than the velocity for entrainment failure, so entrainment failure is
more likely to occur first.
However, entrainment failure begins to occur at about 0.7 knots, based on
the condition that there is deep water under the skirt of the boom. If the
water is not deep, for example only twice the submerged portion of the
boom, then the water velocity is significantly higher under the boom and
drainage failure can occur at around 0.30.4 knots. For maximum boom
effectiveness, and to avoid drainage failure, the water depth should
generally be at least five times the draft of the boom.
Splash-over failure
This occurs in choppy sea when oil splashes over the freeboard of the
boom. This may occur if the wave height is greater than the boom
freeboard and when the wave-height-to-length ratio falls much below 10:1.
62
Figure 6-9 Angling of boom to current direction to reduce
effective velocity difference between boom and water
Submergence failure
Submergence failure may occur when a boom is deployed or anchored in a
fast current, or is being towed at high velocity. The tendency to submerge
at a given velocity is determined by the reserve buoyancy of the boom.
Submergence failure is not common as entrainment failure usually occurs
earlier at a lower speed.
Planing failure
A strong wind and strong current moving in opposite directions may cause
a boom to lay flat on the water surface, termed planing failure. This is most
likely to occur when a boom has inadequate ballast or when a fence boom
has a low buoyancy-to-weight ratio, a too narrow float system or when an
internal tension member is near or above the waterline.
Structural failure
Structural failure is the most catastrophic failure mode. Loading from
wind and currents, amplified by the dynamic effects of waves, can result in
the boom structure tearing apart. This is normally associated with the
deployment of booms in conditions for which they were not designed.
6.2.5 Boom deployment
The optimum deployment of a containment boom will depend on location,
weather conditions, sea state and other factors. It is also necessary to
determine the quantity required and information in table 6-2 provides
some general planning guidance on boom lengths for different protection
applications.
63
Table 6-2 Guide to boom length requirements
Application Quantity
Booming to aid a stricken vessel
(encircle)
3 6 ships length
Containment of an operational
spill from a vessel at a terminal
1.5 6 ships length plus distance
bow and stern to shore
Protection of an entrance to
estuary, stream, river etc.
34 6 width of the body of water
General booming in bays and
harbours
1.5 + current in knots 6 width of
water body
Depending on the circumstances and the desired aim of the operations,
there are a variety of different deployment methods:
.1 Encircling: This method may be employed at an early stage of
the spill to try to prevent oil from escaping much beyond the
stricken vessel, or to try to capture further losses. In practice,
the sea conditions may preclude an effective operation and the
booming may well impede lightering and salvage operations.
Anchoring may also prove difficult or impractical. The length of
boom in this application generally needs to be at least three
times the length of the object, e.g., a ship, to be encircled. This
method is employed primarily in calm or sheltered sea area. If
the source of the spill is a shore facility, the shoreline may
constitute a part of the encircling barrier or when it is a ship,
the ships hull may constitute a part of the barrier.
.2 Waylaying: Waylaying deployment may be used in situations
where sufficient lengths of boom are not available, but an
attempt is desired nonetheless, to try to capture oil before it
spreads far from the vessel. In this case booms are laid at some
distance from the source of spill to intercept the approaching
oil. However, sea conditions and any variation in wind direction
will tend to restrict or preclude success. This method should be
employed primarily in calm or sheltered sea areas. In tidal
waters, there is the added complication that another set of
booms needs to be laid on the other side of the source, in
anticipation of a reverse of the current.
64
Booms
Wind and
current
Figure 6-10 Boom deployment Waylaying
.3 Deployment in channels and rivers: The spread of oil in a narrow
channel or river may be prevented by the deployment of booms
from the channel or river banks, at an appropriate angle,
depending on the current velocity. A limited opening may be
provided in the centre of the configuration to permit passage of
vessel traffic. Care must be taken to prevent the oil from
escaping from the connections at the shore mooring points
during all stages of the tide.
Flow Ebb
Figure 6-11 Boom deployment in channels and rivers
.4 Deflection deployment: It is sometimes possible to deflect oil
away from sensitive areas and toward a carefully chosen site
from where recovery may be easily accomplished. Again,
deflection is achieved by laying the boom at an angle to the
direction of the current flow.
.5 Towing booms: If the oil has spread away from the spill site,
booms can be towed at low speed (less than 0.5 m/s) through
the water to corral the oil for recovery with a skimming device.
This method may be used in open sea areas, although operating
conditions may prevent success, for example due to boom
failure as described earlier. Greater success can be achieved
when towing booms, if the operations are carried out in calmer
or sheltered waters, where conditions are more amenable.
Towing and corralling should often be carried out moving in the
65
same direction as the current, to reduce the relative velocity of
oil/water and boom, so that entrainment or other boom failure
is avoided.
Figure 6-12 Boom deployment Deflection
.6 Free drift containment: If the current velocity is too high or the
water is too deep for effective mooring of booms, it may be
possible to allow the oil encircled by the booms to drift freely
whilst recovery is undertaken. The rate of drift may be reduced
by use of sea anchors or drogues. In shallower waters lengths of
chain or other material may be used for the same purpose.
Figure 6-13 Boom deployment Free-drift containment
.7 Multiple setting: If oil is escaping from a stationary boom
because of entrainment, it may be desirable to set further lines
of boom behind the first one. If multiple deployment of booms is
necessary, some separation must be maintained between the
booms. At current velocities high enough to tilt the skirt or to
cause entrainment, a separation of 15 m between the booms is
effective for the escaping oil to be held by the secondary
barriers. It should also be noted however, that if entrainment is
readily occurring, it may simply be unfeasible to try to contain
the oil using multiple boom placements.
66
.8 Netting: This rather complicated system involves the deploy-
ment of booms, buoys, anchors, weights and sheets of net. Nets
are set between buoy and weight, and between skirt and weight,
thus alleviating stress on the boom and improving retention
capability. In cases where tar balls or mats are floating below
the surface, it may be necessary to protect water intakes or
sensitive areas from such pollution by attaching nets extending
to the seabed to the skirt of the boom. Normally this deployment
method is used near the shore, particularly in areas where it is
noted that once a beach is cleaned of tar balls or mats, they
reappear. Oil floating at negative buoyancy is very difficult to
track and on most occasions it is not noticed until its presence
is detected through visual sighting in shallow water or when it
is deposited on a beach.
Figure 6-14 Net-type booms
The deployment of booms can be arduous and potentially hazardous and
must be properly supervised. A sound deployment strategy needs to be
established, preferably with reference to pre-planned scenarios in the
contingency plan, taking account of the type of oil spilled, source of spill,
quantity involved, extent of spread, environmental sensitivity etc. In
preparing such a strategy, the deployment sites, boom types and lengths
available, the method of deployment and the availability of work boats and
other logistics resources must be taken fully into account. In practice,
many booming strategies fail because the logistical arrangements have not
been thoroughly planned, or the length of the boom is simply under-
67
estimated because the need to angle the boom in the currents has been
overlooked.
6.2.6 Precautions in boom deployment
The outer covers of commercially available booms are quite robust, but still
susceptible to rips and tears when dragged on hard rough surfaces such
as warehouse floors, jetties and across rough terrain. When deploying
booms, care should be taken to avoid twisting and kinking them since it is
difficult to correct this from the deck of a vessel or once the boom is in the
water.
The forces imposed by the wind, current and the dynamic action of the
waves, particularly during rough weather, can damage booms, their
connectors and can cause moorings to drag. Care should be taken to
ensure booms are not deployed in situations where they are likely to
become damaged in this way. Their chances of being effective in such
conditions will in any case be very limited.
The configuration of booms deployed at sea may be difficult to maintain
because of waves and wind, and their effectiveness in retaining oil may be
reduced. If booms are held in place by anchors, consideration should be
given to the number of anchors and the distance between the anchoring
points, to ensure adequate control. If booms are encircling a vessel which
is at risk of losing further oil, improvised spacing devices, such as floating
pontoons should be placed at intervals between the ships hull and the
boom, to stop abrasion and to allow space for any new losses of oil to be
contained. It should be noted, however, that containment of fresh oil,
especially lighter and more volatile products, can significantly increase the
risk of fire and explosion and should be considered with some caution.
6.2.7 Mooring and anchoring booms
Booms are most commonly moored using anchors or concrete blocks. The
number of anchoring points required depends on the configuration
intended and wind and current strength. Usually, mooring ropes of five
times the depth of water are required, and when ropes of buoyant material
are used, this must be compensated for by adding extra chain or weights to
the ropes. It is important to avoid vertical tension on the boom. This can be
done by installing a buoy on the mooring line 34 m from the boom. To aid
with positioning and recovery of anchors, a tripping buoy is generally
attached to the anchor, with a line length of 1.5 times the depth of high
water.
68
Figure 6-14a Mooring of booms during response
It is important to select the correct size and number of anchors to prevent
dragging. A Danforth type anchor is effective in sandy or muddy
substrates, but a fishermans anchor has better holding capability on a
rocky bottom.
To estimate the approximate force F
c
(kg) exerted on a boom with a
subsurface area A
s
(m
2
) by a current with velocity V
c
(knots) the following
formula can be used:
F
c
26 6 A
s
6V
c
2
Thus, the force acting on a 100 m length of boom with a 0.6 m skirt placed
at right angles to a 0.5 knot water flow would be:
F
c
26 6 (0.6 6 100) 6 (0.5)
2
390 kg (force)
It can be seen that doubling the current velocity would entail a four-fold
increase in load.
The force (F
x
) exerted by wind (V
w
) directly on the freeboard (A
f
) of the boom
can also be considerable. A similar formula can be used to estimate
windage:
F
x
26 6 A
f
6 (V
w
/40)
2
For example, the force on a 100 m length of boom with a 0.5 m freeboard in
a 15 knot wind would be:
F
w
26 6 (0.5 6 100) 6 (15/40)
2
183 kg force
In the above example the combined forces of current and wind would be
573 kg if they were acting in the same direction on a rigid barrier. In fact,
booms are flexible and form a curve. In addition, the boom would be
moored at an angle to the flow. Both these factors lead to a reduction of the
forces acting on the boom so that a considerable safety margin is included
69
in the result of this calculation. Nevertheless, it provides a useful guide to
magnitude of such forces and can help in the selection of appropriate
moorings. The table below gives the holding strength of Danforth type
anchors in different substrates.
Table 6-3 Holding strength of Danforth type anchors
Anchor weight
(kg)
Holding strength (kg force)
Mud Sand Clay
15 200 250 300
25 350 400 500
35 600 700 700
It is important to ensure that a good seal is achieved between the end of a
boom and any structures or hard surfaces up to which the boom is
attached. Several devices are available to ensure oil-tight connection of one
end of the boom, for example, to a wharf or ships hull:
.1 I-beam terminal: This device uses a piece of I-beam driven
vertically into the sea-bed or fixed on a jetty face as a terminal. A
sliding floater, to which booms are connected, is fitted on the
beam. The floater can slide to accommodate tidal changes.
.2 Magnetic connectors: One end of the boom is attached to a
magnetic connector which holds fast to a steel surface such as
a ships hull or jetty piling. These may have to be manually
adjusted to compensate for changes in a ships draft or tidal
level.
.3 Weighted guy line: A length of weighted guy line is thrown over
the booms and the booms are pulled close to the sea wall. The
line can then be secured to a bollard.
Other than the I-beam terminal fixed to a sea wall, jetty or other structure,
the holding power of the attachment is usually insufficient to withstand
the tension sustained on the boom and measures to alleviate the stress
levied directly on the boom may be necessary. This may be achieved by
using a guy rope extending from a bollard on the wharf or cleat on the
ships deck to a section of the boom.
6.2.8 Storage of booms
To maintain booms in a good condition and to facilitate rapid mobilization,
transport and deployment, the following precautions should be observed:
.1 Period checks should be made for wear and tear of the boom
material from handling, for deterioration of the fabric over time,
and for corrosion/damage to the connectors. Any deficiencies
should be repaired or replace as necessary.
.2 Storage areas should be easily accessible to vehicles and if
possible the equipment should be kept on standard pallets for
easy handling by forklift. If possible, in some circumstances the
70
booms may be best stored close to the area where they would be
expected to be used, for example, at particular jetties or wharves
in a port area.
.3 Booms that have been deployed at sea for extended periods
must be brought ashore and cleaned to remove marine growth
and check for corrosion.
.4 Booms should not be stored outside in hot climates, must be
protected from direct sunlight and should be located in a well-
drained position.
.5 When folded in storage, booms should be placed on pallets or
shelves to avoid deformation due to excess weight and must be
periodically (once every few months) refolded to prevent
permanent creases in the fabric.
.6 When stored on reels, care must be taken to avoid twisting and
undue stress.
.7 When stored indoors, the storage space should be free from
moisture and vermin. The storage space must be well ventilated
or air-conditioned to avoid high temperature and humidity
which can lead to the formation of mould.
.8 Immediately after use in oil, booms should be cleaned and
essential repairs carried out before returning them to storage.
.9 Further information on the storage and maintenance of
response equipment in general can be found in a later chapter
of this Manual.
6.3 Recovery devices Skimming equipment
6.3.1 Types of skimmers and their application
A diverse range of skimmer equipment is available, designed to recover
floating oil from the sea surface. They have been developed to work in
different ways and under a variety of operating conditions. Generally, they
fall into four main categories, although some incorporate features found in
more than just one category:
.1 Weir devices: These have a weir located at the oil/water
interface, to allow only the floating oil film to flow over it into
a collection point from where the oil is transferred by pump or
other device to a separate storage unit/facility. These skimmers
often have adjustable floats to allow the weir to be positioned
optimally to collect as much oil and as little water as possible.
They are available in a number of configurations including
basic saucer type weirs and self-levelling weirs. Some weir units
have been incorporated into containment booms and are
termed combination weir booms.
71
.2 Adhesion devices: These make use of oleophilic (oil-loving)
surfaces to which oil readily adheres. The surfaces may
comprise discs, ropes, brushes or drums. The oil that adheres
to the oleophilic parts is lifted from the water and depending on
the construction, these are then scraped or squeezed to remove
the oil, which is then held in a collection area for transfer to a
separate storage unit/facility.
.3 Induction devices: These use the motion of the water current in
which the skimmer is placed, or the flow created by the
equipment as it is drawn through the water, to induce a flow of
floating oil through the device for separation and collection.
Because of the way they operate, they are usually built into
vessels, which may or may not have means of propulsion. These
induction devices include advancing weir, submersion plane,
hydrocyclone, vortex, water jet and filter belt skimming systems.
.4 Devices using other principles: There is a range of non-
specialized equipment that can be used for the improvised
recovery of oil in some circumstances. These include vacuum
systems, mechanical grabs, trawls and nets.
When selecting a skimmer, the sea and wave state together with the oil
type and its weathered condition, need to be considered. No skimming
device operates in all conditions and for all oil types and properties. It is
therefore important to understand the performance characteristics of the
various skimmer types and to select the most appropriate one for the
circumstances being faced. This also needs to be considered carefully in
the contingency planning process, to ensure that a range of equipment is
available to meet all of the situations that might arise.
In making a selection of various devices, reference should also be made to
information from manufacturers. However, when determining how much
skimming capacity may be available based on equipment specifications,
some adjustment is needed, particularly for the quoted name-plate
recovery rate of a skimmer. While the data can reflect the operational
capacity of a particular skimmer under test-tank conditions, it does not
reflect the operating conditions in the field, such as the sea state,
encounter rate and the actual nature of the oil which might be less than
optimal, even for the skimmer selected. A common practice in contingency
planning, when considering the type and number of skimmers needed, is
to de-rate the name-plate figures, either by use of a formula, or by a simple
% figure. In some national contingency plans, for example, a straightfor-
ward figure of 20% of manufacturers name-plate recovery rates is used to
determine a realistic skimming/recovery capability for planning purposes.
The following information provides an overview of the general features
associated with different types of skimmers. In spill response, equipment
such as skimmers can be used in a variety of ways and combinations, and
so there may be some features, such as operating parameters, which may
vary in their application from those presented. Nonetheless, the informa-
72
tion provided can be used as broad guidance on the features generic to
particular types of skimmers. Photographs and typical schematic dia-
grams are provided to illustrate the general principles.
6.3.2 Features of skimmer equipment
6.3.2.1. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Basic weir
There are many versions of the basic weir available and all work according
to similar principles. They are intended to collect oil floating on the very top
of the sea surface. This oil flows over the weir into a collection point and is
transferred to storage by a suction pump.
Oil and floating debris
Suction line
Water
Oil
Figure 6-15
Expected performance
Light oil Medium oil Heavy oil
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Moderate 5 1 knot No
Good for shallower water
Good in slicks thicker than 5 mm
Calm debris free conditions
Easy to handle
Poor oil/water recovery ratio
(water can splash over weir and
device tilts in waves which allows
water to flow in)
Limited to calm conditions
Sensitive to all types of debris
Minimum water depth varies but
usually 300 mm
6.3.2.2. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Heavy duty weir
This skimmer uses a simple weir to skim the top layers of fluid. Flotation is
by fixed and/or remotely adjustable floats. The collected oil is pumped via a
reversible screw type pump. These pumps employ one or two internal
rotating rotary discs to maintain the required pressure when pumping. An
advantage of these systems is that the weir and floats can be removed to
allow use as a stand-alone pump.
73
Figure 6-16
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Moderae Good Good 2 knots No
Good for shallow water (41m)
Capable of pumping highly viscous
oils
Pump does not require priming
Easy to deploy and operate
Rugged construction
Limited to sea state 5 2 Beaufort
Heavy oil sometimes requires
manual assistance to flow over
weir
High back pressure can develop in
discharge lines when pumping
viscous oils
74
6.3.2.3. Category: Weir device
Skimmer type: Combination weir/boom
The weir device is integral with the boom itself, and the weir/boom
combination is often towed behind two vessels in a J configuration. The
skimmer section is generally located near to the vessel used for oil recovery
and attached to the end of a longer length of conventional boom.
Alternatively, the combination boom system may be anchored so that
the local current carries oil into the weir area. The oil is pumped away from
the weir either by a built-in pump or by a remote suction pump.
Figure 6-17
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Moderate 1 knot Yes
Can accommodate small debris
Good wave following ability
Limited to sea states 5 2 Beaufort
Water depth must be 41.5 m
Collection efficiency generally low
Difficult to deploy and retrieve
75
6.3.2.4. Category: Weir device
Skimmer type: Vacuum system with skim head
This skimmer is basically a floating suction head. The skimmer head floats
with radially spaced openings just below the surface. In some models, the
head is flexible so it can follow waves. This type of unit can significantly
improve oil recovery by vacuum trucks.
Figure 6-18
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good for any water depth
Blockages due to debris can be
cleared easily on models that can
reverse flow or have liftable lids/
flaps
High recovery rate in
slicks 45 mm thick
Simple non mechanical unit has
low maintenance
Limited to Beaufort calm
conditions
Can be blocked easily with debris
Poor recovery in slicks 5 5 mm
thick
76
6.3.2.5. Category: Weir device Skimmer type: Self-levelling weir
In these devices, the pump draws fluid from the body of the unit causing
the weir to depress into the liquid and increase the recovery rate.
End view
Handles (4)
Suction line
Debris screen
Buoyancy tank
Skimmed oil
Figure 6-19
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Poor 5 1 knot No
Good for shallow water
Easy to deploy and operate in
stationary mode
Simple construction easy to
maintain
Inexpensive to purchase and
maintain
Limited to sea state 0 Beaufort
calm conditions
300 mm minimum water depth
required
If hose or suction touches bottom,
weir tilts and operates poorly
Heavy oil and debris blocks weir
Oil/water ratio is low in thin slicks
77
6.3.2.6. Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Disc
An array of oleophilic discs is arranged in a linear, triangular, circular or
square configuration. Each row of discs is powered by an air or hydraulic
motor. Oil adheres to the oleophilic discs from where it is scraped as they
rotate, into a collection well. The oil is then transferred to storage by a
pump, which is either integral with the skimmer or remote. Some disc
skimmers have toothed discs to physically grab thicker oil to the skimmer.
Figure 6-20
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Small units have draft of
less than 300 mm
Few moving parts means good
reliability
Good recovery rates in
slicks 45 mm
Small units can be handled by
2 people
Power packs and pumps are
remote, which improves wave
following of the skimmer
Oil/water ratio is high
Limited to sea states up to
Beaufort 2
Fibrous floating debris can wrap
around disc axles and stop rotation
Will not recover weathered or
solidified oil
May lose some pickup capability
for oils that have been treated with
dispersant
Remote pumps can encounter
difficulty handling viscous oils
6.3.2.7. Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Rope mop
An endless rope of synthetic oleophilic material is pulled through the slick.
Commonly the mop is positioned in the water by one or more strategically
placed pulleys. Oil adheres to the mop, which is then squeezed between
rollers. The squeezed-out mop is returned to the water surface and the
78
process is repeated in a continual cycle. In cold weather, steam can be
injected into the collection device area to facilitate the recovery of viscous
oil. Recovered oil is collected in a sump beneath the wringer where it can
gravity-drain or be pumped to a storage tank. The device can be mounted
on shore or on a vessel. Alternatively, depending on its design it may be
suspended above the sea from a crane or derrick with multiple rope loops
hanging vertically between the collection device and the water surface.
Figure 6-21
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Moderate Good Moderate 56 knots No
Effective in sea states up to
Beaufort 3
Can operate in any water depth
Good recovery rate
Debris generally does not interfere
with oil pickup
Wide reach when long ropes are
used
Rope can act as boom in low
currents
Can operate in places difficult to
access and through deep narrow
holes
Good in rough weather
Can operate in broken ice
High wear rate on ropes/rollers if
used in sandy areas
Does not recover oiled debris
Can be difficult to deploy
Not good at picking up highly
viscous oil
79
6.3.2.8 Category: Oleophilic device
Skimmer type: Rope mop (catamaran mounted)
Continuous oleophilic rope mops are suspended between the hulls of a
catamaran. The mops travel at the same speed as the vessel and so they
contact the oil/water interface at zero relative velocity. The ropes are
squeezed out by hydraulically-driven rollers.
Integral pump and
manifold system
Vessel travel
MOP wringer units
MOP travel
Collected
debris
Oil pollution
Figure 6-22
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Beaufort 3
Good oil recovery in slicks thicker
than 5 mm
Good oil/water ratio in collected
fluid
On-board oil storage
Operates in water depths greater
than 1 m (most models)
Difficult to transport to remote
areas
High capital cost
80
6.3.2.9 Category: Oleophilic device Skimmer type: Brush
Closely spaced brushes pick up oil on the surface of the water. The oil is
scraped off as the bristles pass through a comb-type cleaner. Brushes are
either drum or chain mounted.
Figure 6-23
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Moderate Good Good 2 knots Yest
Good for weathered, emulsified
and residual oil
Mechanically simple
Usually not affected by debris and
waves
Little excess water is contained in
the collected oil
Side collectors can lose oil under
boom sweeps
Bow mounted units may be
affected by vessel movement and
associated interference
81
6.3.2.10 Category: Induction device
Skimmer type: Advancing weir
Oil and water are initially separated with an adjustable bow plane. Oil
flows over the adjustable weir near the back of the unit and water is
discharged through a gate below the weir.
Figure 6-24
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Moderate 5 3 knots No
Can handle some debris if debris
screen is manually cleaned
periodically
Suitable for calm, open sea
recovery of large oil slicks
High recovery rate in large
confined oil slicks
Easy to operate
Limited to sea state 5 2 Beaufort
Limited to water depths over 1.2 m
High percentage of fluid collected
(water/oil/emulsion)
Some models have no on-board oil
storage or pumping system
82
Skimmer type: Submersion plane
As this skimmer is moved into the oil, the oil is forced down a plane at the
front of the unit and then stripped off by an adjustable vane. The
remainder of the skimmer consists of a separator with an open bottom.
Baffles cause the oil to gather and rise to the top while water flows through
the skimmer.
Figure 6-25
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Moderate 2.5 knots Yes
No power is required except for
vessel power and discharge pump
Excess water is discarded as part
of the collecting process
Prevention of oil carry-over into
effluent depends on the separation
efficiency
Debris entering the skimmer will
foul the separator
Throughput and collection
efficiencies decline in higher sea
states
83
Skimmer type: Upward-moving belt
The belt is advanced to make contact with the oil slick. In addition, water
may be drawn through the belt by an induction pump. Oil and floating
debris are brought up the belt. The debris is scraped off into a storage bin,
and oil is squeezed out of the belt into a holding tank.
Figure 6-26
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Poor Good Good 0.75 knots Yes
Effective in sea states to Beaufort 3
Some types allow debris collection
High pickup rate
Mobility of self-propelled models
allows self transport to spills and
tracking down of individual slicks
Effective in highly viscous oils
Effective in a wide range of oil types
Cannot operate in shallow water
Mechanically complicated
Recovery belt life is poor
Expensive to buy and operate
84
Skimmer type: Sorbent belt downward moving
Debris is kept from the belt by a debris screen. The oleophilic belt pushes
floating oil below the waterline. Oil that is not absorbed on the belt is
recovered in a holding area behind the belt. Oil that is carried up the belt is
recovered at the top of the system by a squeeze belt or scraper blade. This
oil and the oil in the area behind the belt are then pumped to storage.
Figure 6-27
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Good Good Poor 5 2 knots Yes
Beaufort 3
Some types allow debris collection
High pickup rate
Recovery belt life is good
Mobility allows self-transport to
spills and tracking down of
individual slicks
Cannot operate in shallow water
Mechanically complicated
Difficult to maintain
Difficult to transport to remote
areas
Expensive to buy and operate
85
Skimmer type: Hydrocyclone/circus
Water and oil enter a skimming chamber where centrifugal effect occurs.
Water goes to the outside of the chamber and is discharged through the
bottom. Oil, being less dense than water, collects in the centre and is
pumped out through the top of the unit to storage. Open units may be used
in conjunction with weir skimmers. The stability of the vortex is
significantly affected by wave action.
Figure 6-28
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Poor Poor Poor 2 knots Yes
Can operate in current up to
2 knots
Can be mounted on any offshore
supply or similar size vessel
Limited to calm sea state
Closed systems adversely affected
by and cannot collect debris
Poor throughput and collection
efficiency
Affected by bow wave of vessel on
which it is mounted
86
Skimmer type: Induced vortex
A rotor with a series of vanes or a propeller rotates beneath the water
surface and draws oil over a weir into a sump. The rotor induces a slow
rotation in the oil/water mixture. The difference in induced velocity
between the water and oil concentrates the oil which is then pumped to
storage.
Figure 6-29
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Some models are lightweight and
can be easily deployed and
retrieved
Draws oil to the skimmer from
several feet away
When operating in thick slicks,
pickup rate limited by pumps
Pumping must be carefully
watched to keep the oil/water ratio
high
Susceptible to debris in oil pickup
Waves and currents can interfere
with flow of oil induced by vortex
87
6.3.2.16 Category: Devices using other principles
Several other methods of recovery are available and include:
Drum skimmer: These have a helical drum that rotates to grab floating oil.
Excess water escapes through small holes in the drum while the oil is
directed into a central channel and pumped to remote storage. It is good for
use with heavy oils but poor for light oils.
Mechanical lifting belt: A typical paddle belt pulls oil up a ramp using four
or more paddles. In one model, the paddles draw a wedge of oil/water over a
ramp. The water settles through holes in the ramp leaving an oil rich
mixture. The paddles pull the fluid wedge mixture over the top of the
incline and into a sump where it is pumped off. One-way flapper valves on
the machines underside permit water to flow away. A second type has
paddles that draw oil up the underside of the ramp.
Figure 6-30
Maximum
current
Advancing
mode
Moderate Good Moderate 5 1.5 knots
Can pick up very viscous oil
High pickup in thick oil
Mechanically simple and robust
Moveable head on some models
can skim over a boom
Works best only in calm water
conditions
Perforated plate models can block
easily with long stringy debris
High water pickup with very
viscous oil on perforated plate
models
Expensive
88
Screw pumps: These are principally designed to handle viscous fluids and
are based on the principle of the Archimedes screw. They are tolerant of
debris. Some proprietary skimmers have this screw pump as an integral
part of their construction. On occasion, for very thick and viscous oils, the
skimmers may be stripped down to enable the oil to be simply recovered
using the action of the pump itself, often with the oil having to be manually
drawn to the collection/pump head.
Nets: Nets can be useful as collection devices for oily seaweed and other
oily materials such as sorbents, and sometimes for semi-solid emulsions
and other highly viscous oils. However, in high current conditions the oil
can be drawn through the mesh.
Vacuum trucks: Tank trucks normally used for collection of industrial,
agricultural or sewage sludge can be effective in recovering floating oil.
They are particularly effective in collecting viscous oils and emulsions and
can be operated in a range of situations, in ports and harbours, on beaches
and in canals. For thin layers of oil they require a special inlet head in
order to spread their suction out sufficiently to draw oil into the collection
hose rather than puncturing through the slick. Primary separation of oil
and water can take place in the tank itself and water may be periodically
drained off from the bottom to maximize the capacity of the truck.
Mechanical grabs: Grabs and clam shell buckets operating from the shore
or mounted on a suitable vessel can in some cases be an effective device
for recovery of very viscous oils. They may also be used in ice conditions, to
collect oily chunks for temporary staging on the vessel. Heating the
collected ice and draining of the water can also be undertaken to maximize
recovery and storage capacity.
6.4 Temporary storage
The provision of temporary storage for recovered oil is crucial to the
success of containment and recovery operations. If oil is successfully
recovered at a significant rate, the temporary storage resources can be
overwhelmed in a very short time, even within just a matter of hours.
Experience has shown that this aspect of containment and recovery is
often overlooked, or given insufficient attention and unrealistic assump-
tions are often made on the availability of various resources at the
contingency planning stage. The types of temporary storage facilities that
can be used to support recovery operations along shorelines is described
in a later chapter of this Manual. For at-sea operations, the main options
are:
Vessel tanks: There may be separate tanks on board the vessels being used
for the containment and recovery operations. Once the available storage
capacity has been exhausted, response vessels need to return to port to
discharge oil and oily water, limiting the actual time that recovery
operations are in action. In many cases, the vessels are not specially
designed for these operations and tank capacity may be limited or
unsuitable for the operation. A common problem with vessel storage tanks
89
is that once oil has been pumped into them, it is often very difficult to get it
out again, especially with viscous oils. Heating coils may be needed to
reduce the viscosity sufficiently to enable discharge to be achieved. The
tanks will also need cleaning afterwards, which can be a time-consuming
and difficult operation.
Barges: Barges may be available in ports and harbours that can be hired
for use in an oil spill. They are often very large and difficult to manoeuvre,
and their freeboard may mean pumping over a significant head, which
may not be possible for all skimmer and pump types, especially if heavy or
viscous oils are involved. Small, manageable barges with open hatches are
more suitable, preferably with heated tank facilities to make it easier to
handle and pump out the stored oil. Oil/water separator facilities are also
preferable, so that decanting of water back to the sea can be done,
maximizing the space available for oil storage.
Towable tanks: These come in a variety of forms and, in contrast to barges
which are general purpose vessels, towable tanks are specifically designed
for oil spill response. One simple type comprises a long, flexible tube-like
tank, with its own flotation/buoyancy members so that it floats when
empty. Once full, most of the tank is submerged below the water. They can
be very difficult to empty again, sometimes entailing their suspension
length-wise from a crane to encourage oil to flow under gravity.
Another type of towable tanks comprises a large, inflatable barge-type
vessel, with an open top and segregated sections to contain oil. The tanks
are open but they may also have plastic or tarpaulin covers. Capacities
from different manufacturers range from 5100 m
3
. They have the
advantage that submersible pumps may be dropped in to discharge oil,
or accessed by grabs and clam-shell buckets, if the oil is very viscous.
A third distinct variety are pillow tanks, which often have only small
openings/access points to allow oil to be pumped in. Some do have a larger
access/discharge hatch to facilitate emptying, but like the tube-like tanks,
they can be very difficult to discharge. However, some have facilities so
they may be pumped out directly.
6.5 Integrated containment and recovery operations
6.5.1 Sweep systems
To concentrate floating oil at sea, booms are towed in U or J configurations
using two vessels. The skimmer is deployed from one vessel (although
sometimes a specialized skimmer device may be built integral with the
apex part of the boom). Often vessels will corral oil in a U configuration and
then once sufficient oil has been collected, they move to a J configuration
to allow the skimmer to be lowered into the oil and recovery to commence
from the trailing vessel. Storage will be in the vessel tanks, or possibly to a
floating tank system. Sometimes, three vessels may be used, two being
used to tow the boom in a U or V configuration and the third one stationed
90
at the apex of the boom, to support more continuous collection and
recovery.
Skilful handling of the vessels and equipment is called for, with
continuous adjustments as conditions change. Ideally the vessel used as
a working platform should have lifting gear on board and all should have
sufficiently good maneouvreability to quickly get in position and maintain
course at slow speeds, against the winds and currents.
Figure 6-31 Integrated containment and recovery operations
U and J configurations
To allow greater flexibility, the oil concentration, recovery and storage
functions can be combined on one ship. This has a rigid or flexible sweep
system extended from one or both sides of the vessel. Oil collected in the
apex between boom and vessel is recovered either using a skimmer, or for
some specialized vessels, by allowing the oil and water to pass into a
special compartment in the hull that recovers the oil from where it is
pumped to storage tanks on board.
For all at-sea containment and recovery operations, the sea conditions,
including wave height, wind direction and relative wind speed, should be
fully understood otherwise recovery efforts will prove unsuccessful.
Thorough training in vessel control and system operation is necessary. A
high level of seamanship is required to maneouvre multiple vessels in
combination at slow speeds (less than 0.71 knot).
Given the rapid spreading of oil into patches that can be scattered over
large sea areas, it is important for vessels involved in at-sea containment
and recovery operations to be guided by spotter aircraft (rotary or fixed
wing), to the locations where oil concentrations are heaviest. An adequate
communications system is also required for information to be transmitted
to relevant vessels from the spotter aircraft.
91
Figure 6-32 Examples of purpose-built single
and double sweep recovery vessels
Combination buoy tender,
oil and chemical response vessel,
emergency tug and ice breaker
Action area North (Baltic) Sea
Length o.a. 78.91 m
Breadth o.a 18.63 m
Draft max. 5.79 m
Tank capacity 1,000 m
3
(oils, chemicals)
Combatting 2 sweeping arms,
equipment 400 m booms,
lightering pumps
special separation
plant
Sweep breadth 44 m
Combination buoy tender,
oil and chemical response vessel,
emergency tug and ice breaker
Action area North (Baltic) Sea
Length o.a. 80.45 m
Breadth o.a 15.10 m
Draft max. 5.80 m
Tank capacity 910 m
3
(oils, chemicals)
lightering pumps
special separation
plant
Sweep breadth 41 m
Combination buoy tender and
oil and chemical response vessel
Action area Baltic (North) Sea
Length o.a. 56.12m
Breadth o.a 14.23 m
Draft max. 4.68 m
Tank capacity 430 m
3
(oils, chemicals)
lightering pumps
special separation
plant
Sweep breadth 37 m
92
Oil response vessel
Action area Baltic (North) Sea
Length o.a. 46.1 m
Breadth o.a 8.6 m
Draft max. 3.7 m
Tank capacity 215 m
3
+ 100 m
3
sack
equipment skimmers
300 m booms,
lightering pumps
Sweep breadth 30 m
Oil response vessel
Action area North Sea
Length o.a. 83.02 m
Breadth o.a 12.80 m (mid)
Draft max. 7 m
Tank capacity 1060 m
3
Combatting 2 sweeping arms
equipment 15 m
pumps 450 m
3
/h
400 m booms,
fenders, mop.
Sweep breadth 38 m
6.5.2 Specialized oil recovery vessels
Some vessels have been specifically designed with all of the necessary
equipment on board and a special facility for corralling oil without the need
for booms. Some of these are built for work in open sea areas, but most are
relatively small and intended to be used in harbours and sheltered waters.
Figure 6-33 Principles of a specialized recovery vessel
93
Depending on their construction, the recovery device may be a weir type,
oleophilic (e.g. brushes or absorbent belt) or induction. Many of these
vessels have a dual purpose, for general floating debris collection under
normal circumstances, mainly in ports and harbours, and oil recovery in
emergency situations.
6.6 Recovery of subsurface oil
6.6.1 Recovery of sunken oil
As described in chapter 3, very few crude oils are sufficiently dense or
weathered to such an extent that their residues will sink. Sinking is
usually brought about by adhesion of particulate matter to the oil. Some
heavy crudes, as well as most heavy fuel oils and water-in-oil emulsions
require very little particulate matter to exceed the specific gravity of
seawater.
Recovery of sunken oil is not an easy operation and must be planned and
equipped properly before being undertaken. For removal of subsurface oil
in water less than 20 m depth, the following techniques may be used:
.1 Peripherical injection jet suction pump: Sunken oils can be
picked up using a peripherical injection jet suction pump. The
viscosity of oils to be recovered may be reduced through the use
of heated water.
.2 Air lifting: An air lift can be used to recover oil from the seabed.
A compressor on the support vessel provides air to the mouth of
the air lift. The air rising in the central tube generates suction in
the tube. The air lift is most useful for recovery of oil in 10 to
20 m water depth.
.3 Oleophilic sorbents: Small patches of subsurface oil may be
recovered using oleophilic rope mops.
94
Figure 6-34 Airlift dredge for recovery of oil from the sea-bed
Figure 6-35 Airlift dredge system in shallow water
6.6.2 Recovery of oil from a sunken vessel
In the event that oil needs to be recovered from a sunken vessel or wreck,
specialized operations are needed. There are two systems that might be
employed:
95
.1 DOLS Diving oil lightering system: This is an underwater
system for drilling holes in a ships plate and lightering oil from
a sunken vessel. A hydraulic punching drill is attached by a
magnet to the ship. After drilling the lightering hose flange is
attached. The DOLS is guided into position manually by divers.
.2 ROLS Remote oil lightering system: The remote offloading
system is similar in principal to the DOLS, however it has been
designed to be positioned using a ROV (remotely operated
vehicle) controlled from the operating/combating vessel.
The ROLS and DOLS operations can be affected by a range of factors,
including weather, currents (surface and subsurface), position and aspect
of the wreck, underwater visibility, viscosity of oil to be pumped and debris
around the wreck.
6.6.3 Precautions when considering recovery
of subsurface oil
The operations to recover sunken oil and oil trapped in a sunken vessel are
highly specialized and should be carried out only by experienced and
qualified personnel. A clear plan of all actions should be prepared, safety
procedures and associated checklists developed and implemented, clear
roles and responsibilities defined, contingencies developed for changes in
various factors (such as weather), and appropriate and adequate equip-
ment supplied for all stages of the operations, with backups for critical
items.
6.7 Sorbents
6.7.1 General principles
The recovery of floating oil is carried out principally using skimmers
deployed from vessels. Oil sorbents comprise a wide range of products
used to soak up oil in preference to water. They may be used in some
limited cases, as an alternative when oil recovery with skimmers is difficult
or prevented, for example because of shallow or inaccessible waters, and
for small slicks.
Sorbents work either by adsorption or absorption. Adsorption occurs when
the liquid recovered (i.e. oil) is distributed over the surface of the adsorbent
material. Absorption occurs when the liquid is incorporated into the body
or pores of the material. Given the wide range of products and materials
available, and the different ways in which they can act, to avoid confusion,
all materials tend to be referred to simply as sorbents. A sorbent material
used in oil spill response needs to have good sorbent properties, be in a
suitable form for its intended purpose, be easy to handle, readily
recoverable after use and not present problems for disposal.
Sorbent materials may comprise:
.1 Inorganic materials (e.g. vermiculite, volcanic glass);
.2 Synthetic materials (most commonly polypropylene fibre); and
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.3 Natural organic material (e.g. peat, pulp, cotton, pine bark etc.)
Most synthetic sorbents are made of polypropylene fibre and are available
in a variety of forms, but most conveniently, as pads, rolls or booms. The
general properties of various sorbent materials are shown in table 6-3.
Table 6-3 Oil absorbing capacity of sorbents
Sorbent
Maximum oil absorbing
capacity gm/gm sorbent
Buoyancy
after
prolonged
contact with
oil on water
High
viscosity oil
3,000 cSt
at 258C
Low
viscosity oil
5 cSt
at 258C
Inorganic
Vermiculite
Volcanic ash
Glass wool
4
20
4
3
6
3
Sinks
Floats
Floats
Natural organic
Corn cob
Peanut husks
Redwood fibre
Wheat straw
Peat moss
Wood cellulose fibre
6
5
12
6
4
18
5
2
6
2
7
10
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Sinks
Synthetic organic
Polyurethane foam
Urea formaldehyde
foam
Polyethylene fibres
Polypropylene fibre
Polystyrene powder
70
60
35
20
20
60
50
30
7
20
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
Floats
The oil absorbing capacity figures indicate the amount of oil the material
may take up, relative to its own weight. The highest figures shown in the
table generally correspond to the lightest materials; indicating that they
can take up a relatively high proportion of oil relative to their weight.
However, given their intrinsic lightness, the actual amount of oil may not
be particularly high. In terms of practical logistics and material selection,
consideration should also be given to the volume of sorbent that is needed
to absorb a given quantity of oil.
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6.7.2 General applications
Some features of sorbent use are shown in table 6-4.
Table 6-4 Sorbent material applications
Form of
sorbent
Application
Pads
(squares
and strips)
Placed in confined areas to pick up small quantities of
light oil. They should be left for a period of time for greater
effectiveness, but care should always be taken to ensure
they are properly recovered.
They should not be spread in open waters, because oil
slicks break up and scatter over wide areas making oil
encounter rates very low. When in contact with floating oil
they tend to become coated and do not absorb significant
quantities of oil, unless the oil is of a very light nature. It
is very easy to broadcast hundreds or thousands of pads
quickly from many vessels, but they are rarely recovered
successfully, and will float over great distances to wash
up on unaffected shorelines.
Rolls Convenient since they can be torn or cut off at the
optimum length.
Effective in protecting walkways, boat decks, working
areas, and previously uncontaminated or cleaned areas
May simply be rolled up and readily taken away once they
have served their purpose.
Pillows Can be used to pick up small quantities of oil in coastal
situation (for example in shoreline clean-up).
These are made of loose material contained in a
permeable mesh.
Much easier to recover than loose material alone.
Snares
pom-poms,
hanks or
mops)
Comprise strips of polypropylene bound together by wire.
Can be used individually or secured at intervals on a rope
to cover a greater area.
Effective with heavy and viscous oils.
Booms Can serve a dual function by absorbing oil and acting as a
boom but only effective in very calm waters.
The tightly compacted sorbent material encased in mesh
restricts oil penetration. With more viscous oils the
surface becomes coated and prevents any oil being
transferred into the boom itself.
Loose
(or bulk)
materials
Loose sorbent materials are not recommended for use in
oil spills on water. (However, loose organic materials have
been successfully used to stabilize stranded oil in remote
or inaccessible locations).
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6.7.3 Storage and disposal of recovered sorbent
Recovered sorbent must be temporarily stored and then processed or
disposed. The separation of oil and sorbent (for reuse of the sorbent) is
technically difficult and oil remains to a certain degree in sorbent form,
therefore the reuse of the sorbent is not generally a feasible option.
Disposal options are discussed in a later chapter of this Manual.
99
Chapter 7
Chemical dispersion
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 General principles
Oil spilled on the sea surface will float and spread out to form a slick this
process is described in chapter 3. Wave action and turbulence due to tides
and currents will cause some of the oil to break up into small droplets
which can be carried down into the water column. This process, which is
known as dispersion, can be enhanced by the application of dispersants.
Dispersants are chemical agents that alter the physical behaviour of oil on
the sea surface. They consist of a mixture of surface-active agents,
dissolved in a solvent that assists penetration of the mixture into the oil.
The surface-active agents reduce the surface tension of the oil, so
increasing the rate of droplet formation and inhibiting coalescence of the
droplets. By dispersing the oil into the water column dispersants:
.1 prevent the wind driven movement of the oil (often towards the
coastline). Dispersants can therefore contribute to the protec-
tion of the shoreline or other sensitive areas that would be
affected if the oil remained on the sea surface;
.2 increase the exposure of marine life to the oil at the location
where oil is dispersed; thus dispersants enhance the local oil
toxicity; and
.3 enhance the biodegradation of the oil in the marine environ-
ment. Finely-dispersed oil presents a large oil/water interface
that is favourable to the oil biodegradability.
Between the potential for enhanced toxicity and enhanced biodegradation,
the advantages or disadvantages of the dispersant use lie in the possibility
of the rapid dispersion and dilution of the oil into the marine environment.
If the concentrations of dispersed oil decrease rapidly to a safe level, the
effects will be insignificant. But if the dispersed oil dilution is not sufficient
or too slow, for example due to poor water interchange, in a restricted area
or in shallow waters, the dispersion of the oil may impact sensitive
components of the environment.
101
Plume of dispersed oil (viewed from the air)
Early dispersant formulations (sometimes known as first generation) were
themselves highly toxic. However, over the last 30 years, formulations have
been developed that mean dispersants have moderate or low toxicity. As a
general rule, modern dispersants are no more toxic than dispersed oil and
when used at a proper dosage, the toxicity that results from dispersion is
equivalent to the toxicity of the dispersed oil.
7.1.2 Environmental considerations
The decision to use dispersants should be made following a comparison of
potential damage to the marine environment from both treated and
untreated oil with consideration of both short and long-term effects. When
identifying the locations where dispersants can be applied, areas of a high
dilution capacity and a high flushing capability, such as open waters, are
generally preferred. Conversely, areas where the dispersant/oil mixture
may remain concentrated and have a high residency period, such as in
confined waters, small bays, closed harbours and marshes, should
generally be avoided. However, these generalizations are dependent upon
a third important consideration: the sensitivity of environmental resources
to dispersed oil. Some environments or components thereof are so
sensitive that, despite ideal dilution and flushing systems, they will be
negatively affected by the toxicity of dispersed oil. However, it is often
observed that even these short-term effects may be less damaging than if
the environment had been left exposed to untreated oil.
It is important to identify specific sensitive resources (both subsurface and
surface) in the area being considered for dispersant use. In addition,
consideration should be given to the prevailing wind, which more directly
influences untreated oil, and the current(s), which would more directly
influence dispersed oil. The decision to use dispersants is largely
102
dependent upon balancing the consequences of response options and
choosing the one that will best preserve the most highly valued resources.
7.1.3 Contingency planning
Negative environmental impacts may be avoided by adopting a means of
identifying sensitive areas and resources, determining the high-risk
regions susceptible to oil pollution and consequently developing a strategy
that is set out in a national contingency plan. Further plans should be
developed on a local level within the context of this national contingency
plan. See the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, Section II Contingency
Planning.
Contingency plans should contain the national policy with respect to
dispersant use. For those maritime areas shared with neighbouring
countries, a strategy for dealing with the use of dispersants should be
described in bilateral or multilateral contingency plans.
It should be recognized that time is the most formidable adversary when
considering the use of dispersants: Once the oil has weathered signifi-
cantly the increase in viscosity will most probably render dispersant use
ineffective. The window of opportunity for dispersant use is often no more
than 2448 hours from the moment of spillage. Contingency plans should
therefore allow for a rapid response, if the circumstances are appropriate
and various planning criteria are met. Modern contingency plans often
have provisions for testing and pre-approving dispersant use in particular
areas, prior to a spill occurring, so that the decision to use them or not,
may be made rapidly in the event of a spill.
The contingency planning process is very important in the identification of
those areas where dispersant can or cannot be used, based on environ-
mental resource sensitivity and the hydrological conditions (depth,
distance offshore, currents, etc). If such information is set out on
operational maps, it allows responders to take a quick decision on
dispersant use.
In preparing a contingency plan, provision should also be included for the
possibility of a large spill that may result in the depletion of the local
stockpile of dispersants. In the event of these and other types of logistic
problems, for example, the provision of aircraft fuel to remote airfields, the
contingency plan should include provisions for restocking and replenish-
ment.
7.1.4 Response decisions
Dispersants can be used to reduce the threat posed by surface oil to
sensitive resources such as bird colonies, coastal habitats and amenity
beaches. An oil spill in an area of high dilution capacity heading towards a
sensitive environment can be treated with dispersants to reduce the
harmful effects of the slick.
An untreated oil slick will undergo natural dispersion as a result of mixing
energy generated by wind, waves and tides. The dispersant option should
103
be considered when it is evident that natural dispersion will not suffice in
protecting sensitive environments. However, dispersants do not physically
remove oil from the sea, they simply enhance the rate of natural dispersion
into the water column. The dispersing plume of oil can be more harmful to
subsurface organisms than the surface slick. Care needs to be taken,
therefore, that dispersants are used only in situations where the benefits
of reducing the surface slick outweigh the risk of damage by the plume of
dispersed oil, and in situations where containment and/or recovery of the
oil would be impractical. It should also be recognized that even in ideal
conditions the use of dispersants may not remove all the oil from the sea
surface and a proportion is still likely to reach sensitive resources if winds
and currents move the oil in that direction.
Public health considerations are primarily focused on the short-term effect
of making the oil more available to organisms in the water column and the
possible consequences on food palatability. As a precautionary measure,
dispersant use in shallow marine environments or areas containing
aquaculture and shellfish should tend to be avoided. Further information
on the possible effects of dispersed oil on seafood, are provided in the IMO/
FAO publication Guidance on the management of seafood safety during
and after an oil spill.
Water intakes for desalination and cooling should receive special
consideration due to the risk of oil becoming entrained and drawn into
the plant. In most cases, low concentrations of dispersed oil can be
tolerated by such installations. However, the concentrations at which the
operation of such plants may be compromised are difficult to predict and
so it is prudent to avoid the use of dispersants close to water intakes.
It should be recognized that each oil spill poses different circumstances
and the decision of whether or not to use dispersants, when, how and why,
should be confirmed on a case-by-case basis. The process of making
decisions on dispersant use that are based on a comparison of what would
be the impacts of the oil when treated against those from leaving the slick
untreated, is called Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA). The IMO/
UNEP publication Guidelines on oil spill dispersant application and
environmental considerations gives a more detailed account of NEBA-
related issues, and when and under what circumstances dispersants
should be used.
7.1.5 Initiating a response
The application of dispersants must take place before the oil weathers
substantially. To conduct an effective response and to save time, fuel and
dispersant for spraying, units should be available for immediate loading
and subsequent replenishment. Supply and communication links should
be maintained at the highest level of readiness.
To minimize any delays in the response, the on-scene commander should
carry the authority to commence a dispersant spraying operation within
the geographical and other limits set out in the contingency plan. If the on-
104
scene commander does not carry this authority then it should be possible
for such authority to be obtained rapidly, with the process for obtaining it
being set out clearly in the plan.
Any significant application of dispersants should be carefully monitored to
confirm its effectiveness in that particular environment. Comparisons
should be made of treated and untreated areas. Beyond the immediate
confirmation of dispersant effectiveness, local concentrations of dispersed
oil and any significant environmental consequences, whenever possible,
appropriate monitoring should be extended to confirm any long-term
environmental effects.
7.1.6 Limitations on dispersant effectiveness
Dispersants will only work effectively under certain rather limited
circumstances and not all oils are amenable to dispersant treatment.
The effectiveness of dispersants will depend on the oil type and its specific
characteristics. Of these, the viscosity is generally used as a key parameter
in determining whether an oil is amenable to dispersants. Under most
circumstances heavy fuel oils and heavier crude oils will not disperse,
because of their high viscosity. While there is no definitive criteria, it has
been generally accepted that an oil with a viscosity of higher than 2,000
5,000 centistokes (cSt) is difficult to disperse. Dispersants are likely to be
ineffective for oils that have viscosities in excess of 5,000 cSt. Oils that
have been spilled in temperatures below their pour point, and are therefore
semi- or wholly solid, are not possible to disperse. Lubricating oils are also
difficult to disperse because of the additives they contain.
Similarly, dispersants will not usually work effectively on oils that have
weathered to an emulsified state in which their viscosity is substantially
greater than 5,00010,000 cSt. Emulsification is an important limiting
feature, and many oils that would be readily dispersible when initially
spilled lose their dispersibility within a few hours as this emulsification
occurs. For these oils it is important to apply the dispersant as soon as
possible after the spill. If the oil is already partly weathered, the slick may
be treated more effectively, by applying dispersant in two stages. The first
application would be at a low dosage rate (Dispersant to Oil Ratio, DOR,
1:50) to break the emulsion and reduce the viscosity. This would be
followed by a second application at normal dose rates (DOR, 1:20) to
disperse the oil itself. Once the oil has weathered to the extent that the
majority has formed a stable emulsion, dispersion is rarely feasible.
At the other end of the spectrum, light fuel oils such as diesel disperse
naturally so rapidly that there is often little to be gained by the use of
dispersants, except possibly to reduce a potential fire hazard.
Because dispersants work by enhancing the rate of natural dispersion,
some turbulence is necessary for the dispersant to be effective. Wind
strengths of Beaufort force 3 or higher are normally required to give
adequate natural mixing energy. Mechanical turbulence may be effective
on small quantities of oil.
105
7.2 Dispersants
7.2.1 Types of dispersant
The first dispersants were developed in the 1970s and are known as
conventional or hydrocarbon-based (Type 1 in the UK classification
system). The solvent used was kerosene, with a low aromatic content, and
they contained a low concentration of surfactants. Some of these
dispersants are still available today, but because of their low effectiveness
they need to be used at very high treatment rates.
Higher performance dispersants were also first produced in the 1970s by
making a blend of different surfactant types. These are known as
concentrate (or 3rd generation) dispersants. Improvements in the
formulation continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s and modern
concentrate dispersants contain a much higher surfactant content than
the older ones. They can be sprayed undiluted (as a Type 3 dispersant in
the UK classification system) or diluted with seawater (Type 2 in the UK
classification system).
Table 7-1 shows in general terms the types of oil and the probable
effectiveness of these various types of dispersant.
Table 7-1 Oil and dispersant types and uses
Oil Type
Dispersant type
Conventional
Concentrate
Water diluted
application
Neat
application
Light distillate fuels (1) (1) (1)
High spreading rate
(low viscosity) products
and crudes
H H H
Low spreading rate
(high viscosity) asphaltic
crudes, residuals and
weathered oil
(2) X (2)
Waxy crudes (2) X (2)
Water-in-oil emulsions (2) X (2)
Non-spreading oils X X X
Notes
1 Application of dispersants in this case should be solely for the purpose of
controlling a fire hazard. Dispersants are not normally used on such fuels because
of their high rate of evaporation and because of their high toxicity.
2 Effectiveness will be severely limited or not effective.
X Dispersant will not be effective.
H Dispersant should be effective on fresh oil.
106
7.2.2 Approval
Because dispersants may be used in large quantities, it is important that
only low toxicity products are used. All dispersant types are available in
formulations that, on the basis of laboratory tests, do not measurably
increase the toxicity of the dispersing oil plume to marine organisms.
Some other tests have been designed more recently to assess a
dispersants biodegradability.
Tests have also been established for measuring dispersant efficiency. It
should be noted that some dispersants are more effective on particular oils
than others. Despite some discrepancies in the dispersants efficiency
according to the type of oil, efficiency tests are suitable to select the more
efficient products. It is recommended that only those products are
stockpiled which have been tested for toxicity and efficiency under local
conditions and against the oils most likely to be spilled in the area of
interest.
Approval procedures are in force in many countries; these procedures are
based on toxicity, efficiency and sometimes biodegradability tests. In these
countries, only the dispersants that pass these tests can be used.
7.2.3 Storage
Dispersants that are exposed to air or moisture may become ineffective
within a few years. However, they should retain their efficiency for many
years if they are free from water and kept in airtight containers. Some
products may corrode mild steel containers. If drums are used for storage
it is advisable to use high-density polythene liners and to keep the drums
under cover, out of direct sunlight. Long storage may cause separation of
the ingredients; the containers should be rolled or tumbled vigorously to
achieve good mixing before application. It is recommended that the quality
of oil spill dispersants stored in the stockpiles is checked periodically
against the standard efficiency and toxicity laboratory tests.
7.2.4 Dosage
In determining the proper dosage, manufacturers of dispersants offer
recommendations on the containers. The problem with recommendations
is that they cannot account for all the variables experienced in the field.
Recommendations are defined as dosage per unit area. In actual spills the
distribution of oil on the water surface and the thickness of the slick are
not uniform. The selection of the proper dosage is largely judgmental,
using the recommendations as an initial guideline and as modified on site
to suit prevailing conditions. Recommendations are most accurate during
the period immediately following the spill before the oil has spread and
weathered to any extent.
Because of their low effectiveness, conventional dispersants should be
used at relatively high treatment rates, with a recommended starting rate
of dispersant-to-oil of 1:23. Dosage rates for concentrate dispersants
depend on whether they are being used with or without dilution. When
107
sprayed undiluted from aircraft or ships, the recommended rate is a
dispersant-to-oil ratio of 1:2030. Most modern concentrate dispersants
can also be sprayed from ships as mixtures of dispersant and seawater.
This can only be done using appropriate spraying equipment that mixes
the correct mount of dispersant (10% volume) into seawater (90% volume)
as the mixture is sprayed. Although this method is suitable for dispersing
light to medium crude oils, it should not be used on heavy oil, or on oils
that have begun to weather, because the water-diluted dispersant will be
washed off by wave action before it can have the required effect.
Dispersed oil plume (viewed close-up)
When considering dosage in the field, a general assumption should be that
the minimum amount of dispersant should be applied to yield the greatest
result. If a dispersant is having little or no effect and a slightly higher dose
rate does not improve the effectiveness, then it is likely that no matter how
much dispersant is used, the operation will not prove effective. In such
cases, over-dosing an oil slick to try to get a better result will not achieve a
positive result and dispersant operations should be curtailed on that
particular area.
Generally, a coffee-coloured plume in the water is an indication of the
effective dispersion of a slick. An absence of such a visual indication,
especially if accompanied by the presence of large amounts of white
material in the water, is regarded as evidence of the dispersant not
working. The white material is the dispersant itself, which has failed to
have any dispersing effect and has washed off the oil into the water.
108
Ineffective dispersant use on a heavy fuel oil spill
7.3 Application techniques
7.3.1 Application of dispersants
All appropriate precautions need to be made to ensure contact with
dispersants is avoided: Operators should wear protective clothing,
including goggles and masks, and all non-essential personnel should
keep a suitable distance from the spraying operations. In addition, those in
charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures are in place for the
handling of dispersants and their application, which comply with local and
national legislation, and operators should be properly trained in the
execution of their operations.
Dispersants can be applied to a slick either from aircraft or from ships.
Aircraft can be deployed rapidly from a base that can be some distance
from the spill. This offers a significant advantage when time is of the
essence and there is a likelihood of rapid emulsification or the spilled oils
viscosity increasing beyond the threshold where dispersants are no longer
effective. Table 7-2 shows typical operating characteristics and table 7-3
shows the performance of various aerial and ship-borne systems.
Whether ships or aircraft are used it is important to plan in advance for a
fast response to an incident. Forward operating bases (airfields or
harbours) should be identified. Means of supplying those bases with
adequate stocks of approved dispersants and spraying equipment should
be arranged. National aviation authorities should be consulted about the
use of aircraft for spraying over the sea. Environmental protection or
fishery management authorities should be consulted in advance about
any restrictions on dispersant use that may be in force.
109
The design of spraying equipment is critical. Dispersant will be wasted if it
does not reach the oil. This can happen if the droplets are too small so that
the spray is blown away from the oil or if they are too large and pass
through the oil layer. Excessive variation in spray rates will result in
under- or over-dosing. Spraying equipment should be tested before use to
check flow rates, droplet size and that an even distribution of dispersant is
delivered across the width of the sprayed swath.
It is difficult to see oil from a ship or low flying aircraft. It is important,
therefore, for a spotter aircraft to guide the spraying ships or aircraft onto
the thickest part of the oil. The description of the slick can be transmitted
from the spotter aircraft by use of a grid on which the contours can be
plotted. The orientation and scale of the grid and the boundary co-
ordinates of the slick can then be passed by radio to the spraying ships or
aircraft. Alternatively, the spraying platform(ship or aircraft) can be guided
directly onto the oil by the spotter aircraft.
The effectiveness of the dispersant, whether sprayed from aircraft or from
vessels, should be monitored to ensure the operation is successful. It is
possible that due to the uneven thickness of a slick, some portions may not
be dispersed in the first application. A second spray could be done to try to
disperse the remainder. If however, it is observed that the dispersant is
having little or no effect after this, the operation in that area should be
curtailed and the appropriateness of using dispersants should be
reconsidered.
7.3.2 Spraying from ships
Almost any size ship has a useful role to play in dispersant spraying. Large
tugs, supply vessels or even warships can carry substantial loads of
dispersant and remain on site, spraying, for long periods. Smaller vessels,
such as inshore fishing vessels are versatile and manoeuvrable and can
make a useful impact on patches of oil close to shore.
While ships are readily available in most coastal areas, can carry large
loads of dispersant and are versatile, they are also very much slower than
aircraft. This means that for a fast response, potentially available vessels
should be identified, with spraying equipment permanently mounted or
stored nearby. In some circumstances, for example if the oil is weathering
rapidly or drifting rapidly towards the shore, ships may be too slow to
make any useful contribution. They are however, very useful for spills that
occur close to ports and harbours, especially if they are stationed nearby.
The effective use of ships is dependent on sea state and their treatment
capability is strongly reduced when the sea becomes rough (Beaufort sea
state 534). To maximize efficiency, vessels should apply dispersants
when heading into the wind.
110
Spraying dispersant from a vessel
7.3.3 Shipborne spraying equipment
A number of different sizes of spray set are available, ranging from large,
permanently mounted equipment for use on tugs to small, portable
inshore spray sets for use by small vessels. Spray booms extend from
either side of the vessel and produce a flat fan-shaped pattern from each
nozzle striking in a line perpendicular to the boats course (figure 7-1).
Because of the tendency of the bow wave to move oil aside, the spray
booms should be mounted as far forward as possible. Spray nozzles
should match pump rates to give a uniform spray of coarse droplets.
Energy is needed to ensure the dispersant and the oil are well mixed. This
will happen naturally in Beaufort sea states of 3 or more. The bow wave of
the vessel also provides wave mixing energy and the ships propellers can
also be used to create mixing. In the past, proprietary mechanical devices
were used, towed behind the ship to actively mix the dispersant and oil.
This practice has not been used much recently, given the development of
newer dispersant formulations that require less active physical mixing
and for which the other sources of mixing are usually sufficient.
Figure 7-1 Typical vessel dispersant spray boom
111
One example of a widely available dispersant spray system is a low
pressure portable unit that can deliver about 75 per minute, either
undiluted or diluted with seawater. An inshore version is available which
is smaller and suitable for use on launches or other small vessels and
which will deliver about 20 per minute. High pressure spray boom
systems are also available delivering about 1,000 per minute.
Spray booms usually need support from masts and wires that must be
light, easily demountable and protected from corrosion. The length of a
boom should be such that in normal conditions, when the vessel is rolling
from side to side, the boom will not enter the water safety considerations
are paramount and, in any case, dispersant sprayed under water cannot
reach the oil.
If purpose-made spray equipment is not available, it may be possible to use
fire systems with the dispersant fed into the water stream via an eductor.
However, as noted above, concentrate dispersants must be diluted at a
controlled rate (10% dispersant by volume to 90% seawater by volume) and
will generally be effective in a diluted condition on only some crude oils
before they have weathered. Water jets should not be pointed directly into
the oil slick but should be elevated so that the diluted dispersant falls like
rain. Alternatively, spray or coarse fog nozzles may be used. In all cases it is
important to avoid the spray penetrating the oil and being lost in the water
below.
Considerable control is necessary to ensure the dispersant/seawater
mixture is sprayed onto thicker oil patches and should also be used
minimally to ensure over-dosing is avoided. As well as to avoid using
excessive quantities of dispersant, this is also an important logistical issue
when spraying from vessels. The rate of usage is relatively high and the on-
board stocks of dispersant can be exhausted in a short time, necessitating
a return to the operating base for more supplies, during which time the oil
continues to weather, becoming less amenable to dispersants.
7.3.4 Spraying from aircraft
Fixed wing aircraft and helicopters can be used to apply oil spill
dispersants from the air. Some aviation authorities prefer the use of
aircraft with at least two engines for safety reasons. However, it is
recognized that turbine engines provide a higher degree of reliability than
piston engines and for this reason other aviation authorities allow single
engine turbine powered aircraft to be used for over-water spraying
operations.
112
Dispersant spraying using light aircraft
Small aircraft carry a lesser load of dispersant, but can manoeuvre over
broken areas of oil more readily than larger aircraft. Typically, a small twin-
engine aircraft can carry 8001,250 of dispersant, large single turbine
powered agricultural aircraft 1,8503,100 , DC3s 5,000 , DC6s 13,000 ,
L188 Electras 15,000 , and a C130 Hercules fitted with an Airborne
Dispersant Delivery System (ADDS) 20,000 . The larger aircraft operate
from established airports. Agricultural type aircraft have the ability to
operate from rural airstrips or landing grounds close to the scene of an
incident.
Some fixed-wing aircraft can carry a large payload
113
Helicopters offer a flexible aerial spraying option. They are more
manoeuvrable than most fixed wing aircraft, and can be a preferable
option for use on small spills or in areas that are inaccessible by surface
vessels and fixed wing aircraft. The main disadvantage of helicopters is
their relatively low transit speed and carrying capacity and limited range.
In comparison with fixed wing aircraft, helicopters cannot cover large
distances with significant payloads.
7.3.5 Aerial spraying equipment
Spray sets for aircraft can be either permanently mounted or portable. A
pump system delivers dispersant to a spray boom mounted under the
fuselage or along the wings. Only concentrate dispersants are recom-
mended for aerial spraying, and the pumps and pipework should be
appropriate for use with these higher viscosity products. Some crop-
spraying equipment may need to be modified to provide an adequate flow
rate.
The rate of delivery of the equipment should be appropriate to the dose rate
recommended by the dispersant manufacturer (see table 7-2). For example,
a typical dose rate of 1 part of dispersant to 20 parts of oil will require 50
of dispersant per hectare to treat oil 0.1 mm thick.
Although droplet size is important, experience has shown that it is difficult
to regulate. Ideally, droplets should be between about 300 and 1,000
microns in diameter. At this size they are too large to form mists which are
susceptible to wind drift, but are not so large that they pass through the oil
to be lost in the sea below. Fortunately, the wind shear behind an aircraft
tends to cause the dispersant to break up into droplets of about this size,
almost regardless of nozzle diameter. However, it is desirable to run a
small-scale test spray to confirm the effectiveness of the spray system
before full-scale application.
For maximum efficiency a reasonably uniform distribution of dispersant
across the width of the swath is required. Careful attention to the spacing
of nozzles along the boom will achieve this. Again a test spray should be
carried out.
114
Helicopter dispersant spraying system
There are two types of helicopter spray systems. The integral or on-board
type has a tank and pump in the helicopter with a spray boom in the
forward part. The pump can be powered directly from the engine or by
electricity. In the second type, commonly referred to as a bucket system,
the whole unit is carried below the helicopter in a pod. Spray pumps are
usually powered by a diesel or gasoline power pack mounted on the pod,
and controlled through an electrical cable connected to a control unit in
the cockpit.
7.3.6 Strategy for application at sea
Dispersant sprayed on sheen, or at the edges of thicker oil that is already
turning to sheen, is wasted. Vessels and aircraft should be guided onto the
thick patches of oil, which will be coloured black or brown. The thicker oil
in a slick is usually found towards the down-wind edge, but if the slick
arises from a continuous source, such as a well blow-out, the thicker
patches will be near the source.
Larger aircraft generally spray while heading into the wind to control the
rate of application over the water. Downwind spraying may be practicable
when the wind velocity is low or when aircraft fitted with GPS and modern
computer controlled spray systems carry out the spraying. GPS measures
the speed of advance over the water and an on-board computer adjusts the
spray rate. Crosswind spraying may sometimes be useful but can result in
under-dosing and wastage of dispersant. If the slick is large enough,
vessels should align in an overlapping echelon formation, but where it is
broken into windrows they should break formation and be guided
individually onto the thicker patches.
7.3.7 Application on shore
Many administrations do not permit the use of dispersants on shorelines
primarily because concentrations of dispersed oil are likely to be
significant and risk damage to environmental resources in the immediate
115
vicinity. Elsewhere, and particularly in countries where there is strong
tidal flushing, carefully controlled shoreline use may be approved under
specific circumstances. Dispersants can only be used on shorelines after
the bulk oil has been removed and are generally reserved for cleaning
rocks and man-made surfaces in high amenity areas. Some of those
countries where the use of dispersants on shorelines is permitted, only
approve the use of products which have passed a separate toxicity test
specifically for shoreline use.
Manual application of dispersants to a rocky shore
For best results dispersants are sprayed on the oily surface from a
backpack sprayer at a dose rate of 20:1 (oil:dispersant) and then
mechanically mixed into the oil using stiff brushes. The oil/dispersant
mixture can either be flushed off with seawater or, provided the area to be
cleaned is in the intertidal zone, it can be left to be washed off by the rising
tide.
Further information on the use of dispersants on shorelines is provided in
the chapter dealing with shoreline cleanup.
116
Table 7-2 Dispersant application systems typical
operating characteristics
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Chapter 8
In situ burning
8.1 Introduction
There have been many instances of oil spilled from vessels accidentally
being ignited and largely consumed in the resulting fire. The intentional
burning of spilled oil on the sea surface, known as in situ burning, under
certain conditions is a potentially effective way of removing large
quantities of oil in a relatively short period of time. The techniques have
been researched since the early 1970s but have rarely been used in actual
oil spill cases.
Given the potential for dealing with large oil volumes, however, it is still
considered promising and worthy of some development. If proven methods
are realized, it will offer an advantage in some cases over more conven-
tional techniques such as containment and recovery, because logistically,
it is relatively simple and reduces the need for storage, handling and
transfer, treatment and then disposal of any oil and oily water collected.
Accidental ignition and burning of oil cargo
119
One of the conditions where in situ burning has been proved effective is for
oil spills in ice conditions. In these circumstances, the successful
deployment of booms and skimmers is less likely, or even unfeasible,
while the ice can act as a natural barrier against/amongst which the oil is
held in sufficient quantities and thickness to be burnt effectively. In situ
burning offers opportunities in remote areas, where the logistical require-
ments of other techniques become severe or prohibitive. For open sea
conditions, fireproof booms have been developed to corral floating oil for
burning, but most are presently heavy and cumbersome to handle and
deploy, and further developments are needed before at-sea operations are
broadly feasible. In-situ burning may offer promise for salt marshes and
similar sensitive sites where conventional cleanup is often restricted to
avoid further damage.
8.2 Features of in situ burning
Ignition of an oil slick occurs when the surface temperature of the slick
reaches its flashpoint the point where hydrocarbons are vaporized in
sufficient quantities to support combustion. For flames to spread and
combustion to be sustained, the slick surface temperature must reach its
fire point, which is usually several degrees higher than the flashpoint.
This fire point is the temperature at which the rate of vaporization is equal
to, or greater than, the rate of combustion. As burning progresses, the slick
becomes thinner, thereby reducing the insulating capacity of the oil layer.
Extinction occurs when the heat loss has increased to the point where the
slick surface temperature drops below the fire point. A burning slick will
generally self-extinguish once the slick thickness has decreased to about
1 mm.
The properties of the oil, at the time of trying to burn it, will determine the
level of heat input required to reach the fire point. Most oils will burn
successfully if the slick is thick enough and sufficient energy is available
to ignite the slick and maintain the burning process. Fresh crude oils are
more amenable to burning, weathered oils generally require a longer
heating time for ignition. Emulsions are difficult to ignite and usually
impossible once the water content has passed 25%, although emulsion-
breaking chemicals can be used prior to ignition to alleviate this.
If the slick is too thin, heat escapes to the underlying water, the slick never
reaches its fire point and a sustained burn cannot be achieved. Generally,
a slick thickness of 23 mm is needed to ensure successful ignition, but
for weathered crudes this may need to be 35 mm, and for residual fuel
oils as much as 510 mm.
Strong winds or high sea states may prevent ignition of a slick or
extinguish the fire. The limit for successful burning is a wind of about
20 knots and waves of about 1 m.
120
In situ burning using fire-proof booms
To achieve the minimum slick thickness prior to ignition and to prevent
spreading once ignited, the oil will generally need to be contained. This can
be done using a fire-resistant boom, or through natural means such as
against a shoreline or within broken ice. In open waters, a fire-resistant
boom would be towed in a U-shape configuration behind two vessels, until
sufficient oil had been collected for it to be thick enough to burn. Of course,
such operations are susceptible to the same difficulties experienced in
conventional containment and recovery operations in so far as oil
encounter rates are often very low, sea conditions preclude oil remaining
within the boom and vessel operations need very careful control to be
successful.
Most fire-resistant booms resemble conventional containment booms but
are made of fire-resistant materials such as refractory fabrics or stainless
steel. Others achieve their fire-resistance through the cooling action of
water that is actively supplied to the boom fabric. Because of the materials
used to provide fire-resistance, most fire booms are heavier and bulkier in
storage than conventional booms. Research is ongoing to develop products
that are more durable, more fire-resistant, and more easily deployed.
The method of ignition will depend on the circumstances of the spill and a
range of igniters have been developed, generally to be hand-thrown, either
from ground-level or from helicopters. These igniters use a variety of fuels
including solid propellants, gelled kerosene cubes and reactive chemical
compounds, or a combination of these. A helicopter-slung ignition system
has also been adapted from forest fire-fighting operations which dispenses
a stream of burning gelled gasoline to heat and ignite the slick. Oil slicks
have also been ignited with rags or sorbent pads soaked in diesel fuel.
Explosive and other highly energetic devices have proven to be ineffective
121
because they disrupt the slick surface upon ignition and do not effectively
transfer heat to the slick surface.
The term burn efficiency is often used when describing in situ burning. It
is simply a measure of the amount of oil removed by burning compared to
the amount of residue left. For example, burning a 2 mm thick slick down
to 1 mm thickness would be deemed 50% efficient, while a 20 mm thick
slick reaching the same 1 mm thickness would be deemed 95% efficient.
8.3 Environmental and health considerations
There are two main issues related to in situ burning: the production of a
large and dense, black plume of smoke, and the residues of material that
remain after the burning has stopped.
The generation of a dense smoke plume is unsightly and its existence
raises public concerns over possible health risks. The smoke plume
consists largely of carbon particles and gases and it is the particulates that
commonly give rise to greatest concern. The smoke particles vary greatly in
size and those below 10 microns are small enough to be inhaled into the
lungs (often referred to as PM-10s). The emissions from in situ burning
and particulate concentrations in the plume are greatest at the burn site,
diminishing away from there, primarily through dilution, dispersion and
fallout, but also through washing out by rain and snow. Other substances
such as Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) are found to drop to background levels a short
distance from the burn site, and highly toxic dioxins and dibenzofurans
have not been recorded. As a general precaution, in situ burning should be
avoided directly upwind of heavily populated areas and a recommended
safe distance downwind of a burn site is in the range of 15 km, depending
on meteorological conditions.
The fallout of soot and atomized oil particles, which can cause secondary
damage, has been reported in incidents, for example, where tankers have
caught fire. The actual smoke plume behaviour and the rate of soot fallout
will be influenced by the type of oil burned, the surrounding terrain and
the environmental conditions, such as wind and rainfall, during and after
the burning.
Depending on the oil type and the circumstances of the burn itself, varying
amounts of residue will be left after the burn has extinguished. The
residue is a highly adhesive, tar-like substance in the form of mats and
semi-solid masses composed of unburned and partially burnt oil, highly
evaporated oil and re-precipitated soot particles. The properties of the burn
residue vary with burn efficiency, initial oil properties and the initial slick
thickness. However, it is often neutrally-buoyant or in some cases more
dense than seawater and can sink. Recovery of this residue is important, to
avoid creating other problems, but the viscosity and adhesiveness of the
residue will restrict the use of heavy oil skimmers and pumps and sub-
surface oil will be difficult or impossible to collect.
122
The toxicity of burn residue is not greatly different from, but generally less
than, that of the original oil. However, residue in the water column or on
the sea-bed can interfere with fishing activities and cause damage to
equipment, and residue deposited on the sea bed can smother benthic
organisms and damage fishing grounds.
In many jurisdictions, Government approval will be required prior to the
use of in situ burning of an oil spill. The main concerns are the trade-offs
between the sensitivity of nearby populations and other resources to the
air emissions and residues created by the burning oil, and the feasibility of
other response techniques that might be available. As with other response
techniques, it is essential that contingency planners evaluate the potential
net environmental benefit of in situ burning for various scenarios within
their scope of operations and take steps prior to the spill to facilitate the
decision-making and approval process.
8.4 Safety considerations
There are a number of safety issues to consider in preparing a burn plan
for response to an oil spill. Of primary concern is that the burn does not
flash back to the source of the spill, for example, the stricken vessel. Care
must be taken to ensure that the fire does not spread to other combustible
material in the area, such as other oil slicks and floating debris, to
response vessels and when close the shore, to forested or inhabited areas.
In addition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures
are in place for in situ burning operations, which comply with local and
Portable explosimeters can be used to detect flammable vapour concen-
trations in the vicinity of a planned burn to confirm safe approach
distances. The nature of the spill, the weather conditions, and the
reliability of communications and spotter aircraft, should all be considered
carefully in establishing a well understood and clearly defined burn plan. A
burn plan must also include contingencies for unexpected conditions such
as a shift in the wind direction or a vessel power failure.
Good communications must be maintained throughout in situ burning
activities, including all vessels, aircraft and ground-based operations.
Radio contact would be used among the various parties involved in the
operation to apprise each other of their positions relative to each other, the
leading edge of the burning oil, the spill source and other slicks in the area.
Aeroplanes or helicopters would be used to provide guidance to surface
vessels in locating thick portions of the slick and to co-ordinate multi-
vessel operations.
Safe operating zones should be established for surface vessels and aircraft.
The size of the fire will dictate the distance that vessels and response
personnel should maintain from the fire. Based on measurements from
large oil fires, a minimum of 35 fire diameters is recommended as a safe
approach distance. Personnel located on boats or aircraft that may be in
123
close proximity to the burn or find themselves temporarily in the path of
the smoke plume should be equipped with appropriate personal protective
equipment. Such protection might include fire-resistant outer garments,
full-mask or half-mask respirators (with safety goggles) and filters
designed to handle particulates as well as organic vapours.
124
Chapter 9
Shoreline response
9.1 Introduction
Based on past experience, if an oil slick is moving towards the shoreline it
is likely that, regardless of response measures taken at sea, oil will reach
the shore. This can result in contamination of the shoreline, and cleaning
operations may be necessary to allow the coast to recover its natural state
and socio-economic value.
Shoreline cleanup can be labour intensive and rarely utilizes specially
designed equipment. Consequently, locally available labour and equip-
ment is often used. The use of unskilled labour means that cleanup teams
need to be trained on site and closely supervised. Similarly, the use of
equipment that is not designed specifically for shoreline cleaning requires
close monitoring of cleanup operations.
The decision whether or not to clean the affected shoreline will depend on
factors such as:
.1 the potential effect of stranded oil on biological resources;
.2 the potential effect of stranded oil on commercial activities;
.3 the potential effect of the stranded oil on recreational activities;
.4 the possibility that stranded oil might be remobilized and
contaminate other, perhaps more sensitive, areas;
.5 the potential effects (both beneficial and harmful) of cleanup;
.6 the feasibility of cleanup operations;
.7 political and public pressure; and
.8 cultural factors.
125
Oiled rocky shore
The selection of the most appropriate methods and equipment to be used
in each case will then be determined by other factors such as:
.1 presence of hazards;
.2 character, amount and distribution of stranded oil;
.3 character of the shoreline;
.4 tidal range and times;
.5 prevailing weather and sea conditions;
.6 availability of equipment;
.7 accessibility of the contaminated areas for equipment;
.8 availability of personnel;
.9 presence of sensitive wildlife or other features which may be
damaged by cleaning operations;
.10 availability of local transport, storage and treatment and
disposal facilities for the recovered material;
.11 costs; and
.12 national, State or regional policies and priorities.
For some high risk areas, many of these factors are already known and so
pre-spill planning can be undertaken.
Shoreline response may comprise five stages:
.1 Pre-spill contingency planning;
.2 Shoreline spill assessment;
126
.3 Primary cleanup stage, which consists of removal of free oil and
heavy contamination. This is undertaken as soon as possible in
order to avoid remobilization of the oil and further pollution;
.4 Secondary cleanup stage, which consists of the removal of
further oil and oily material and then residues and stains from
shoreline. This stage may also include longer-term measures
such as bioremediation;
.5 Site restoration, during which damage caused by the oil or the
cleanup is repaired.
9.2 Pre-spill contingency planning
Whether or not to clean particular shorelines and the selection of
techniques to be used, should be documented in the relevant contingency
plan for the area. Wherever possible this should be based on an
assessment of the considerations noted above. In most cases the features
that might arise in a particular spill cannot be predicted with certainty and
so considerable flexibility is required in most contingency plans. Never-
theless, delays in the response could mean the pollution situation
deteriorates further. For example, the oil may become mixed with, or
buried by, fine sediments such as sand; or may weather and adhere to
rocks, vegetation or structures such as piles and sea walls. Stranded oil or
oily debris may also be remobilized and spread. These processes will
increase the difficulty and costs of cleaning.
9.2.1 Shoreline character
The character of a shoreline will influence the distribution and persistence
of oil and also the applicability of the various cleanup strategies. Along
with the cleanup method used, it will also influence the quantity and type
of waste produced. Large quantities of oily material may be collected
during shoreline cleanup and disposal of this material can be a major
constraint. Waste management is dealt with in a later chapter of this
Manual.
Shoreline character comprises four components:
.1 substrate type the material that the shore is comprised of;
.2 shoreline form the shape of the shoreline;
.3 energy (or exposure) a function of currents, wind and waves;
and
.4 biological character the plant and animal communities
present.
These features are interrelated. For example, the energy of a shoreline
influences the shape of the shoreline and also the type of material that it is
made of (substrate). The plants and animals present also tend to reflect the
energy of a shoreline and its substrate.
127
Oiled cobble shore
The physical characteristics of a shoreline influence the potential
behaviour and distribution of oil and this is summarised in table 9-1.
The influence of shoreline character on the suitability of the various
cleanup methods is discussed below.
The biological character of a shoreline can also present a major constraint
on cleanup activities. The presence of sensitive wildlife on the effected
shoreline may mean that cleanup cannot be attempted without the
assistance of trained wildlife officers, e.g. the presence of seals or sea lions,
particularly if pups are present. In some situations cleanup may not be
possible at all, e.g. the presence of nesting birds in adjacent areas or the
presence of dangerous wildlife.
In other cases, where the biological features can be protected from the
effects of cleanup, the presence of plants or animals on a shoreline may
result in a shoreline being assigned a high priority for cleanup.
128
Table 9-1 Behaviour of oil on some common types of shoreline
Physical character
Energy and comments
Substrate Form
Bedrock Cliffs and
platforms
Oil can be held off outcrops and cliffs by reflected
waves but may be thrown above the splash zone by
waves and wind where it may accumulate on rough
or porous surfaces. In tidal regions, oil collects in
rock pools and may coat rocks throughout the tidal
range. This oil is usually rapidly removed by wave
action but is more persistent in sheltered waters. Oil
may persist in crevices and on porous substrates.
Artificial Sea walls
Boulder
(4250 mm)
Beaches
and rip-rap
Oil may penetrate deeply into the cracks and crevices
in these shorelines. In high energy conditions they
tend to self-clean rapidly. Oil may persist in deep
crevices or in associated fine sediments (e.g. pebble,
gravel and grit).
Cobbles,
pebbles and
shingle
(52 to 250 mm)
Beaches Generally, oil penetration decreases with decreasing
substrate particle size. In areas experiencing strong
wave action, surface sediments are cleaned quickly
by abrasion whereas buried oil may persist for some
time. Low viscosity oils may be flushed out of the
beach by natural water movement.
Sand
(52 mm)
Beaches,
spits or
banks
Particle size, water table depth and drainage
characteristics determine the oil penetration of sand
beaches. Coarse sand beaches tend to shelve more
steeply and dry out at low water enabling some
degree of penetration to occur particularly with low
viscosity oils. Oil is generally concentrated near to
the high water mark. Fine-grained sand is usually
associated with a flatter beach profile remaining wet
throughout the tidal cycle so that little penetration
takes place. However, oil can be buried in these
shorelines under surf conditions or during periods of
beach accretion (build-up).
Mud and silts Intertidal
flats,
mangroves
and salt
marshes
Extensive deposits of mud are characteristic of low
energy shorelines. Little penetration of the substrate
by oil occurs if the sediment is waterlogged,
particularly if the oil is viscous. Oil can persist on the
surface over long periods. Oil may percolate into
muds that are dry at low tide or contain numerous
animal burrows and plant root channels. If the spill
coincides with a storm, oil may become incorporated
in the sediment and subsurface oil may persist for
many years.
Corals Reefs Most corals are submerged at all stages of the tide
and so are unlikely to be affected by floating oil. In
some parts of the world, corals are exposed at low
water and oil may impact the coral resulting in
serious damage to the reef communities. However,
the strong currents and wave conditions associated
with coral reefs are likely to bring about rapid
cleaning.
129
9.3 Shoreline spill assessment
Shoreline assessment involves the documentation of the features of an
oiled shoreline that need to be considered in planning a suitable response.
In addition to the shoreline character noted above, assessment teams need
to document the character and distribution of the oil and any logistical or
environmental constraints that may be present.
The degree of oiling and oil character will vary over time and different
methods may need to be selected as the cleanup progresses. Ongoing
assessment of shorelines will assist in the selection of the most suitable
cleanup method.
Oil distribution should be documented as accurately as possible and not
using subjective terms such as heavy, medium or light oiling. The use of
simple terms such as those defined in table 9-2 is recommended.
Table 9-2 Parameters used to describe the distribution
of oil on shorelines
Parameter Notes
Length (m) The distance along a shoreline that is oiled
Width (m) The distance from the top of the highest
elevation of the shore that is oiled to the
bottom
Percentage cover An estimate of the percentage of the
substrate surface within the area that is
oiled
Thickness (mm or cm) The distance from the substrate surface to
the top of the oil layer. Often this cannot be
measured accurately because the surface
layer is too thin.
Depth The depth below the surface that is oiled. For
buried oil, depth should be measured from
the top of the substrate surface to the oily
layer.
130
Saltmarsh a low energy shoreline
9.4 Shoreline cleanup methods
A number of methods are available for shoreline cleanup, ranging from
manual cleanup to the use of mechanical cleaning equipment. Table 9-3
summarises the methods that may be utilized for both primary and
secondary cleanup of different types of shoreline. It provides guidance on
techniques which are generally recommended, possibly useful or which
are not applicable or recommended.
Oils may pose hazards to human health, in particular from prolonged skin
contact and inhalation of vapours. Some crude oils contain hydrogen
sulphide gas which is highly toxic. Proper safety precautions should be
exercized by all response personnel coming into contact with oils.
The most flammable and acutely toxic components of the oil will probably
have evaporated by the time the oil has reached the shore. Nevertheless,
the oil may still generate disagreeable vapours and require the wearing of
protective masks or breathing equipment. Cleanup personnel should be
supervised and given adequate rest periods. Suitable protective clothing
gloves, overalls and boots should be provided and used to prevent oil
contacting the skin of cleanup personnel. All personnel should have ready
access to personal hygiene and sanitary facilities. Oil can make working
surfaces slippery and all personnel should be advised to take great care
when climbing or working on oil-covered rocks and man-made structures.
131
Table 9-3 Application of techniques
to different shoreline types
132
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9.4.1 Natural recovery
In certain cases the only practical option will be to leave stranded oil to
dissipate naturally. This may be justifiable in areas of very high ecological
sensitivity in which any cleanup operation is likely to cause more damage
than the oil itself. Alternatively, it may be applicable in areas not
considered to be economically, socially or environmentally sensitive and
especially those exposed to rough sea conditions where natural cleaning
may be rapid. Oil may have to be left to degrade naturally if access to the
contaminated area is difficult because of its isolated location or difficult
terrain.
Periodic monitoring is recommended in order to measure the rate of
natural degradation or cleaning of the oiled areas. Notices should be
posted warning the public of the presence of stranded oil.
9.4.2 Manual removal of oil and oily sediment and debris
Manual collection has wide application and can be used on any type of
coastline but is particularly appropriate for sensitive and inaccessible
areas. It is more selective than techniques involving machinery, but the
cleanup can be relatively slow. The recovery of manually cleaned areas
tends to be more rapid, due to less physical disturbance.
Manual removal of oil
(Note: heavy equipment is being kept in the cleaned areas)
Oiled material is collected with rakes, shovels or scrapers, depending on
the type and form of pollution. It is then transported either using vehicles,
or manually, in dustbins or heavy gauge plastic bags. If bags or bins are to
be moved manually they should not be overloaded to allow safe and easy
handling. Generally these should not weigh more than 25 kg. In remote
133
areas with limited access the removal of collected oily waste may call for
improvisation using boats, rafts, non-specialized locally available resour-
ces, or even helicopters and cargo nets, but care is needed in the execution
of any such activities to ensure safety and to avoid spillage.
9.4.3 Use of sorbents
Sorbents assist in the recovery of thin floating layers of oil which have
been dislodged during cleaning operations. They may also be used in some
circumstances to protect beaches from incoming oil. Types of sorbents and
their use are described in the earlier chapter of this Manual dealing with
containment and recovery techniques.
Sorbents may be spread manually or by using special application
equipment. Oiled sorbents may be collected manually or with recovery
units, depending on the type and quantity to be picked up.
9.4.4 Mechanical removal of oil and oily sediment and debris
Depending on local conditions, various types of earth-moving machinery
such as graders, scrapers and front-end loaders can be used. On large,
accessible beaches, such machinery can remove and transport large
volumes of oiled sand. These devices can deal effectively with fresh and
viscous oil on sandy beaches.
However, this technique is not selective and has a tendency to remove a
very large amount of clean sand also. Typically, oil comprises only 1% to 5%
of the collected material. This may be even lower if the layer of oil on the
sediment surface is thin, or if oil has been worked below the surface by
wave action. The use of machinery can also result in the mixing of the oil
into the beach. Wherever manual labour and basic tools are readily
available and can be organized effectively to remove oil efficiently, they
should be considered before mechanical means are used, to avoid
generating excessive amounts of waste materials.
Large amounts of unwanted clean material are collected
when using heavy machinery
134
Wherever possible the use of tracked vehicles should be avoided. Care
must be exercised to ensure that excessive removal of sand does not result
in beach erosion. Thorough briefing of equipment operators is required.
Mechanical removal is not recommended for sensitive areas, but might be
applicable in the case of heavy pollution of recreational beaches that might
need very rapid improvement.
When using mechanical removal equipment, the oiled material is usually
skimmed by graders into ridges parallel to the shoreline, working down
from the top of the beach. It is recovered by front-end loaders or elevating
scrapers (see figure 9-1). Vehicles and equipment must not cross areas
which have been cleaned to avoid mixing the remaining oil further into the
sediment. The precise method of recovery depends on the equipment used,
but should operate from the clean side of the beach. The oily waste picked
up is then either conveyed directly to a vehicle alongside, or into a
temporary storage area above the high tide mark.
In some areas beach cleaning machines are available. Although these have
been specially designed for cleaning recreational beaches of litter and
other debris, they are also suitable for the collection of solid oil in the form
of tar balls. They may be self propelled or towed by a tractor. The most
common operating principle is the removal of the top layer of the polluted
beach followed by separation of the pollutant from the sand by sieving.
Like earth-moving machinery they should work from the top of the oiled
beach towards the water.
Figure 9-1 Motor grader/elevating scraper sequence
9.4.5 Vacuum recovery of liquid oil, oily sediment and debris
Vacuum devices are the most efficient way of pumping stranded, pooled oil
because the pollutant, which generally contains debris and sand, need not
come into contact with the pump mechanism. Industrial, sanitary or
agricultural vacuum trucks can be used to pump oil from open water or
135
pools provided there is good access to the beaches. The efficiency of
pumping equipment may be increased by attaching a flattened (fishtail
shaped) suction head to the hose, which permits the collection of thin
layers of oil. A specialized suction head may be attached to the vacuum
truck to allow continuous pumping. Other pumping methods may be
useful if the depth of the oil is sufficient, although the pump must have a
high tolerance to solids. The throughput of vacuum systems varies.
Pooled oil, or oil on water, can be sucked or pumped directly into collection
vessels. If the area covered is extensive, or if the liquid oil layer is thin, the
oil can be scraped into trenches or pits dug into the sand and then
pumped into containers. These trenches or pits should be cleaned before
they are filled by the tide. Oily debris should be scraped towards the
vacuum hoses.
Entrainment of air into the hoses will often reduce efficiency and should
be avoided, except in the case of very viscous oil, where entrained air or
water can assist the flow through the hoses. If vacuum systems are used
on the beach it should first be ascertained that the beach is firmenough to
support the weight of the loaded trucks.
Vacuum recovery of oil using agricultural equipment
9.4.6 Sediment reworking
This technique can be used to clean lightly contaminated boulders, cobble,
pebble and gravel and relies on natural wave action to slowly remove oil
from sediments. It is particularly appropriate before or during those
seasons when storms and heavy seas are expected.
One way of achieving this is to push the contaminated material into the
surf using a grader or bulldozer. The oiled material will be returned to the
136
beach by wave action and tidal movements and in the process wave action
and abrasion will remove the oil from the substrate. Remobilized oil may
be collected using snare or other booms. If oiling is light or in the form of
weathered oil stains remobilized oil may be allowed to naturally disperse.
The technique can result in a change of beach profile and experts should
be consulted to ensure that this does not result in erosion or other
problems. Pebble banks often provide important protection against coastal
erosion. If they are pushed into the surf to remove oil, it is necessary to
ensure that they will be re-established by tide and wave action. Generally,
it is recommended that this method should be used during a period of
beach sediment build-up. Otherwise, action should be taken to replace the
banks. If the banks are naturally eroding or being reworked it is likely that
they will self-clean and, if possible, should be left alone.
If a lightly contaminated beach has no recreational value or is not in use at
the time, oily sediment can be left in place to weather, degrade and be
removed naturally. The rate of natural removal can be increased by
reworking the sediment using a harrow, such as a disc-plough or a
rotavator towed by a tractor. As the surface is cleaned by wave action the
harrow is used to bring oily lower layers to the surface so that they can be
exposed to wave action. The harrow is operated along the entire length of
the beach, parallel to the waters edge, starting from the back-shore edge of
the contaminated area. This process may need to be repeated a number of
times.
This method is not suitable for fine sediments, such as sand, or where the
beach is rapidly accreting.
Deluge flushing of pebble beach
137
9.4.7 Low pressure washing or sediment flushing
Flooding the beach with seawater can be used to flush fluid oils and oily
debris from a variety of shoreline types. This method has less potential for
damaging fauna and flora than most other methods and, providing the
substrate is not significantly disturbed, the technique can be used in some
sensitive areas. Since the oil displaced could re-contaminate another part
of the shoreline, it should be contained by booms or channelled/directed to
collection sumps and recovered by skimmers, pumps or vacuum units.
Flushing should begin at the highest contaminated point and continue
towards the waters edge. Care should be taken that oily runoff does not
contaminate clean parts of the shoreline below the oily band or that, if this
does occur, it can be cleaned and that no additional environmental
damage is caused. If this is not possible, flushing of oily sediments in the
upper intertidal zone may be restricted to times of high or rising tides.
9.4.8 High pressure washing
The use of high pressure water jets is sometimes used to remove
weathered oil from hard surfaces. For substrates with little or no fauna
or flora, hot water is sometimes used. Suitable equipment delivers water at
a pressure ranging between 80 to 150 bar, if hot water is required a
temperature of between 608C and 958C may be needed. If hot water is to be
used the use of seawater is not recommended and a plentiful supply of
fresh water is required. Some devices can also be used to deliver steam.
High pressure washing should only be used on hard surfaces such as
bedrock, boulders, cobble and artificial structures. Artificial structures
should be monitored to ensure that this method is not damaging the
structure. This technique will destroy most of the marine biota living on
the surface, therefore expert environmental advice should be sought. The
washing should begin at the top of the surface which has to be cleared and
proceed downwards to its base. Bunds, trenches or booms should be used
to collect the oil and water mixture before recovery using skimmers or
vacuum systems.
138
High pressure hot-water washing of rocks
High pressure washing may in some occasions be used to rework pebble
and cobble beaches. The high pressure water jets should be used to push
the sediment down the beach and then back up the beach. This may be
repeated a number of times and the beach profile can be left close to its
original contour after each reworking. However, care should be taken that
the oil is not forced further down into the substrate.
9.4.9 Use of chemical agents
A number of agents are available for shoreline cleanup usually used in
association with pressure washing or with flushing action of the tide.
Solvent-based products can be applied in advance of pressure washing to
enhance the removal of oil, which may then be collected in the runoff.
Surfactant based products, including all types of dispersant, are used in a
similar way, but the oil that is released in the flushing process is held in
suspension in the runoff and carried away in local shore currents to
disperse naturally. Manual scrubbing of the chemical agent into an oil
coating on hard surfaces will assist with mixing and encourage the
removal process.
The efficiency of agents is limited, generally, by the viscosity of the oil,
although much less than when used at sea. Environmental considerations
may also limit their use, particularly where runoff is carried away from the
site, for example near sensitive areas such as salt marshes, mangroves
and corals. They should not be used near seawater intakes or where the oil
could be carried further into the substrate, for example in cobbles, pebbles,
gravels and dry sands. All products should be tested and approved prior to
use on site.
139
Personnel using any chemical agent should wear suitable personal
protective equipment. The relevant Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
should be consulted before handling or applying any chemicals.
9.4.10 Sand and grit blasting
This method can be very efficient on flat hard areas, such as artificial
structures and leaves a very clean finish but the removed oil, sand/grit and
surface material needs to be collected. This method is very damaging to
any marine fauna and flora and it can also damage the surface being
cleaned, both natural and artificial e.g. sandstone sea walls. Cleanup
should proceed from the top downwards. Removed material can be picked
up from the beach by manual or mechanical means.
Operators and people nearby must be equipped with personal protective
equipment, including breathing apparatus. In some countries the use of
sand is prohibited.
9.4.11 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the process of accelerating the degradation of oils by
bacteria, yeasts and fungi. Usually the method involves the application of
fertilizer mixtures to oiled sediments and sometimes aeration of the oily
materials by sediment reworking. Naturally occurring micro-organisms are
utilized. Not all oils or oil components are biodegradable and so some
residues may remain. These will usually be removed by other natural
processes such as wave action. The degradation process is slow and
bioremediation is not a cleanup method but may be considered as a
possible polishing or restoration option. More information on bioremedia-
tion techniques is provided in a separate chapter of this Manual.
9.5 Managing shoreline response
9.5.1 Organization
Those in charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures are in place
for shoreline cleanup operations, which comply with local and national
legislation, and operators should be properly trained in the execution of
their operations.
Proper organization of the work force engaged in shoreline cleanup is vital
to the success of the operation. Although organization structures and
response role names may vary, generally a two-level organization structure
is established:
.1 a command centre group, which directs the overall response, co-
ordinates the collection and evaluation of data, monitors the
efficiency of the cleaning operations, and organizes the
allocation of resources for cleanup of the impacted shoreline;
.2 field teams, which undertake the cleanup operations. These
teams also assess the situation on site and provide the
command centre with the required data.
140
These aspects are covered in detail in the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution,
Section II Contingency Planning.
Overall direction of the cleanup operations should be by the incident
commander of the response team. In larger responses, responsibility for
shoreline response may be delegated to a shoreline co-ordinator.
All areas of field operations should be supervised, with regular reports
being provided to the command centre group detailing the activities and
progress/achievements, together with estimates of ongoing daily resource
requirements for cleanup, temporary storage and disposal.
9.5.2 Command centre
A central command centre should be established from which the response
is directed. This centre should be easily accessible, sign-posted if
necessary, and equipped with the necessary telecommunications equip-
ment and basic office facilities.
If possible, accommodation and food for the members of the response team
should be close to the base. For prolonged operation, establishment of a
shift system may be necessary.
In a large response, forward command centres may need to be established
closer to the cleanup sites. Mobile command centres can be used for these.
These mobile units can also be used for the central command centre for
small localized cleanups.
9.5.3 Communications
The command centres should be equipped with radio communications,
telephone, fax and modemlines. Permanent contact should be kept with all
working teams involved in a shoreline cleanup operation. Portable radio,
radio-telephone systems and mobile phones are the most convenient
means of communication between working sites and headquarters.
Repeater stations may be needed for remote areas. Supervisors of field
teams should report to the command centre once or twice daily.
9.5.4 Security
Security may be required at both the command centre and on-site. Access
to oiled shorelines should be controlled to prevent the spread of
contamination from the beach. Often the posting of suitable warning
signs is sufficient but police or other security may be required. Large items
of equipment may be left on site and this must be protected from theft or
interference. Oiled equipment can also pose a health and safety risk to the
public.
9.5.5 Ongoing assessment
A good knowledge of the developing situation is essential for effective
control of operations. A mechanism for regular reporting of progress made
by working teams should be established. Generally the assessment of
shoreline oiling or progress of cleanup should be done by ground surveys.
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Availability of a helicopter or a fixed wing aircraft may prove to be an
advantage in obtaining an overall picture of the situation especially if more
oil is expected to come ashore. Aerial surveillance is dealt with in more
detail in chapter 5.
9.5.6 Field support
Field teams must be supplied with a range of supplies and support
facilities including:
.1 accommodation;
.2 food;
.3 washing and toilet facilities;
.4 first-aid facilities;
.5 shelter and rest areas;
.6 personal protective equipment;
.7 transport to and from the work site; and
.8 on-site cleaning facilities
9.5.7 Site management
In addition to controlling unauthorised access to oiled areas, a shoreline
work site should be managed in order to prevent the spread of oil from
contaminated to clean areas, to control access to hazardous areas and to
provide security to support areas such as refuelling and rest areas.
Generally, three zones are identified:
.1 the contaminated zone, the oily beach where cleanup
operations are undertaken or where oily waste is stored oily
equipment would also be in this zone;
.2 the support zone where clean equipment, rest areas, canteens
toilets, etc., would be located; and
.3 the public zone, which includes all areas with unrestricted
public access.
Generally, decontamination facilities are placed on the boundary of the
contaminated zone and the support zone so that all personnel and
equipment may become clean as they move away from the oiled beach.
Waste storage areas are also located at this boundary. Site security, if
needed, would be at the boundary of the support zone and the public zone.
9.5.8 Training
It is often necessary to provide on-site training for personnel involved in
shoreline cleanup. This will usually include training on appropriate
techniques and use of equipment, health and safety and instruction on the
overall management of the spill response. An ongoing training programme
will be required during any prolonged response so that new personnel can
be inducted and so that existing personnel can be instructed in the
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changing cleanup methods employed. Training procedures are described
more fully in a later chapter of this Manual.
Training of shoreline cleanup workers
9.5.9 Equipment maintenance:
Maintenance of equipment used in the marine environment is necessary
to avoid mechanical failures. A mechanic should be available to assist
operators in maintaining and repairing equipment. Maintenance proce-
dures are more fully described in a later chapter.
9.6 Site restoration
The final phase of shoreline response consists of repairing the damage
caused to the environment by oil contamination or by the cleanup
activities. Restoration may include:
.1 replacement of beach material or repair of structures;
.2 stabilization of sand dunes; and
.3 replanting vegetation.
In all cases it is recommended that the advice of specialists be sought in
choosing the best way of restoring the affected sites.
9.6.1 Replacement of beach material
The use of machinery to remove or rework oily sediments may result in an
altered beach profile and this could lead to erosion. Shoreline cleanup
should be carried out to ensure this is minimized or preferably avoided
altogether. However, in some cases, where this has been unavoidable,
sediments may need to be replaced, with clean material of approximately
the same particle size range and the beach reworked to the original profile.
Most shorelines will naturally recover their original profile, particularly if
little sediment was removed and if cleanup occurred during an accretion
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phase of the beach, i.e. at a time when sediments are being deposited on
the beach.
9.6.2 Restoration of sand dunes
Sand dunes may be affected by the movement of machinery, vehicles or
people to and from the beach. In order to limit damage, traffic must be
directed along existing roads or tracks or along a few prepared routes.
Some damage may, nevertheless, occur and after the cleanup, these may
still have to be stabilized. This can be achieved through replanting
damaged plants, deploying protective screens or mats or by limiting public
access. Specialist advice should be sought to ensure the choice of
vegetation reflects the types indigenous to the affected area.
9.6.3 Replanting vegetation on saltmarshes
As a first step, it is necessary to evaluate the nature of any damage in order
to determine if natural recovery is likely. If so, a monitoring programme
should be established to observe the rate of natural recovery. Re-vegetation
may be advisable if:
.1 the affected area is used by rare or endangered species or
migratory birds: lack of cover for a season could endanger the
biota;
.2 the marshland is exposed to erosion; and
.3 the marshland is used for fishing, hunting or recreation.
Two techniques are available to restore marsh vegetation, each with its
advantages and disadvantages:
.1 Seeding: seeds can be sown manually or by aircraft. This
technique can be low cost but has some limitations: waves and
currents may wash the seeds away before growth, migrating
water birds may damage young plants, and there will be some
delay before the cover will be high enough to protect wildlife and
prevent erosion.
.2 Transplanting: this consists of planting young seedlings in
cleaned areas. Planting is done manually, ensuring precise
control concerning depth of planting, spacing between seed-
lings, seasonal timing and tidal elevation, which requires advice
from experts. This technique is labour intensive, but gives rapid
results: it is advisable to concentrate on the most important
sites, i.e. those susceptible to erosion or providing special
habitats.
9.6.4 Mangrove restoration
Restoration of mangroves following oil spill damage is feasible in some
cases once the oil in and on the sediments has weathered, although
success to date has been variable. Success is dependent on expert control
as well as a range of natural factors such as wave action, tidal elevation
and availability of seeds/propagules or young seedlings.
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Several techniques have been used, including manual or aerial sowing of
seeds/propagules and transplanting of local nursery seedlings. Planting is
unlikely to be feasible in remote locations or for restoring large areas. The
sowing of seeds/propagules has greatest potential since it is likely to cause
least physical damage and, if obtained from local sources, minimal logistic
and equipment support is required. Seeds and propagules should be
obtained from the same location or region to ensure that local character is
maintained.
9.7 Care of wildlife
When an oil spill occurs, efforts should be made to minimize direct and
indirect effects on shore ecosystems and on wildlife including fish, marine
mammals, aquatic reptiles and birds.
Aerial, boat and pedestrian surveillance should be conducted to determine
where the wildlife is concentrated and whether they are affected by the oil,
or may be affected in future. Such surveillance should be conducted so as
not to cause unnecessary disturbance. Significant wildlife feeding, resting
and breeding areas can sometimes be protected by boom deployment. The
sensitivity of coastal areas and priorities for protection should be
established by contingency plans as described in the IMO Manual on Oil
Pollution, Section II Contingency Planning.
Cleaning oiled birds is a specialized task
Noise-making devices, such as propane cannons, planes, helicopters, scare
guns and other harassment methods have been effective in driving away
some bird species threatened by oil spills. Visual scare techniques may
also be used for birds. These could for example include balloons and kites
with images of large birds of prey in silhouette. These techniques are called
Bird hazing. If birds are scared away from feeding and roosting areas it
must be ensured that other suitable feeding and roosting sites, unaffected
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by oil, are available. Such sites should then be protected from disturbance
so as to provide a stress-free environment. Bird hazing should not be used
in breeding sites as this may lead to abandonment of young. Such sites
should preferably be protected by booms as soon as possible and kept free
from disturbance of personnel, boats, and aircraft.
The effective and humane treatment of oiled wildlife is a very specialized
matter and must be left to experts assisted by trained personnel. Handling
of oiled wildlife carries with it health and safety risks. Wildlife can be
dangerous to handle and can carry diseases and organisms harmful to
humans. Specific training in oiled wildlife techniques is essential for key
personnel. If capture and treatment is necessary, it must be undertaken
only by personnel such as zoo or wildlife veterinarians or wildlife agency
officers who have experience in appropriate immobilization and anaes-
thesia techniques and in the treatment of concomitant medical problems.
Training for key personnel should take place prior to any oiled wildlife
response and regular refresher courses are recommended.
Prevention should be the goal of any health and safety programme for oiled
wildlife care workers. Protection equipment such as disposable suits, eye
protection, gloves and where needed masks or breathing apparatus should
be issued to oiled wildlife care workers with instructions on its use.
Rehabilitation centres may have to be set up for treatment, cleaning
rehabilitation and quarantine. Facilities should ideally be situated close to
appropriate transportation routes, have substantial hot water supply, and
be well ventilated. Disposal oil/water/detergent mixtures resulting from
washing wildlife must be carefully considered prior to the establishment of
a rehabilitation facility. Expert personnel should be familiar with
appropriate quarantine measures to prevent the spread of zoonotic
diseases from wildlife to humans. Quarantine protocols are also needed
to prevent disease outbreaks amongst captive wildlife. Diseased wildlife
must be treated by experienced wildlife veterinarians.
It must be stressed that wildlife rehabilitation efforts must be conducted
with the view that animals are only to be held captive for the shortest time
possible. Where possible, a necropsy should be undertaken on all wildlife
which dies in captivity to establish the cause of death. Pathology results
can significantly contribute to the development of improved treatment and
rehabilitation protocols for wildlife still in care.
The health status of wildlife must be assessed prior to release to ensure
that released animals do not pose a health risk to any wild population.
Rehabilitated animals must also be fit, free of injury, waterproof, and fully
capable of returning to life in the wild. Prior to release it must also be
established that any residual oil in the environment will not lead to re-
oiling of wildlife. Prior to release it should also be confirmed that wildlife
food sources are deemed as adequate in the proposed release site.
Deceased wildlife left on shorelines may pose a health risk to humans and
other wildlife and must be disposed of responsibly in consultation with
local waste management authorities and in accordance with relevant
waste management regulations.
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Chapter 10
Bioremediation
10.1 Introduction
A wide variety of naturally-occurring micro-organisms are present in the
environment that break down a range of substances, including hydro-
carbons, into less complex forms. This process of biodegradation is a
feature of all environmental systems. The introduction of hydrocarbons,
for example during an oil spill, presents an opportunity for these
organisms to proliferate if the conditions are right. Bioremediation is the
active use of techniques to mitigate the consequences of a spill using
biological processes. It refers to the stimulation of pollutant biodegrada-
tion and to enhanced ecosystem recovery
Although bioremediation has been used on occasion in spills, the
technique is still subject to developments. Opportunities where bioreme-
diation offer the most promise include low energy shoreline environments,
low concentrations of oils that are readily biodegradable, generally warmer
climates and possibly areas where conventional cleanup are restricted due
to their inherent potential to cause further and longer-term damage.
The biodegradation of hydrocarbons may take place in the presence of
oxygen (aerobic conditions) or in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic
conditions). However, under anaerobic conditions the process occurs
much more slowly and is of little operational interest for bioremediation.
The bacteria, moulds, yeasts and algae that are responsible for the
biodegradation process, also need additional food sources in the form of
nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P), which are commonly available in the
marine environment. The following formula represents the typical pattern
of biodegradation under aerobic conditions:
1 kg Hydrocarbon + 2.6 kg O
2
+ 0.07 kg N + 0.007 kg P 41.6 kg CO
2
+ 1 kg H
2
O +
1 kg biomass
The products of the biodegradation process are therefore carbon dioxide,
water and micro-organism biomass.
10.2 Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons
Not all components of oil will biodegrade to the same degree and the type of
oil and its characteristics are therefore very important. The properties of
different types of oil are described in detail in chapter 2. For bioremedia-
tion, it is the complexity of individual components that determines
whether they can be degraded and to what degree. Different groups of
compounds may be identified, in order of biodegradability, from saturated
hydrocarbons (alkanes and cycloalkanes), through unsaturated hydro-
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carbons and aromatics (including Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons PAHs), to
asphaltenes, resins and polar compounds.
Different parts of an oil will therefore exhibit very different degradation
tendencies, with generally the lighter components being much more
readily broken down and the heavier, more complex components
biodegrading less readily over a much longer period of time, or indeed
not breaking down at all. A light crude oil with a relatively high proportion
of simple components may offer more opportunity for bioremediation than,
for example a heavy crude oil or heavy fuel oil, which has relatively high
proportions of the more complex components. It should also be noted that
light petroleum products and diesel contain a relatively high proportion of
toxic compounds, which can affect or even kill the micro-organisms
responsible for biodegradation.
Alkanes (or saturates) are degraded rapidly in the presence of oxygen by
a wide range of micro-organisms. They can be subdivided into normal
paraffins (straight-chain compounds, n-alkanes), branched-chain satu-
rates and cyclic saturates (or napthenes or alicyclics). Whereas straight-
or branched-chain saturates can degraded quickly and completely
(degradation begins with straight-chained compounds), cyclic com-
pounds degrade much slower and to a lesser extent.
Aromatics are compounds with one or more condensed aromatic (or
benzene) rings that can also be branched (these include benzene and its
derivatives, substituted benzenes, two, three, four and even five ringed
PAHs). Whereas light compounds (with 1 or 2 benzene rings) degrade
quite well and quickly, heavy compounds (with 5 or 6 benzene rings) are
much more resistant to degradation.
The asphaltenes and resins are poorly defined mixtures of hydro-
carbons found in heavy fractions (compounds with high molecular
weight) of crude oils and heavy refined products, and may contain
compounds that are the by-products of crude oil degradation. Their rate
of biodegradation has been shown to be slow (and incomplete) in
comparison to the other hydrocarbon components in crude oil.
Although asphaltenes and resins usually make up a small proportion
of petroleum products, they are extremely resistant to biodegradation.
10.3 Bioremediation techniques
Bioremediation measures may conveniently be divided into those taken in
situ and those carried out ex situ. In situ bioremediation techniques are
those that can be used directly on the polluted site. Ex situ bioremediation
techniques are conducted on material that has been removed from the
polluted area and placed in designated treatment sites. Ex situ techniques
include landfarming, composting and biopiling and some of these have
been utilized successfully for many years, principally landfarming, which
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has been exploited as a way of dealing with oily waste. The ex situ
techniques are described in more detail in the chapter on disposal.
The main factors that influence the biodegradation process are the
availability of oxygen and nutrients. Many techniques are therefore
focused on measures that might be taken to manipulate the oxygen and
nutrient levels to create optimum conditions for enhanced biodegradation.
These are commonly termed biostimulation techniques. An alternate
approach is to introduce additional micro-organisms, to supplement those
present, and this is commonly termed bioaugmentation. Biostimulation
and bioaugmentation are not mutually exclusive and may be carried out
together.
An additional measure, phytoremediation, takes advantage of an alternate
biological process, namely the tendency of some plants to draw
contaminants from the ground or alter them in the bio-chemical process
of their growth, or enhancing microbiological activity in the sediment
(around the roots). Phytoremediation is also considered to be a bioreme-
diation technique.
10.3.1 Biostimulation
Most porous shorelines (sand, gravel, pebble and cobble) have very limited
amounts of carbon available and the introduction of hydrocarbons during
an oil spill will encourage micro-organisms to proliferate. At low oil
concentrations (provisionally estimated by research to be 51g of oil per kg
of shore sediment), the availability of oxygen and the ambient concen-
trations of nitrogen and phosphorous, should be sufficient for the oil
degradation process to take place rapidly. However, at higher oil
concentrations, the growth of micro-organisms will become restricted
due to limiting levels of either oxygen or nutrients. Biostimulation is the
active provision of sufficient quantities of oxygen and nutrients to sustain
the micro-organisms so that they will continue to proliferate and maintain
the biodegradation process.
Nutrient addition
Nutrients may be applied to the shoreline to maintain sufficient
concentrations. A commonly accepted ratio between carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus is C:N:P 100:10:1. The biodegradation process takes
place at the interface between hydrocarbon and water molecules.
Nutrients therefore need to be available in soluble form amongst the
individual sediment particles that make up the shoreline. Trials have been
carried out on a variety of application methods. They include liquid
fertilizers and commercial agricultural fertilizers which may be obtained
readily and easily applied. Solid, slow-release forms, such as briquettes,
have also been tested, but need to be sufficiently dense and well tethered to
avoid physical abrasion and rapid dissolution by tides and wave action.
Slow release pellets and granules may offer an alternative, releasing
nutrients on contact with sea or rain water, but can also be washed away
before being effective. More recent developments include oleophilic
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nutrient formulations that may be attracted to the oil itself, reducing the
tendency to be washed away. When applying nutrients in any of these
forms, care must be taken to avoid over-application and nutrient
accumulation, as this can cause eutrophication and toxic algal blooms.
Aeration
A shortage of oxygen can occur when the permeability of the shore
sediment is insufficient to let the oxygen through to the micro-organisms.
In some cases, it may be the presence of the oil itself that has reduced the
permeability, clogging the sediment interstitial spaces. To maintain
aerobic conditions, the sediment may need to be physically disturbed by
periodic raking, tilling or harrowing, either by hand or with a rotavator.
This is a common feature of the ex situ technique of landfarming and trials
also indicate some success for in situ scenarios. However, some environ-
mental systems are particularly sensitive to physical intrusion of any kind.
Conventional shoreline cleanup methods are generally precluded or
severely restricted in these places, and physical disturbance to encourage
aeration should be considered if, and only to the extent that, no
environmental damage will be caused. Also, when moving or disturbing
materials on any shore, care should be taken not to bury the oil deeper in
the sediment.
10.3.2 Bioaugmentation
Some research has focused on the addition of micro-organisms to increase
their quantity and diversity, so that biodegradation is accelerated.
However, the introduced varieties are rarely as well adapted to that
particular environment as indigenous ones. Competition favours the pre-
existing micro-organisms, in part, as they are adapted to the environ-
mental conditions at the site of interest. There is also a more general
concern over the intentional introduction of foreign and/or genetically
engineered micro-organisms into an ecosystem. Trials have shown little or
no success and this technique presently offers much less promise when
compared with possible biostimulation options.
10.3.3 Phytoremediation
This is the process of utilizing plant growth to accelerate the biodegrada-
tion of oil. The hydrocarbons in the ground are either altered in the process
of plant growth, or are taken up and metabolized by vegetation itself. These
features have previously received attention more as a possible long-term
remediation technique to improve land contaminated by industrial
activity. Nonetheless, phytoremediation may offer opportunities in oil
spills, particularly in freshwater wetlands and saltmarshes. In these areas,
only minimal conventional cleanup is usually carried out. Phytoremedia-
tion may offer opportunities, either through the addition of fertilizers to
stimulate existing plant growth, or by introducing new plants that are
typical of the affected area, once the residual oil concentrations have
diminished to levels that the plant can tolerate. In some cases, restoration
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of plant growth has the added benefit of preventing or minimizing
detrimental effects of erosion.
10.4 Opportunities for bioremediation
There may be a variety of shorelines affected by an oil spill, each with its
own features that need to be considered when deciding on shoreline
response strategies. These will include the areas sensitivity to oil pollution
and its sensitivity to different cleanup techniques. It is an important part
of the contingency planning process to identify these features and to
assess each areas characteristics, importance and priority for cleanup,
based on environmental, social and economic criteria.
There are several stages in any shoreline response, described in detail in a
separate chapter of this Manual. In brief, primary cleanup should be
carried out to remove free oil and heavy contamination, as quickly as
possible, to avoid remobilization and pollution of other areas. Secondary
cleaning may be necessary, to remove further oil and oily material and
then, if necessary residues and stains.
Bioremediation is not a technique to be used generally during the primary
stage of cleaning. A possible exception to this may be for sensitive
shorelines such as saltmarshes and wetlands, where only limited
conventional cleaning is possible, and reliance is generally placed on
natural recovery. Bioremediation offers promise, at the secondary stage, in
some circumstances, to enhance the final breakdown of remnants to an
acceptable level for habitat restoration.
Bioremediation is not viable as a response option either at sea or on
exposed shores, since the bioremediation agents are likely to be diluted or
washed away before they can have any potentially beneficial effect.
The type of oil and its condition when it comes ashore are also important.
Light refined products, diesel and some very light crude oils can contain
compounds that are toxic to micro-organisms, causing death or inhibiting
their activities if the concentrations are high enough. Weathered crude oils
and very heavy crude oils may contain high levels of complex compounds
that are poorly degradable, reducing the scope for bioremediation.
Bioremediation is also sensitive to ambient temperatures (sediments and
seawater): when the temperature drops, biodegradation activity slows
down. As a general rule, bioremediation is less effective at temperatures
below 58C.
Bioremediation requires careful consideration if it is to be used in practice.
Biostimulation, nutrient addition and aeration, appears at this stage to
offer the most promise. In practice, steps need to be taken on site to
establish the nature of the shoreline and the residual oiled conditions after
conventional cleanup has been terminated together with other environ-
mental parameters that influence the biodegradation processes (such as
temperature, nutrient ambient levels and oxygen availability). The
possibility of using bioremediation needs to be feasible in practice, avoids
151
causing further harm in its implementation, offers a reasonable chance of
succeeding and is of significance when compared with what would take
place naturally.
If bioremediation is implemented, the situation will need to be periodically
monitored to take into account changes in conditions resulting from
natural processes or consequence of the treatment. Bioremediation
treatments should be terminated when it is deemed that the contaminant
concentrations are reduced to acceptable levels (according to the usage
and environmental specificity of the site) or if detrimental effects from the
treatment strategy are identified. Cost-benefit analysis should also be
considered in this decision-making process.
As with all spill response measures, it is unrealistic to expect bioremedia-
tion techniques to remove all traces of residual hydrocarbons. In terms of
ecological relevance, clear evidence of habitat recovery such as toxicity
limits within regulatory guidelines and/or the return of original commun-
ity structure should be considered as measurement criteria.
10.5 Contingency planning
As with all oil spill response measures, bioremediation requires careful
planning in order to achieve the desired results. It is a complex process
that clearly is not suitable for all scenarios and should be applied only on
those sites satisfying specific criteria. The identification of such sites
requires detailed analysis and consideration before inclusion in the
contingency plan. Clear guidance should be set out in contingency plans,
addressing such issues as its validity and opportunities for use at different
sites, together with procedures for approvals for the different processes
and products. The most important criteria to be examined when
determining site suitability are:
.1 geomorphological characteristics (particularly the shoreline
substrate topography);
.2 vegetation features (i.e. ecological association and protected
species);
.3 oceanographic features (such as shoreline exposure), wave
characteristics, tidal range and near-shore current regimes;
.4 climate (particularly seasonal ambient temperatures and rain-
fall); and
.5 shoreline usage and sensitivities.
Additional more specific information relevant to the application of
bioremediation techniques should be included in maps covering each
area. These include sediment characteristics, background nutrient con-
centrations and oxygen availability (dissolved interstitial oxygen). In
addition, those in charge should ensure appropriate safety procedures
are in place for bio-remediation operations, which comply with local and
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Where the potential for bioremediation has been confirmed, the resource
requirements for its application should also be identified in the
contingency plan. In many situations there is insufficient knowledge and
experience for bioremediation to be readily used in practice and it may
often be necessary to call on specific external expertise if this is not locally
available.
Bioremediation has attracted attention, offering the impression of being
environmentally friendly, relatively simple and possibly inexpensive.
However, the feasibility, applicability and overall benefits must be carefully
evaluated in applying this technique. The environment is a complex
system that often may not be manipulated as easily as hoped. Nonetheless,
in some scenarios bioremediation can offer opportunities to increase the
rate of natural degradation and in some circumstances results of a
successful operation could be deemed to be of significant benefit.
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Chapter 11
Management and disposal
of oil and oily debris
11.1 Introduction
The management and disposal of oil recovered at sea and from the shore is
an integral part of any oil spill response and should therefore be included
as an essential part of the oil spill contingency planning process.
Consideration should also be given to the minimization of waste and the
separation and segregation of different types of wastes, both at the
contingency planning stage and throughout all stages of a cleanup
operation, as this can significantly simplify subsequent decisions on
treatment and disposal options. The methods for temporary storage, waste
management and routes for final disposal should be chosen with care to
minimize environmental impact caused by those operations.
Consideration should always be given to cleanup techniques and
treatment methods that will reduce the amount of material to be sent for
final disposal. These methods, which should be considered as a priority
during oil spill contingency planning, should follow the established
principles of sustainable waste management, namely:
.1 prevent and minimize;
.2 recovery through reuse and recycling;
.3 disposal without harm to human health or the environment.
The final disposal of very large amounts of oil and oily debris can present
major logistical problems. The selection of the disposal route for any
particular waste stream must be based upon an assessment of the best
environmental option and fully reflect any local regulations covering waste
disposal that may restrict where contaminated materials can be disposed
of and in what concentrations and quantity.
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Floating oil and oily debris
Where possible, recovered oil should be recycled or processed through an
oil refinery. Although some recovered oil may be suitable as a supple-
mentary fuel for process heating, provided that it can be blended into a
clean fuel stream, recycling to produce other oil products is rarely
possible due to weathering of the recovered oil and contamination with
sand, salt and debris.
Health and safety precautions must always be considered for the handling,
transport and storage of both recovered oil and oily debris. Those in charge
should ensure appropriate safety procedures are in place which comply
with local and national legislation, and operators should be properly
trained in the execution of their operations.
11.2 Types of collected material
The recovered materials may consist of:
.1 oil or emulsified oil recovered at sea;
.2 oil or emulsified oil recovered during shoreline cleanup
operations;
.3 oiled sand;
.4 oiled beach debris (wood, plastic or seaweed), birds and
mammals;
.5 tar balls;
.6 oil contaminated cleanup materials, equipment and protective
clothing; and
.7 residues generated by wash-down stations employed to clean
response equipment.
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Oil recovered from the sea may be contaminated with floating debris
(flotsam and jetsam) and many oils will have also emulsified to incorporate
up to 7080% by volume water. Generally emulsified oils are always more
difficult to collect than fresh oil and the formation of an emulsion
significantly increases both the volume of material to be handled and the
degree of treatment required. In order to reduce the overall volume of
emulsified material to be handled, de-emulsifying chemicals can be added
to separate the seawater and free oil that can be removed by conventional
methods. The separation process will however generate large quantities of
oily water, which will often require further treatment before release back
into the environment. Oiled debris may be separated by recovery devices
and stored as a separate waste stream for future treatment and disposal.
Oil-contaminated cleanup equipment and materials
There is significant benefit to be gained if during the recovery operations
different waste streams are segregated as a routine activity. This can make
subsequent treatment and disposal of the waste cheaper and often less
problematic. At the very least, contaminated materials should be
segregated into solid and liquid non-biodegradable (oiled plastics,
contaminated cleanup equipment etc.) and biodegradable (for example,
oiled seaweed) types, as this facilitates more effective waste treatment.
Wherever possible further segregation into individual waste streams
should be carried out. Oiled beach material (sand, pebbles etc.) may be
amenable for in situ treatment, e.g. beach material washing and
subsequent return to the original location.
Oil or emulsified oil recovered from the shoreline will always contain some
beach material such as sand, shingle, pebbles or cobbles plus other debris
such as seaweed. Recovery techniques should always ensure that the
maximum amount of oil contamination is removed with the minimum of
uncontaminated material. Care must always be taken during shoreline
clean up to minimize the amount of sand collected with the oil.
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Table 11-1: Options for separation and disposal of oil and debris
Type of
material
Separation methods
Disposal and recovery
methods
LIQUIDS
Non-emulsified
oilsy
Gravity separation of free water
Mechanical removal of
separated oil
Use of recovered oil as fuel or
refinery feedstock
Separated water discharged
back into the environment
Emulsified oils Emulsion broken to release
water by:
heat treatment
emulsion-breaking
chemicals
mixing with sand
separated oil
Use of recovered oil as fuel or
refinery feedstock
Incineration
Return of separated sand to
source
Separated water may require
further treatment before
discharge back into the
environment
SOLIDS
Oil mixed with
sand
Collection of liquid oil leaching
from sand during temporary
storage
Extraction of oil from sand by
washing with water or solvent
Removal of solid oils by sieving
Use of recovered liquid oil as
fuel or refinery feedstock
Direct disposal
Stabilization with inorganic
material
Degradation through land
farming, composting on site
Bioremediation
Incineration
Burial in well aerated sandy
soils (biodegradation)
environment
Oil mixed with
cobbles, pebbles
or shingle
from beach material during
temporary storage
Extraction of oil from beach
material by washing with
water or solvent
Direct disposal
Incineration
environment
Oil mixed with
wood, plastics,
seaweed and
sorbents
from debris during
Temporary storage
Flushing of oil from debris with
water
separated oil
Direct disposal
Incineration
Degradation through
landfarming, composting or
on site
Bioremediation
environment
Tar balls Separation from sand by
sieving
Direct disposal
Incineration
158
11.3 On-site temporary storage and separation
for liquids and solids
Temporary storage facilities are needed when the recovered material
requires processing or treatment before disposal or, when the location of
the cleanup operations, or the quantity of oil and oily debris collected,
makes transport of waste directly to the final disposal site impractical or
uneconomic.
Oil recovered at sea will normally be stored in integral tanks on board the
recovery vessels, in towed floating tanks or in towed or self-propelled
barges prior to offloading into larger vessels or direct to storage facilities on
land, for onward transportation to the final disposal site. These sites
should be identified and established at an early stage, and where possible
should be identified in local contingency plans.
Temporary on-site storage facilities during shoreline cleanup operations
should also be identified and established at an early stage, and where
possible should be identified in local contingency plans. The size, number
and type of facilities required will depend on the amount and the nature of
the material to be recovered. It is important to make sure segregation into
the various waste streams is possible and to keep separate the liquids (oil
and emulsified oil) from the solids (oiled sand, oiled debris and used
cleanup materials).
The temporary storage facilities should be near to the centre of cleanup
operations with good access to public roads. Cleaning facilities for
personnel, equipment and vehicles should be established close to the
storage area so that pollution is not spread from the facility onto public
roads and into personnel accommodation areas. Due attention should be
given to clear delineation of oily areas and clean areas. Temporary storage
areas should be selected and operated in such a way that any risk of
contamination of the surrounding environment is minimized and should
ideally be identified as part of the contingency planning process. The areas
should be:
.1 remote from residential areas;
.2 outside any area that is considered to be vulnerable to
groundwater contamination;
.3 outside any area that is considered to be of high environmental
sensitivity;
.4 not within 10 m of any watercourse and ideally as remote as
practically possible; and
.5 provided with facilities to treat or contain spillages and rainfall.
On occasion it may be unavoidable to locate temporary storage facilities in
an area that is particularly sensitive to groundwater or surface water
contamination. In such cases it will be necessary to provide additional
containment safeguards including bunded and sealed lagoons or double-
159
lined cells, together with drainage to prevent contaminated surface water
run-off from access and handling areas.
Temporary storage pit, lined with heavy-duty plastic sheeting
In less sensitive areas, a pit lined with heavy gauge continuous plastic
sheet can be used for the temporary storage of recovered oil and oily
debris. Should the plastic liner be damaged, oil will leak from the pit and
contaminate the environment. It is essential therefore that liners are laid
on a bed of sand or fine gravel to avoid damage (see figure 11-1) and that
the top of the liner is covered with a protective layer of sand before use. The
thickness of the protective layers and the need for multiple liners will vary
depending upon the proposed operational activity. If for example the lined
area is to be subject to heavy traffic movements then multiple liners
should be used. All liners however should be checked for integrity at
regular intervals. The width of the pit (at the bottom) should be more than
23 m so that there is easy access, while the length could be 1020 m or
more. In order to reduce the risk of overflow during heavy rainfall, pits
should not be over-filled and liquid levels regularly controlled and
adjusted.
160
Figure 11-1 Pit for storage of liquid oil and debris
161
A large quantity of seawater will normally be collected with the recovered
oil. A method of separating the oil and water should be provided near to the
temporary storage area. Separation can be achieved by allowing the
mixture to settle for some time and then removing the floating oil with a
small skimmer, or by means of more specialized oil/water separation
equipment. The seawater separated from the oily water mixture can be
returned to the sea, provided the oil content is sufficiently low to meet the
requirements of the regulatory authority. The remaining oil should be
removed for final disposal. Figure 11-2 illustrates a simple portable plant
for the separation of oil/water mixtures. The separation and treatment
area should be subject to the same environmental controls as any
temporary storage area.
Figure 11-2 A simple portable plant for separation
of oily-water mixtures
Solid waste materials that need temporary storage include contaminated
sand, pebbles, shingle, debris and cleanup materials such as oiled
sorbents, as well as drums and plastic bags containing recovered
materials. All of these items should be stored on a suitable level surface,
e.g. a parking area or field adjacent to the shoreline, for subsequent
collection and transportation to the final disposal site. This area should
first be covered with a continuous heavy gauge plastic liner and
surrounded by a perimeter bank of soil or sand. If vehicle access is
required to this storage area, the plastic liner should be protected with a
layer of sand or soil. Drainage from the site may require collection and
treatment prior to controlled discharge into the environment. Figure 11-3
illustrates such a temporary storage site. The site should be managed to
162
allow physical segregation of the different waste streams and also facilitate
waste separation activities to take place.
Figure 11-3 Temporary storage for solid oil-contaminated wastes
11.4 Land transport
11.4.1 Transport of liquids
Any conventional road tanker can be used for out the transportation of
liquids from the collection area to an interim storage site and the final
disposal site. If these are not available, improvisation will be required and
vacuum trucks, gully-suckers and agricultural vacuum tank vehicles can
all readily be used. The use of flatbed lorries fitted with open tanks is not
an attractive option because of the inherent environmental and health and
safety risks of spillage. Attention to safety, regulations and codes of
practice must always be of prime consideration when using vehicles to
transport volatile and liquid oil.
11.4.2 Transport of oily debris
Ordinary open backed trucks are suitable for transporting solid waste
material. A lining of heavy-duty plastic sheeting should be used to prevent
oil or emulsion leaking from the vehicle.
Heavy-duty plastic bags of about 25 kg capacity (or larger, provided that
they are only filled to a maximumof 25 kg) can be used to collect oily beach
material and debris. This is a convenient method of collection, but
problems can be encountered at the final disposal site since it may prove
necessary to separate oily waste from the plastic sacks.
163
Stockpile of bagged oily waste material
200 oil drums are useful for collection, storage and transporting oily
materials from a beach. For ease of handling, they should only be partially
filled. Metal or plastic dustbins or other liquid-tight garbage containers can
also be used. Collected material should not be stored in drums or bags for
extended periods of time since they tend to deteriorate rapidly.
Before transporting oily waste from the temporary storage area to the final
disposal site, the appropriate authorities should be consulted on a suitable
route. A place for cleaning vehicles, in particular road wheels, should be
established at each end of the route to prevent oil contamination of the
roads. The vehicles and hauliers used must also fully comply with all
regulatory requirements and controls.
11.5 Waste treatment methods
Several methods are available for the separation of liquid waste from solid
waste and for separating liquid oil and emulsified oil from oil contami-
nated water. Such techniques reduce the overall amount of material for
final disposal.
164
Oiled beach materials, such as sand and pebbles, can be washed with
solvents (to be recovered) or with water (plus oil/water separation by
centrifugation or hydrocyclones). This may lower the oil content to a level
that may permit the cleaned material to be returned to the beach. Any
aqueous effluents may require additional treatment before discharge into
the environment.
11.6 Waste disposal methods
The principle methods for the disposal of recovered oil and oily debris are:
.1 Oil reclamation, where the oil is recovered for further use as a
fuel at an oil refinery or other heavy industry applications, such
as cement kilns;
.2 Stabilization, where the oily wastes are treated in such a way
that they no longer constitute a threat to the environment;
.3 Direct disposal, where the oil is disposed of at a pre-designated
and regulated waste disposal site;
.4 Incineration, at or near the spill site or at a fixed incinerator;
.5 Bioremediation, either in situ at the spill site or at a land
farming location and composting;
.6 Dune disposal, either near the spill site or at another location.
In practice several waste disposal methods can be employed because
different recovered materials are amenable to treatment by different
methods. The primary aim should be to recover as much of the oil for use
as a secondary raw material, such as low-grade fuel for industry, and to
minimize the quantities buried in landfills.
11.7 Reclamation of oil
When planning for the final disposal of recovered oil, refineries and
industries using heavy oil should be asked if they are able to receive and
process recovered oil. Refineries may be able to accept such oil even if it is
mixed with water and some sand but the presence of salt may cause
difficulties. Recovered oil can often be taken as refinery slop or accepted
in the reception facility of an oil terminal.
Free water collected with oil should be separated at the on-site temporary
storage either by decanting or by means of a skimmer. However, some
water will inevitably be present in the oil in the form of an emulsion
containing typically from 50% to 80% seawater. Where possible, these
emulsions should be treated on site to minimize the volume of liquid to be
transported.
11.7.1 Emulsion-breaking
Some emulsions can be separated into oil and water components on a
large scale by simple gravity separation or by heat treatment followed by
165
gravity separation. Heating the emulsion reduces the oil viscosity and
promotes a faster and more efficient separation. Emulsified oils are
generally of very high viscosity and as a result convection cannot be relied
upon to transport heat throughout the contents of a storage tank. The
emulsion should preferably be heated by circulation through an external
heat exchanger. The temperature should be controlled within safe working
limits. Generally, a working temperature range of 60668C should be used
with a maximum temperature of 808C to maintain operational safety. The
duration of treatment can be established empirically.
Stable emulsions can be broken by the use of commercial demulsifying
chemicals (emulsion-breakers or demulsifiers). These are added at
relatively low concentrations (0.1%0.5% of the bulk volume to be treated)
and they reduce the stability of an emulsion which leads to separation of
the oil and water. There is no single chemical that is suitable for breaking
of all types of emulsion and it may be necessary to carry out trials to
determine the most effective chemical and the optimal dose rate.
Demulsifying chemicals should be added during transfer of emulsion
from the collection device to a tank to ensure good mixing and therefore
minimum dose rate. The chemical can be injected into the inlet side of a
pump or into an in-line static mixer incorporated into a vacuum intake.
After separation, the water phase will contain most of the emulsion
breaker and a small volume (up to 0.15%) of oil, so care should be exercized
when disposing of the separated water.
Some emulsions can be partially broken by mixing thoroughly with sand
in a concrete mixer. An emulsion containing 70% water, when mixed with
approximately 50% by volume of sand, can reduce the water content by
half. The separated free water can often be returned to the beach although
some additional effluent treatment may be required. The oiled sand will
also need to be disposed of through an identified route.
11.7.2 Recovery of oil from beach material
If the recovered beach material contains greater than 20% oil it may be
possible to recover this oil by washing the oiled material with water,
sometimes in conjunction with a suitable solvent such as gas oil. Oiled
beach material contained in a pit can be water-washed at low pressure to
float the oil off the debris. The resulting oil/water mixture can then be
pumped away and separated by gravity. Separation can also be achieved in
a closed system using hot water.
A range of equipment is available for washing oiled material. This ranges
from small concrete mixers for small-scale operations to specialist sand
washing equipment and mineral processing equipment such as that used
in mining and quarrying for large-scale continuous treatment. The cost of
cleaning large amounts of beach material on site may compare favourably
with other methods that involve transporting the materials some distance
from the coast.
166
Beaches that are moderately polluted with tar balls are not usually
amenable to cleanup by conventional plant and in most cases manual
cleanup should be used. The oil and sand mixture can be sieved either
mechanically or manually to reduce the quantities of oily waste generated
material. Oil lumps can be collected for disposal and the sand returned to
the beach, thus reducing any risk of erosion.
11.8 Stabilization of oiled beach materials
A useful approach adopted in past incidents is to dispose of oily sand by
binding it with inorganic substances such as quicklime, cement,
pulverised fuel ash waste, etc. This forms an inert product, which does
not allow the oil to leach out. Subject to local regulation, the stabilised
material may then be disposed of under less stringent conditions than oily
sand and can also be used for land reclamation and road construction
with no requirement for high load-bearing properties. There are also a
number of commercial products, based on the same raw materials but
treated with various chemicals, which are claimed to improve the
efficiency of the technique. This application is inappropriate if the oily
sand contains large amounts of wood and seaweed. The area where the
stabilization process is carried out should be subject to the same
environmental controls as any temporary storage area and should be
identified in the contingency planning process.
The amount of binding agent required is primarily dependent on the water
content of the waste rather than the amount of oil and is best determined
experimentally on site. The process is likely to be more efficient if the oily
waste is well mixed, producing a homogenous oil distribution through the
solid fraction. For quicklime the amount required is between 5% and 20%
weight of the bulk material to be treated. Treatment can be either carried
out using a mixing plant or a layering technique. The former, whilst
offering better quality control and less land area, requires the use of
expensive equipment including a continuous drum mixer. Smaller
quantities could be treated in a batch process using standard concrete
mixers. Provided there is sufficient land available close to the location of
the spill, the layering technique is probably the most cost effective. The
waste is spread out to a depth of about 0.20.3 m and mixed using a
pulverising mixer to incorporate the lime.
In some situations it may be preferable to carry out primary mixing in
lined pits at the site of the spill to render the oiled material more suitable
for transport. The final treatment can then be undertaken at a larger
reception facility, subject to at least the same environmental controls as
any temporary storage area and which should be identified in the
contingency planning process, using specialized equipment.
Inevitably, stabilization techniques give rise to a great deal of corrosive
dust and if possible the treatment site should be selected so as to minimize
its spread to adjacent property. It is also important that operating
personnel wear protective clothing and facemasks to protect skin, lungs
167
and eyes. It is always advisable to consult with health and safety
consultants with appropriate expertise.
11.9 Direct disposal
Direct disposal includes disposal of the waste at a landfill site specifically
for industrial waste or for co-disposal with domestic wastes. Direct
disposal is only appropriate for wastes containing less than 20% oil.
The choice of direct disposal sites must always be agreed with the local
authorities responsible for waste issues. Waste disposal sites are often
regulated with respect to the type and quantity of waste that can be
accepted. In some countries this method of disposal is prohibited and in
many others is severely restricted.
When burying oil or oily debris in landfill sites, extreme care must be
exercized to prevent oil leaching into aquifers or surface water. The site
should be adequately lined to contain any leachates and test wells at the
site should be established so that water quality monitoring can take place
to be sure that oil is not leaching into groundwater.
Co-disposal of oily material with domestic waste at a landfill site
When regulatory controls allow, co-disposal of oil or oily wastes with
domestic waste may be an acceptable method at some sites even though
oil biodegradation is likely to be relatively slow due to the lack of oxygen.
However, oil appears to remain firmly absorbed by all types of domestic
waste with little tendency to leach out. Local regulations may control the
handling of such wastes at a site. As a general guide, oily waste should be
deposited on top of at least 4 m of domestic refuse either in surface strips
0.1 m thick or in slit trenches 0.5 m deep to allow free drainage of water.
The oily material should be covered by a layer of soil followed by a
168
minimum of 2 m of domestic waste to facilitate degradation and prevent
the emergence of oil to the surface when subjected to compression by site
vehicles.
11.10 Incineration
The open burning of oily debris is not recommended except in very remote
areas since it causes atmospheric pollution. Close attention must be given
to national environmental legislation. When oil is burnt in the open it also
tends to spread and can leach into the ground. In addition, a tarry residue
may remain since it is rarely possible to achieve complete combustion.
These problems can be overcome by using an incinerator. Portable
incinerators may be available which are able to contain the oily waste
and create the high temperatures necessary for total combustion. The
rotary kiln and open-hearth types are most appropriate for oils with a high
solid content. As a general rule, incinerators used for domestic waste are
not suitable since chlorides from seawater may give rise to corrosion. High
temperature industrial waste incinerators, whilst likely to tolerate salts,
may not have sufficient capacity to deal with the additional burden created
by a large quantity of oily waste. However, if long-term storage is available,
this may be an appropriate route. In some countries both portable and
fixed incinerators are subject to stringent regulatory controls which
should be adhered to at all times.
Improvised small-scale incinerator
One of the devices developed to dispose of oil and debris in remote
locations consists of a kiln that can be assembled on site from low cost
materials such as 200 drums. Oil-contaminated beach material is
169
introduced manually at one end of the kiln at a rate of up to seven tonnes
per hour and clean sand and pebbles are discharged at the other end.
Combustion is self-sustaining if the feed material contains at least 25% oil
and no more than about 50% water. The lifetime of the unit may be quite
short but should be capable of dealing with at least 100600 tonnes of
contaminated sand. A simpler portable burner suitable for the small-scale
burning of tar balls and debris can be constructed froma single open 200
drum. Air is supplied tangentially from a suitable compressor or fan
blower to support combustion. The construction and use of such devices
should be subject to a health and safety risk assessment. It should be
noted that the gaseous products of incomplete combustion of waste oils
can be particularly noxious.
11.11 Bioremediation
Landfarming and burial in sand dunes are disposal options that make use
of biodegradation. Information on other bioremediation techniques is
provided in a separate chapter.
11.11.1 Landfarming
It is well established that populations of hydrogen degrading microbes
increase rapidly in the sea in the presence of oil and in the soil around an
oil spill on land. A number of oil refineries around the world have
constructed landfarms to deal with oily wastes for many years. Land-
farming involves the spreading of the oily material over the soil in thin
layers and ploughing it in. In many cases, aerobic decomposition of oily
debris is largely completed in one to three years. Although low temper-
atures slow down the rate of oxidation, landfarming has been successfully
applied in cold conditions. In subtropical and tropical climates rates of
hydrocarbon degradation are more rapid.
Landfarming
Landfarming requires adequate areas of land within a reasonable distance
of the spill site. Landfarming sites should not be located where under-
170
ground and other water supplies would be affected by the possible release
of contaminants. In addition the soil permeability should be low to avoid
percolation of leachates into the ground water. Sites may be divided into
sections by roads to provide access for heavy trucks. In some areas it may
be necessary to establish temporary roads. Sites should be cleared of
brush, timber and rocks larger than about 30 cm. Before applying a layer
of oily debris, the top soil is best broken up using a bulldozer or a ripper
and runoff diversion channels should be constructed to prevent surface
drainage from flowing through the area. A bund and a gravity interceptor
are necessary to retain any oil leached out by rainwater. Oily debris should
be free of large solids and should be spread evenly over the surface in a
layer 2 to 10 cm thick. The material should be allowed, if possible, to
weather until it no longer appears wet and sticky. After weathering the
debris should be thoroughly mixed into the soil with a plough, discer or a
roto-tiller. If the area is frequented by shorebirds the ploughing should
take place immediately. The mixing should be repeated at increasing
intervals to increase aeration and hence the rate of natural biodegrada-
tion.
The optimal soil pH to support this process is a value higher than 6.5, if
necessary this can be achieved by the addition of lime. Fertilizers such as
urea, ammonium phosphate etc. may be added to enhance oil degradation
rates: as a rule 10 parts nitrogen to 1 part phosphate should be added per
100 parts of oil.
If landfarming techniques are to be employed the use of natural sorbents
such as straw and bark during the clean up are preferable to synthetic
materials since they break down more rapidly.
Once most of the oil has degraded, the soil should be capable of supporting
a wide variety of plants, including trees and grasses. After use of the site,
particularly agricultural use, requires careful consideration and assess-
ment as the possibility of contamination of the food chain may exist.
Another effective means of enhancing degradation is to employ composting
techniques, particularly for biodegradable waste materials such as oiled
seaweed or for the treatment of any natural sorbents, such as straw, peat
and bark, used in the clean-up operation. Provided the mixtures contain
relatively low levels of oil, they can be stacked into heaps to facilitate
composting. Because the heaps retain heat the technique is particularly
suitable in colder climates where degradation through land farming is
slow. However, this method is only applicable for small-scale operations.
Biodegradable waste materials, such as oiled seaweed, may be composted,
provided that the degree of oiling is not too great. Most types of oil will be
biodegraded during this process. Successful composting techniques will
result in material to be considered as non-oiled waste.
11.12 Dune disposal
It has been demonstrated that significant quantities of oiled sand can be
disposed of through biodegradation by burying in areas of stable coastal
171
sandy areas and dune pastures, in areas of low environmental sensitivity.
This technique appears to work best when the oily sand is buried where it
will not become waterlogged.
172
Chapter 12
Spills of heavy fuel oils Features
and countermeasures
12.1 Introduction
Heavy fuels oils and emulsified fuels may exhibit unusual properties when
spilled, and may pose unusual problems for cleanup. These products may
have densities that are close to or greater than that of water and have very
high viscosities at ambient temperatures. This section of the Manual is a
summary of key information on heavy fuel oils including their behaviour
when spilled and potential strategies for cleanup measures. The emphasis
is on highlighting the main differences in the behaviour and cleanup of
such spills; techniques that are comparable to those for more typical oils
are not repeated in detail here.
Heavy fuel oil and emulsified products are used as fuels for power
generation, and are being shipped by tank vessels. They are also being
used to a limited extent as fuel for marine vessels. Although they presently
represent only a fraction of the oil shipped on a world-wide basis, they are
nonetheless of great importance in ports that handle these fuels.
As a group, these products are referred to by a variety of names and
classifications. In U.S. Coast Guard regulations they are known as Group
V oils, which are defined as persistent oils with a specific gravity greater
than 1.0. They are also known as LAPIO oils, or Low API Oils a low API
gravity corresponds to a high density or non-floating oil.
In either case these are generally heavy residual oils with few light end
components. They may be blended with lighter oils to make them easier to
handle. Other products in this category are very heavy crude oils, bitumen,
and emulsified fuel, which is a bitumen-in-water emulsion.
12.2 Characteristics of heavy huel oils
Compared with most crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fuel
oils have a much lower concentration of light ends or light aromatic
components. This leads to the following key property differences:
.1 density or specific gravity is higher, and may be close to or
exceeding that of water these oils may be neutrally buoyant or
may even sink when spilled;
.2 viscosity is much higher the oil will have less tendency to
spread out once spilled (in many cases it will not spread at all)
and the spill will be very persistent; and
173
.3 the pour point is often higher, and may be close to or exceed
ambient water temperatures the oil will gel and resist
spreading and natural dispersion.
A summary of the key physical properties as compared with diesel and
crude oil is shown in table 12-1.
Table 12-1 Typical properties of heavy fuel oils vs. other oils
Diesel Crude oil Heavy fuel oil
Emulsified
fuels
Bitumen
specific gravity @ 158C 0.81 to 0.85 0.8 to 0.98 40.95 1.01 1.02
viscosity,cSt @ 308C 5 10 5 100 4300 4300 4100,000
pour point, 8C 30 30 to +25 0 to +20 0 to +10 +40
Due to their high viscosity and pour point, these products are difficult to
pump. To facilitate their handling, the properties of these oils may be
modified by the addition of chemicals or may be diluted with lighter
products to decrease their viscosity. In many cases, the product is heated
and kept at an elevated temperature for the same reason. In either case,
this advantage may be lost if the product is spilled, as the diluent or
chemical leaches out of the oil, or the product cools to ambient temper-
atures.
In the case of emulsified bitumen, the emulsion will generally separate
when the product is spilled with the loss of the chemical emulsifier or
surfactant. This means that the spill behaviour will be that of bitumen
particles rather than the original emulsion.
12.3 Behaviour of heavy fuel oils when spilled
In chapter 3, the behaviour of spilled oil was described in terms of the
main processes of spreading, evaporation, natural dispersion, emulsifica-
tion, and spill movement. The following are the main differences in each of
these processes with heavy fuel oils. The general behaviour of emulsified
fuels is also described below.
Spreading
As noted above, the very high viscosity and relatively high pour points of
these oils means that they will resist spreading once spilled. Rather than
forming thin slicks that will rapidly spread over the water surface, spills of
heavy fuel oils will more likely form mats and clumps of oil that may be
several millimetres thick or even several centimetres, especially with the
effects of the wind. Slicks are unlikely to be uniform, with large variations
in thickness. After only a short period on the water surface, the slicks will
likely be patchy with areas of open water between the thick mats and
clumps of oil.
Evaporation
Evaporation is of little significance for heavy fuel oils as they have very few
light components.
174
Natural dispersion
The high viscosity of these oils means that they will be unlikely to disperse
even in strong seas. (The exception to this is emulsified fuel, which is
discussed separately, later in this chapter.)
Emulsification
Heavy fuel oils may form an emulsion. This means that the viscosity of the
spilled material may increase even further and that the volume of spilled
material can increase substantially.
Spill movement
Oils that are at near-neutral or negative buoyancy may tend to submerge
below the water surface, particularly in an environment with waves or
strong currents. In this event, their movement will no longer be governed
by wind-driven surface currents. Instead they will be carried by subsurface
currents, which could include tidal and other components.
Emulsified fuels
Emulsified fuels present a special case for spill behaviour. When spilled,
the surfactant is released into the aqueous environment and the emulsion
generally separates into its components of water and bitumen. The rate at
which this occurs depends on the salinity, temperature, and energy of the
water.
A number of laboratory experiments and field trials has indicated that the
spilled product will involve up to three components: a sheen; a subsurface
cloud of dispersed bitumen droplets; and coalesced bitumen particles that
may resurface or float just beneath the water surface. In high energy seas
the droplets will disperse through the water column.
For small spills and when there is no containment, the vast majority of
emulsified bitumen can be expected to disperse. On the other hand, if the
spill can be contained and significant dilution is prevented, then a greater
percentage of the bitumen will probably re-coalesce and refloat.
Submergence
Due to their relatively high density, heavy fuel oils will have a greater
tendency to submerge below the water surface and in some cases sink to
the sea bottom. This will be particularly true in heavy seas, and in
freshwater (which has a lower density than seawater and hence a less
buoyant effect).
Sinking may also occur in nearshore areas where freshwater influences
decrease the salinity and hence the water density. Oils with a density near
that of water may submerge in one area only to resurface in another due to
local differences in water density. When oil picks up particulate or silt
material, the density may increase and promote sinking.
175
Chapter 12 Spills of heavy fuel oils Features and countermeasures
Persistence
Compared with crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fuel oils are
not as affected by the processes of evaporation and dispersion. As a result,
they tend to be very persistent in the marine environment.
Shoreline effects
In general, heavy fuels are quite viscous and will adhere to most shoreline
materials. Even in heavy seas, they are unlikely to be naturally cleaned off
shorelines and will persist until removed by cleanup operations.
After a few days of exposure to the elements, emulsified bitumen droplets
will weather and lose much of their stickiness. Like other heavy fuel oils
they will be very persistent on shorelines and will require treatment in
most cases.
Compared with crude oils and lighter refined products, heavy fuels are less
likely to penetrate shoreline sediments due to their poor flow properties.
They may however, may penetrate coarser sediments, and fine-grained
sediments in warm climates or when heated by the sun.
12.4 Response strategies
12.4.1 Surveillance and spill assessment
For spills of most oils, visual surveillance will be an important component
of spill monitoring and assessment. Monitoring a spill of heavy fuel oil can
be complicated by the potential submergence of the spill. While areas of
submerged oil in shallow waters are often readily evident via helicopter
overflights, those in deeper waters may require more sophisticated
tracking and monitoring techniques.
For spills that do submerge, spill tracking models can be used to forecast
possible slick movements. When these are used, their accuracy will depend
to a great extent on local knowledge concerning subsurface water currents,
which can change in magnitude and direction at different water depths. It
is important to note that oil which is submerged or dispersed will be
affected only by subsurface currents and not by wind-driven currents at
the water surface.
Subsurface drifting buoys or markers can be used to supplement model
forecasts. These devices are designed to float at a specified depth and drift
at a similar rate to submerged oil.
It may be possible to detect submerged and clouds of dispersed oil using
sophisticated instrumentation such as towed fluorometers and sonar or
underwater video camera systems. Furthermore, divers are often especially
effective at locating submerged oil in deep water natural collection areas
that have been previously identified through a review of bottom top-
ography charts.
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12.4.2 Containment
As with more conventional oils, containment is a preferred strategy for
minimizing the area affected by a spill and for concentrating the spill for
subsequent recovery. Containment of heavy oils can be complicated by
their tendency to submerge, but containment may be possible using
specially designed deep-skirted boom. A second option would be the use of
silt curtains, which are normally used to control turbidity during dredging
and construction operations. Silt curtains resemble conventional contain-
ment boom but have skirts that extend up to 3 to 5 m in depth, with a
weighted bottom edge to hold them against the sea bottom. The use of
deep-draft booms or silt curtains is probably applicable to harbours and
protected waters. Their use in unprotected waters or in a current will also
result in significant tow forces, which must be accounted for in the design
of the boom and towing or anchoring equipment.
When attempting to use a traditional sweep-type configuration for
containment, care must be taken to tow the containment boom at a slow
speed (i.e., 0.5 knots or less). In higher currents, submerged or dispersed
oil will most likely be carried past a boom. Tow vessels with variable-pitch
propellers are useful in this regard. Towing down-wind or down-current is
also useful to reduce the relative current speed.
Net-type booms may also be applicable to containment of oil that is
submerged or dispersed. Such booms have skirts made of fine-pore mesh.
The mesh is fine enough to provide a barrier to viscous oil, but its porous
nature allows water to pass through and thus reduce the towing loads on
the boom.
In protected waters or in calm conditions offshore, a teardrop config-
uration could also be used instead of a sweep-type strategy. In this case,
attempts would be made to surround the spill or portions of the spill. This
technique would be most applicable to a low-current situation, but could
also be used in the presence of currents by allowing the containment
configuration to drift with the current while recovery operations are
carried out.
12.4.3 Recovery techniques
Recovery of heavy fuel oil may be complicated by two factors: the high
viscosity of the oil and its potential for submergence.
For oil that is on or near the water surface, conventional skimming
strategies can be employed. Some skimmers, such as oleophilic devices
and weir systems are largely ineffective. However, there are a number of
skimming devices that are better suited to highly viscous oils, including
brush, toothed-disc, hopper weir, and some belt skimmers. Brush-type
skimmers and toothed disc skimmers are both noted for their applicability
for highly viscous oils. When recovering such highly viscous oils, the main
problems are the low recovery rates (as compared with less viscous
products) and difficulties in handling such highly-viscous materials once
they are recovered.
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For suspended or dispersed bitumen, it would generally be impractical to
recover and treat the large volume of water that would be involved
although this might have application for small spills and in localized
concentrations of suspended oil.
One strategy of dealing with suspended bitumen is to facilitate the re-
coalescence and refloating of bitumen particles. This can be achieved by
operating a submersible pump within a contained area of bitumen
droplets and injecting air into the pump inlet. The shear created by the
pump along with the air droplets will allow the droplets to rise to the water
surface where they can be more easily removed through conventional
skimming. The reflotation can be accomplished within the containment
area or within a floatation tank on a skimming vessel. This strategy could
be applicable only for relatively small spills in confined areas such as a
harbour.
Oil that has sunk to the sea bottom will require pumping and/or dredging
techniques to recover pockets of pooled product. While this method can be
used to quickly cover large areas of oiled sea bottom, care must be taken to
minimize the total amount of material that is recovered.
Oil that has sunk to a sandy or gravely bottom, will most likely mix with
the sediments to some extent. The amount of material to be recovered and
the amount of sediments within the oil will govern the selection of
pumping/dredging equipment, which could include clamshell dredges,
suction dredges, or submersible pumps directed by divers. In underwater
areas that have a high ecological value (e.g., seagrass beds, coral reefs),
smaller pockets of submerged oil can be manually removed by scuba
divers equipped with sorbent snares and strong polythene bags. Divers
directing dredging or pumping operations in heavily contaminated
submerged oil areas must use personal protective equipment and surface
supplied air systems in order to avoid oil ingestion and related
contamination.
Pumping and storing recovered fluids is a major challenge with heavy fuel
oils due to their extremely high viscosities and, in some cases, high pour
points. Key problems include: difficulties in maintaining a suction with
fluids that resist flowing to suction lines; low pumping rates due to the
high viscosities; and high flow-line pressures, again due to the high
viscosities. In some instances, the line-pressures generated when pumping
these highly viscous fluids may lead to failure of discharge hoses and hose
fittings.
Special techniques are required to deal with these pumping and storage
issues. These could include injecting a less viscous fluid at the pump inlet
to make the viscous product more fluid, in effect, creating a slurry, which is
more easily pumped. Another technique is the use of annular steam or
water injection, where a relatively small volume of steam or water is
injected through a specially designed flange at either the inlet or discharge
side of a pump. The steam lowers the viscosity of the oil and the flange
causes the water to form a thin layer that coats the inside of the hose or
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pipe. This thin film tends to lubricate the flow of fluid and greatly reduce
line pressures.
When pumping highly viscous fluids, high-strength hoses and fittings
should be used, and line pressures monitored to ensure that operating
limits are not exceeded. The use of larger diameter hose (i.e., 6-inch
diameter, minimum) and moderate length hose systems (less than
1,000 feet) will also alleviate line pressures.
Temporary storage is extremely difficult, with many devices, such as
flexible, towable tanks, being extremely difficult to empty, once they have
been filled. Heating systems for tank storage will be necessary and this
needs careful logistical planning to ensure continuity of ongoing contain-
ment and recovery operations.
12.4.4 Dispersants and in situ burning
Neither dispersant use nor in situ burning are generally applicable to spills
of heavy fuels due to the physical properties of the oil.
12.4.5 Shoreline protection
As with spills of floating oils it is desirable to protect shorelines to
minimize the extent of oiling. Standard tactics would include containing
approaching oil in low currents and deflection in higher currents.
Conventional booms can be used to contain or deflect slicks of floating
oil, with deep-skirted booms, silt curtains, and net booms used for
submerged or dispersed products.
Other options for nearshore protection include booms or arrays of sorbent
material, in particular, oil-snare type sorbents or pom-poms. Shoreline
barriers such as plastic sheeting or geotextile materials can be used to
prevent oil from contacting and penetrating shoreline sediments. Standard
protection techniques such as shoreline berms and trenching can also be
used to minimize the extent of shoreline oiling.
12.4.6 Shoreline cleanup and disposal
The cleanup of shorelines affected by heavy fuel oils will be comparable in
the selection of techniques to shoreline oiling with tar balls or more
conventional oils that have weathered or emulsified. In either case, the oil
is very persistent and will resist natural flushing and dispersion
processes.
To minimize shoreline effects, preference should be given to low-impact
techniques such as low-pressure flushing of oiled beaches, pumping of
pooled oil and selective manual removal of weathered oils. Depending on
the type of beach sediment and the amount and condition of the oil,
sediment relocation and surf washing may be applicable.
Mechanical screening of beach sediments can be used for removal of
weathered bitumen and discrete patches of heavy fuels oils.
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The disposal of wastes recovered from a heavy fuel oil spill would use
similar techniques to those for spills of more conventional oils that have
weathered or emulsified. Factors that can limit the selection of techniques
include the high viscosity of the product along with the volumes of
emulsified water and debris that are generally recovered along with the oil.
For liquid wastes, the viscosity of the oil will probably preclude the use of
reclamation or recycling techniques as well as the use of most trans-
portable incinerators. Large-scale municipal or process incinerators may
be applicable for both liquid and solid wastes.
Biological treatment methods, including landfarming, composting and in
situ bioremediation, are not applicable to heavy oils due to the long
treatment times required.
Solidification or stabilization of oily wastes has promise as a technique for
encapsulating and immobilizing waste materials.
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Chapter 13
Training, exercises,
equipment maintenance
and storage
13.1 Introduction
When an oil spill incident occurs, decisions have to be made quickly and
equipment must be ready for deployment at very short notice. The only
reliable way for this to be achieved is to develop contingency plans and
conduct exercises to test them, and maintain pollution response equip-
ment and train personnel in its use. However, training should not be
limited to learning how to use particular items of equipment, but must
cover a whole range of issues, including roles and responsibilities of
various parties, response strategies and the realities of putting the
contingency plan into action. The adequacy of such preparations should
be tested thoroughly in practical and desktop exercises and the lessons
learned from actual oil spills should be fed back to improve the
contingency plan and the training/exercise programme.
13.2 Training
Two types of training are generally recognized, each with separate
objectives. The first, often referred to as hands-on training, is intended
to train a crew to become proficient in the deployment and operation of
particular types of equipment or in the execution of a particular cleanup
technique. After the initial instruction, proficiency comes with frequent
practice and exercise.
The second type of training is concerned with the various levels of
management and organization of a cleanup response and is intended to
provide a thorough briefing so that all those potentially involved can
understand their role and are able to function well in a real incident. A
degree of overlap between the two is beneficial since this provides
management with a clear appreciation of the factors likely to affect the
performance of a particular technique or piece of equipment and at the
same time gives equipment operators a better understanding of the overall
strategy. Both types of training call for a balanced mix of theory and
practice.
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Hands-on training to improve proficiency
13.2.1 Hands-on training
The typical outline of a hands-on training course is shown in table 13-1.
The general approach usually followed is an introductory talk on each
technique followed by detailed instruction on the operation of equipment
available within the contingency plan. As far as possible, practical
sessions follow immediately to reinforce the salient points of the theory
and to facilitate this groups are best kept to between 10 and 20 people.
Table 13-1: Typical outline of a hands-on equipment training course
.1 Health and safety considerations.
.2 General theory of containment and recovery.
.3 Detailed instruction in deployment and use of different booms.
.4 Practical exercise mooring and towing booms.
.5 Detailed instructions in deployment and use of different skimmers.
.6 Practical exercise of skimmers in different oil types.
.7 Detailed instruction in use of temporary storage facilities and transfer pumps.
.8 Practical operation of pumps.
.9 Practical deployment of booms, skimmers, temporary storage and transfer pumps:
.1 from shore;
.2 on open water.
.10 General theory of use of dispersants.
.11 Detailed instruction in use of different dispersant application systems.
.12 Practical deployment of spraying equipment at sea.
.13 In situ burning (if available)
.14 General outline of shoreline cleanup techniques.
.15 Detailed instruction in use of different equipment types.
.16 Practical beach cleanup exercise comparing different techniques.
.17 Quiz.
.18 General discussion.
.19 Course assessment.
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The main objective is to familiarize each trainee with the equipment and
with the conditions to which it is best suited. In addition, its limitations
and the most probable causes of failure should be identified with
suggested remedies. Obviously, if the same personnel operate and
maintain the equipment there is a better chance of keeping equipment
fully operational in the field.
Following an instructional course, frequent exercises are the best way to
maintain familiarity with the deployment and operation of equipment. This
will help to avoid mistakes during an actual spill. After an exercise, a
debriefing meeting should be held to resolve any difficulties and to discuss
any improvements that can be made. For boom deployment exercises in
particular, observation, photography or video recording, either from the air
or from some elevated vantage point is valuable in assessing the
configuration of a boom with respect to currents. The use of some
biodegradable material such as bark or wood chips to simulate oil is also
helpful in demonstrating whether or not the oil would, in fact, be
channelled to the collection point.
Training exercises should be conducted at a frequency related to the risk
of spills and the likelihood that a response team would be called out.
However, as a minimum, exercises should be held four times a year so that
operating difficulties under different seasonal conditions can be identified.
Such exercises should be conducted in addition to any more general
exercises of the contingency plan.
In cases where a number of teams of different disciplines are to be trained,
it would be useful to initiate general notification exercises regularly to
practise co-operation and interaction of the different teams and equip-
ment. This will help to control and improve the complete contingency
arrangements.
13.2.2 Training on management of oil spill cleanup
Table 13-2 shows the typical outline of an oil spill training course which
would usually be implemented through lectures, supported by video
recordings and practical demonstrations or exercises. The optimum size of
a group is between 20 and 50 and each should be provided with some
written support material before presentations are made, followed up with a
bibliography of sources of further information.
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Chapter 13 Training, exercises, equipment maintenance and storage
Table 13-2: Typical outline of an oil spill training course
.1 Overview of spill response
.2 Relevant contingency plans
.3 Sources and causes of oil spills
.4 Oil spill behaviour and fate
.5 Initial spill assessment and surveillance
.6 Protection of resources
.7 Containment and recovery of oil
.8 Dispersants
.9 In situ burning and bioremediation
.10 Oil transfer and storage
.11 Shoreline cleanup
.12 Disposal
.13 Deactivation of response
.14 Roles and responsibilities
.15 Operational planning
.16 Communications and documentation
.17 Evidence gathering
.18 Liability, compensation and claims handling
.19 Communications and media relations
.20 Site safety
.21 Debriefing and contingency plan revision
.20 Exercise
.21 General discussion
.22 Course assessment
Broadly, there are two ways to present such a course, either for a specific
area of interest or as a general course. The principles established in a more
general course would then need to be developed further by the participants
to relate to their own areas of interest. If a course is designed around a
particular area, then the risk of spills can be discussed in terms of
operations carried out in the area and the types of oil handled. The
approach and techniques for assessing the probable impact of a spill on
local sensitive resources can be explained and the contingency arrange-
ments devised to mitigate such effects outlined.
Having completed a training course, a trainee should become familiar with
their area of responsibility, both physically, on the ground, and within the
organization set up to implement the contingency plan. This can be
accomplished through exercises, which will also allow participants to get
to know the other people involved in the plan.
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Training course
IMO has developed a series of model training courses, designed by an
international group of experts from Government and industry based upon
some thirty years experience in oil-spill preparedness and response. The
courses address specific purposes/needs, as described in table 13-3.
Table 13-3 IMO Model Training Courses
Course Content and issues
Level 3
Senior managers and
administrators
Provides an overview of the roles and responsibilities of senior
personnel in the management of incidents, cause and effect of
oil spills, response policy and strategies, contingency planning,
crisis management, public affairs and media relations,
administration and financial aspects, and liability and
compensation.
Level 2:
Supervisors and
on-scene commanders
Intended for those personnel with significant management
responsibility under the contingency plan to co-ordinate and
supervise response operations in order to deliver a timely,
organized and effective response.
Provides detailed training in oil-spill behaviour, fate and effects;
spill assessment; operations planning; containment, protection
and recovery; dispersant use; shoreline cleanup; site safety;
storage and disposal of waste; media relations; record keeping;
command and control management; communications and
information; liability and compensation; response termination
and post-incident review/briefing.
Level 1:
First responder
Aimed at operator-level personnel, responsible for undertaking
on-site cleanup.
Provides training on practical aspects of oil properties, response
techniques, health and safety, boom and skimmer deployment,
dispersant application, use of sorbents, shoreline cleanup,
debris/waste handling and disposal, and wildlife casualties.
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13.3 Exercises
The level of exercises ranges from the type of paper exercise run during a
training course, through exercising communication links, up to full
mobilization and deployment of equipment. This latter type of exercise
serves several functions, not least of which is training. In addition,
weaknesses in the contingency plan are exposed, bottle necks in the
arrangements for equipment deployment can be identified and the
timescales required to implement instructions realistically assessed. They
also bring all those involved in the contingency plan together and can be
used to develop a team spirit. No matter what lengths are taken to simulate
a spill, real experience can only be gained from actual spills and the
opportunity of attending as an observer should not be passed up. There is
nothing like learning from other peoples experiences.
13.3.1 Exercise types
In general, there are four different levels in which exercises can be carried
out. These range from level 1 (small spill size) to level 4 (larger spill size).
The level at which an exercise is conducted normally depends on the size,
severity, likely consequence of a spill and the range of organizations
involved in the response to such a spill. If one expects to encounter every
type of spill, then exercises at each level should be conducted (levels 14).
However, if for example smaller, operational spills are normally experi-
enced, then only level 1 or 2 exercises need be conducted. Each exercise
level will need to reflect the numbers and range of organizations likely to be
involved in such an incident. The features of each exercise level are:
Level 1
Spill scenarios are focused on smaller, higher probability, operational-type
spills. The operational exercises are focused on emergency operating
procedures, initial response actions, on-site equipment readiness and
equipment deployment.
Level 2
Spill scenarios involve the need for assistance and additional resources
from outside the individual organization. Operational exercises are aimed
at initial response actions and equipment deployment.
Level 3
Spill scenarios reflect an incident of significance to general/wider areas
and call for involvement of a range of different organizations. These are
larger scale and more complex operational exercises and involve quite
large numbers of personnel, together with extensive equipment deploy-
ment and operation.
Level 4
Spill scenario involves major consequences to a very wide range of
resources, threatening national interests and requiring national and
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regional co-operation and co-ordination. Exercise involves very wide range
of personnel from many organizations, possibly in various locations,
together with a range of equipment deployment opportunities.
13.3.2 Planning an exercise
Once the exercise level has been determined, the next step is to plan and
prepare for the exercise. There are nine basic stages of exercise planning:
.1 establish priorities identify the objectives that should be
addressed through the exercise;
.2 plan the exercise select the type of exercise (operational or
hands-on) that will best achieve the initial objectives;
.3 identify exercise personnel select individuals or teams for the
design, control and evaluation functions;
.4 design the exercise produce a comprehensive exercise design
and communicate it to the exercise design organization;
.5 plan the evaluation plan the evaluation process with respect
to the exercise design;
.6 prepare for the exercise complete all necessary preparations
for the exercise;
.7 conduct the exercise conduct the exercise safely, ensuring
that participants focus on achieving exercise objectives, are
involved in a meaningful way and that the exercise follows the
script unless changes are approved by the exercise manager;
.8 evaluate the exercise conduct an exercise evaluation that
relates directly to the exercise objectives and that participants
consider accurate, thorough, objective, fair and credible; and
.9 learn from the exercise ensure the recommendations from the
exercise lead to tangible improvements in the organizations
spill response capabilities.
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Table-top exercise
13.4 Equipment maintenance and storage
For the operator/owner of the oil-spill pollution equipment there are some
basic guidelines which need to be considered if a reliable response is to be
achieved:
13.4.1 Equipment design and application
.1 pollution equipment is often stored for long periods of time
without being required. Then suddenly it is required to operate
in all conditions for extensive periods continuously a very tall
order for any item of machinery or equipment;
.2 the industry is relatively small and numbers of units of any
particular item of equipment are modest. All testing and
development costs have to be built into the price of the unit
and consequently the development and proving trials have to be
very carefully controlled;
.3 the conditions in which the equipment is required to operate
vary considerably with oil types, local circumstances, sea states,
etc;
.4 historically the operational forces on equipment from prevailing
in the marine environment have not always been appreciated;
and
.5 due to the nature of the work, hydraulic power is used exten-
sively, being the only practical form of power transmission
suitable for the work required. Hydraulic power is relatively safe
and reliable providing good torque and load characteristics to
drive the specialized equipment. It is essential, however, that it
be properly designed for the extreme environmental conditions
in which it may be required to operate.
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In light of the above factors, some failures and breakdowns might be
expected during an oil spill and operators should be sufficiently familiar
with their equipment to be able to make repairs on site, or find other
solutions so that optimum ongoing use can be made of their equipment.
13.4.2 Types of maintenance
Assuming that all the design problems have been resolved and the
equipment is fundamentally sound, the decision then has to be made on
the type of maintenance to be carried out. There are a number of forms of
maintenance that can be considered. These are normally included in the
manufacturers maintenance schedules and will be based on one of the
following systems:
.1 calendar system the equipment is inspected and certain
routines are carried out on a fixed time schedule, i.e., weekly,
monthly, annually;
.2 equipment running hours as certain running hours are
reached, the equipment maintenance routines are activated;
.3 equipment breakdown equipment is repaired as defects are
reported;
.4 condition monitoring measurements made on the equipment
at regular intervals to ensure that it remains within designed
criteria; and/or
.5 a combination of all or some of these maintenance methods.
Before deciding which form of maintenance procedure to adopt, it is
essential to analyse what is actually going to be best for the equipment.
Requirements for pollution equipment are totally different from the
majority of operations normally requiring maintenance. From experience,
failures tend to result from a lack of use of the equipment rather than over-
use, and it is important that the maintenance procedures take this into
account.
Repair and maintenance of response equipment
189
When planning these maintenance requirements it is most important to
consider the personnel who will be used to carry out the maintenance
routines. Unlike most other items for maintenance, the equipment should
not require a great deal of attention. After its maintenance it will
probably be placed back on the shelf until the next time it is due for
inspection. There is not very much job satisfaction in this and after a
time it is likely that the potentially well-designed maintenance procedures
will not be carried out satisfactorily, unless good supervision is exercised.
13.4.3 A working system
To ensure the equipment will be effective in the field, all three areas
previously described must be satisfied:
.1 well-designed and tested equipment;
.2 competent, trained operators; and
.3 correctly- and well-maintained equipment.
To link these requirements together, a comprehensive planned main-
tenance system is necessary to ensure that the training of personnel and
maintenance of the equipment is co-ordinated and executed in a cost-
effective manner. A factor that has been firmly established is that no
matter how reliable the equipment may be, it will be proven useless unless
good reliable trained operators are available to use the equipment. One
proven method to achieve these objectives, fundamental to the system, is
to use a single team who all deploy, test and maintain the equipment. With
this system, each operator is given the responsibility for sections of an
equipment stockpile. They must ensure that the maintenance is
appropriate and that their equipment is in a continual state of readiness
(this includes packaging, documentation and spares) and, where neces-
sary, they must update and modify procedures as required.
A computerized maintenance system can be of considerable help in the
planning of the workload, for unlike planned maintenance, oil spills are
anything but planned. As a consequence, maintenance routines are
continually having to be updated an almost impossible task to achieve
manually. With the use of a computer, information on equipment can be
presented in almost any form analysis of hours worked maintenance
hours frequency of equipment failure, etc., all can be used to indicate
whether the correct level of maintenance is being carried out. In certain
cases it can even be used to help justify the replacement of an item of
equipment.
13.4.4 Storage
As far as possible, equipment should be stored under cover in a dry, well-
ventilated store. In order to prolong equipment life, humidity, temperature
and exposure to ultraviolet radiation should be controlled. In addition,
equipment should be protected from potential damage from pests. Some
equipment, such as booms, which may be folded or reeled in storage,
190
should be regularly unfolded or unreeled to prevent the material sticking
together or creases forming which will lead to points of weakness.
Ideally, the store should provide a clear working area where equipment can
be cleaned to remove oil and salt-water and some maintenance carried out.
Good access to the equipment is essential, both to facilitate inspection and
maintenance and also to give access to road vehicles and lifting equipment
so that equipment can be deployed quickly in an emergency. Security
arrangements must also be considered to prevent vandalism and theft.
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Chapter 14
Cleanup cost considerations
14.1 Introduction
In the event of an oil spill, all of the response actions undertaken will
generate costs, for example in the deployment of equipment, materials and
manpower. Also, there may be damage to coastal resources caused by the
pollution and, on occasions, by the cleanup operations. The focus of this
chapter is specifically on the cost of responding to an oil spill, but some
information is also provided on sources of advice and compensation for
claims in general.
The cost of responding to an oil spill can vary enormously. Statistics
indicate that when measured simply in terms of the overall response cost
per tonne of oil spilled, figures can vary from approximately $US 650 per
tonne to around $US 650,000 per tonne a range encompassing three
orders of magnitude. Some of the many factors that can influence the cost
of a spill response are described below.
14.2 Factors affecting response costs
It is commonly thought that the more oil that is spilled the more costly the
spill response will be. However, some of the largest spills ever recorded
have called for relatively modest or indeed virtually no response (because
of natural dissipation), whilst far smaller spills have required extensive
response and cleanup in an effort to mitigate potential damage. The
quantity of oil spilled cannot therefore be used as a reliable guide to the
cost of a spill response.
The location of a spill and the prevailing current and weather conditions
are important factors in determining the appropriate nature and level of
response. For example, spilled oil may be carried away from important
areas or, depending on its properties, may naturally dissipate before it
reaches them. If the same spill were to occur close to the sensitive areas
however, a substantial spill response may be necessary, in an attempt to
prevent or mitigate damage.
The properties of an oil will determine how it will behave when spilled and
whether a response is called for, and which response techniques will be
effective. Persistent oils, for example crude oils, fuel oils heavy diesel and
lubricating oils are usually slow to dissipate naturally and are therefore
likely to require cleaning up. Non-persistent oils tend to evaporate quickly
when spilled and do not usually require cleaning up.
Between different persistent oils, there can be a marked variation in
properties, which in turn affect the response techniques that may be
193
selected. For at-sea operations, for example, a spill of crude oil may be
treated effectively with chemical dispersants but a similar spill of heavy
fuel would not be treatable. In this case, an alternative response technique,
such as containment and recovery may be relied upon instead and there
would be different cost implications connected with these two options.
The spill response policy of a country can also affect spill response costs.
The at-sea response techniques that are available and their advantages
and drawbacks are described in earlier chapters. Selecting the most
appropriate techniques to suit the circumstances is an important part of
managing and controlling an effective spill response. Many countries have
established a response policy and often emphasize a preference for
particular techniques. Certain response options may be specified as first
priority or conversely may be restricted or even ruled out. This can have
implications for the cost-effectiveness of a response based on those
techniques that remain available.
During shoreline cleanup, the importance attached to each site, the
selection of cleaning techniques and the degree of cleaning deemed
necessary can all have a significant impact on response costs. The
different stages of shoreline cleaning are described in an earlier chapter
and it is important to select the most appropriate cleaning techniques at
each stage. For example, amenity areas affected during the tourist season
will usually be given a high priority and intensive manual and mechanical
cleaning may be undertaken to restore clean conditions rapidly. However,
remote areas that are not heavily oiled may be less intensively cleaned and
those sites that are sensitive to physical intrusion, while still being
considered very important, may be left alone to recover through natural
processes.
It is also important to determine appropriate criteria to terminate cleanup
operations before the efforts and associated costs escalate out of all
proportion to any benefits that might be derived from continuation. Indeed,
selection of inappropriate techniques and excessive attempts to remove
every trace of oil can themselves cause damage to the shoreline, which
may in turn call for further and costly restoration measures.
The options available for the disposal of oily waste generated during at-sea
and shoreline cleanup operations can also become a significant part of the
overall response costs. Each option will have different cost implications
depending on the circumstances in a particular country. Factors will
include national policy, legislative and operational controls, availability
and location of suitable sites, transportation and the need for pre-
treatment and temporary storage. In some cases, the recycling of waste,
for example through reprocessing at an oil handling facility, or treatment
and then use as a secondary raw material, may prove a cost-effective
alternative to direct final disposal.
Effective management and control of operations are vital if a technically
justified and cost-effective response is to be achieved. A clear response
strategy, based on sound technical criteria, needs to be established at the
194
outset, implemented and then adjusted over time to suit the changing
conditions and circumstances that develop. Expenditure items should be
tracked during the course of the response so that the cost-effectiveness of
ongoing activities can be monitored. The tracking process will also be of
great benefit in supporting the preparation of claims for compensation.
14.3 Compensation for response costs
Compensation for damage caused by spills of persistent oil from tankers is
governed by an international regime, the framework of which was
originally the 1969 International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil
Pollution Damage (1969 CLC) and the 1971 International Convention on
the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage (1971 Fund Convention). This old regime was amended
in 1992 by two Protocols, which increased the compensation limits and
broadened the scope of the original Conventions. The amended Con-
ventions, which entered into force in May 1996, are referred to here as the
1992 CLC and 1992 Fund Convention.
Many States have now ratified both 1992 Conventions and more are likely
to do so in the near future. Because of this the original Conventions have
lost their significance and the 1971 Fund Convention has been
terminated. It should be noted that countries that have not ratified the
international compensation Conventions may have their own domestic
legislation for compensating those affected by oil spills from tankers. Some
of these may be highly specific, such as the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in the
United States, whereas other countries may rely on broader laws originally
developed for other purposes.
It should also be noted that IMO has developed an international
Convention for compensation for damage caused by spills of oil arising
from ships other than tankers. The International Convention on Civil
Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage was agreed and finalized at a
Diplomatic Conference during 2001 and is now available for ratification by
individual States. Once the entry-into-force requirements are met, this will
provide a source of compensation for oil pollution damage arising from
spills from non-tanker vessels.
The 1992 CLC governs the liability of tanker owners for oil pollution
damage. It lays down the principle of strict liability (i.e. liability even in the
absence of fault) and creates a system of compulsory insurance. Claims for
oil pollution damage (including response and cleanup costs) may be
brought against the tanker owner or the owners P&I insurer. The tanker
owner is normally entitled to limit his liability to an amount based on the
gross tonnage of the tanker causing the oil spill.
The 1992 Fund Convention, which is supplementary to the 1992 CLC,
establishes a regime for compensating those affected by oil spills when the
compensation available under the CLC is inadequate. By becoming a Party
to the 1992 Fund Convention, a State automatically becomes a Member of
the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1992 (1992 Fund).
195
Payments of compensation and administrative expenses of the 1992 Fund
are financed by contributions levied on oil companies and other private
entities in 1992 Fund Convention States that receive crude oil and heavy
fuel oil after sea transport.
For a claim to be admissible it must fall within the definition of pollution
damage or preventive measures in the 1992 CLC and/or 1992 Fund
Convention. A uniform interpretation of the definitions and a common
understanding of what constitutes an admissible claim are essential for
the efficient functioning of the international system of compensation
established by the Conventions. For this reason, the Member States of the
1992 Fund have established clear policies and guidelines, which are
summarised in the organizations Claims Manual.
Under the 1992 CLC and 1992 Fund Convention, compensation is
available for the cost of reasonable measures taken to prevent or minimize
pollution damage. This may include the cost of removing the oil (cargo and
fuel) from a damaged tanker posing a serious threat, as well as the costs of
cleanup measures at sea, in coastal waters and on shorelines. The costs of
disposing of recovered oil and associated debris are also covered.
To qualify for compensation under the Conventions, the costs as well as
the preventive measures themselves have to be reasonable. The fact that a
Government or other public body decides to take certain response
measures does not in itself mean that the measures are reasonable for
the purposes of the Conventions. Reasonable is generally interpreted to
mean that the measures taken or the equipment used in a response to an
incident were, on the basis of an expert technical appraisal at the time the
decision was taken, likely to have been successful in preventing or
minimizing pollution damage.
The fact that the response measures turned out to be ineffective or the
decision was shown to be incorrect with the benefit of hindsight are not
reasons in themselves for disallowing a claim for the costs involved. A
claim may be rejected, however, if it was known that the measures would
be ineffective but they were instigated simply because, for example, it was
considered necessary to be seen to be doing something. On this basis,
measures taken purely for public relations reasons would not be
considered reasonable.
14.4 Record-keeping and claims handling
It is essential that accurate and detailed records are kept to show how the
costs for cleanup operations are linked with actions taken on specific work
sites. Major expenditures may be incurred in the use of aircraft, vessels,
specialized equipment, heavy machines, trucks and personnel. Some of
these may be Government-owned while others may be the subject of
contractual arrangements. Supervisory personnel should record daily the
operations in progress, the equipment in use, where and how it is being
used, the number of personnel employed, how and where they are deployed
and the materials consumed. Standard worksheets, designed to suit the
196
particular circumstances of a spill and the response organization in the
country concerned, are useful for such records.
Claims for response and cleanup operations should be itemized as follows:
.1 Delineation of the area affected, describing the extent of
pollution and identifying those areas most heavily contami-
nated (for example using maps or nautical charts supported by
photographs or video tapes).
.2 Analytical and/or other evidence linking the oil pollution with
the ship involved in the incident (e.g. chemical analysis; wind,
tide and current data; observation and plotting of the movement
of floating oil).
.3 Summary of events, including a description and justification of
the work carried out at sea, in coastal waters and onshore,
together with an explanation of why the various work methods
were selected.
.4 Dates on which work was carried out at each site.
.5 Labour costs at each site (number and categories of response
personnel, regular and overtime rates of pay, hours or days
worked, and other costs).
.6 Travel, accommodation and living costs for response personnel.
.7 Equipment costs at each site (types of equipment used, rate of
hire or cost of purchase, quantity used and period of use).
.8 Consumable materials (description, quantity, unit cost and
where used).
.9 Any remaining value at the end of the operations of equipment
and materials purchased.
.10 Age of equipment not purchased but used in the incident.
.11 Transport costs (numbers and types of vehicles, vessels or
aircraft used, numbers of hours or days operated, rate of hire or
operating cost).
.12 Cost of temporary storage (if applicable) and of final disposal of
recovered oil and oily material.
The speed with which compensation claims are settled largely depends
upon how long it takes claimants to provide the P&I Club and the 1992
Fund with the information they require in a form that readily permits
analysis. For this reason it is vital during any spill response that good
records are kept. Unfortunately, pressures to deal with practical cleanup
problems often result in record-keeping being given a lesser priority. The
appointment of a financial controller at an early stage of an incident can
therefore be valuable, both to co-ordinate expenditure and to ensure
adequate records are maintained.
Detailed advice on the presentation of claims is contained in the Claims
Manual produced by the 1992 Fund. All those involved with contingency
197
planning and oil spill response should obtain a copy of this important
booklet. During an actual incident, the tanker owner and their P&I Club,
and for cases where the 1992 Fund Convention may apply, the 1992 Fund
also, will usually despatch a technical expert to advise the authorities on
methods and techniques for combating the oil pollution. Advice from the
P&I Club, the 1992 Fund and their technical experts on the admissibility
of claims and the requirements for supporting documentation should be
heeded to avoid difficulties arising at a later date.
198
List/table of useful conversion factors
Volume
1 barrel (US) = 42 gallons (US) = 159
1 barrel (Imp) = 45.1 gallons (Imp) = 205
1 gallon = 1.2 gallons (US) = 4.546
1 cubic metre = 1000 = 6.29 barrels (US)
1 = 0.22 gallons (Imp) = 0.03531 cubic feet
1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic metres
1 cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic metres
1 cubic decimetre = 0.001 cubic metres = 1
1 tonne (metric) = Approx. 7.5 barrels (US) = 262 gallons (Imp)
Area
1 acre = 0.405 hectares = 4,050 square metres
1 hectare = 10,000 square metres = 2,471 acres
1 square kilometre = 100 hectares = 247 acres
1 square metre = 1.196 square yards
1 square yard = 0.836 square metres = 9 square feet
1 square foot = 0.093 square metres
1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometres = 640 acres
Length/Distance
1 kilometre = 0.54 nautical miles = 0.622 miles
1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometres = 1.151 miles
1 mile = 1.609 kilometres = 1,760 yards
1 metre = 1.094 yards = 3.282 feet
1 yard = 0.914 metres
1 foot = 0.305 metres
1 Inch = 25.4 millimetres
Speed
1 knot = 1.85 km/hour = 0.51 metres/second
1 metre/second = 3.6 km/hour = 1.94 knots
Mass
1 tonne (Metric) = 1,000 kilograms = 0.984 tons
1 ton (Imp) = 20 Hundredweight = 1.016 tonnes
1 Hundredweight = 50.8 kilograms = 112 lbs.
1 kilogram = 2.205 lbs. = 1 ( of water)
1 gram = 0.035 Ounces
Pressure (Note, gallons are imperial)
1 cubic metre/hour = 16.7 /minute = 3.671 gallons/minute
1 /second = 2.119 cubic feet/minute = 13.21 gallons/minute
1 cubic foot/minute = 0.1039 gallons/second = 0.472 /second
1 gallon/minute = 0.0631 /second
1 barrel/hour = 2.65 /minute 0.5825 gallons/minute
1 gallon (US)/acre = 11.224 /hectare
Pressure
1 Psi = 0.069 bar = 6901 Pascal
1 Bar = 100,000 Pascal = 14.49 Psi
1 Bar = 30 feet of water
Engine Power
1 horsepower = 0.7457 kilowatts
Density (specific gravity)
API
141:5
specific gravity
SG
141:5
API 131:5
Temperature
8F to 8C deduct 32, multiply by 5, divide by 9. 8C to 8F multiply by 9, divide by 5, add 32.
Celsius 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fahrenheit 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 194 212
199
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About IMO
IMO is a technical organization established in 1958. Today (March 2005), it
has 164 Member States plus three Associate Members. Formal arrange-
ments for co-operation and/or consultative status have been established
with a large number of international organizations.
The Organizations chief task, especially in the early years, was to develop a
comprehensive body of international conventions, codes and recommenda-
tions which could be implemented by all Member Governments. This
international approach is essential, for the effectiveness of IMO measures
depends upon how widely they are accepted and how they are
implemented. The fact that the most important IMO conventions are now
accepted by countries whose combined merchant fleets represent 98% of
the world total indicates how successful this policy has been.
The governing body of IMO is the Assembly, which meets every two years. In
between Assembly sessions a Council, consisting of 32 Member States
elected by the Assembly, acts as governing body. The technical work of IMO
is carried out by a series of committees. The Maritime Safety Committee is
the most senior of these and has sub-committees dealing with the following
subjects: safety of navigation, radiocommunications and search and rescue,
standards of training and watchkeeping, carriage of dangerous goods, solid
cargoes and containers, ship design and equipment, fire protection, stability
and load lines and fishing vessel safety, bulk liquids and gases and flag State
implementation.
The Marine Environment Protection Committee deals with pollution
prevention. IMO also has a Legal Committee, originally established to deal
with legal problems resulting from the Torrey Canyon pollution disaster of
1967 but later made a permanent body.
The Technical Co-operation Committee handles IMOs growing technical co-
operation programme, which is designed to help Member Governments
implement the technical measures adopted by the Organization, and the
Facilitation Committee deals with measures to simplify the documentation
and formalities required in international shipping.
The Secretariat consists of some 300 international civil servants headed by a
Secretary-General. The IMO Headquarters is in London, just across the River
Thames from the Houses of Parliament.
About IMOs publishing activities
IMOs publishing activities provide to the world maritime community the
numerous texts (conventions, codes, regulations, recommendations, guide-
lines, etc.) prepared by the Organization as part of its work programme. The
207
world-wide dissemination of this information plays an important role in the
promotion of maritime safety and the prevention of marine pollution.
Today, IMO has over 250 titles available in English. They are translated into
French and Spanish and an increasing number also into Arabic, Chinese and
Russian. IMO also produces a wide range of publications in electronic format.
All items may be ordered via IMOs website (www.imo.org).
For further information:
International Maritime Organization
4 Albert Embankment
London SE1 7SR
United Kingdom
Tel: + 44 (0)20 7735 7611
Fax: + 44 (0)20 7587 3210
e-mail (general enquiries): info@imo.org
e-mail (publications): publications-sales@imo.org
www.imo.org
208
Related titles
All titles may be ordered from IMOs website (www.imo.org) or from any
distributor of IMO publications. A list of local distributors can also be found on
the website.
MARPOL 73/78 (Consolidated edition, 2002)
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,
1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (better known as
MARPOL 73/78), is one of the most important international agreements on
the subject of marine pollution.
MARPOL HOW TO DO IT (2001 edition)
This manual provides useful practical information to Governments, partic-
ularly those of developing countries, on the technical, economic and legal
implications of ratifying, implementing and enforcing MARPOL 73/78. The
aim is to encourage the further ratification and proper implementation and
enforcement of the Convention, but it should be noted that, for legal
purposes, the authentic text of MARPOL 73/78 should always be consulted.
ANTI-FOULING SYSTEMS (2001 Edition)
The International Conference on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems
for Ships, 2001, adopted the International Convention on the Control of
Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships, 2001 (the AFS Convention),
together with four Conference resolutions, relating to the early and effective
application of the AFS Convention, approval and test methodologies for anti-
fouling systems on ships and the promotion of technical co-operation.
BALLAST WATER MANAGEMENT CONVENTION (2004 edition)
It has been widely recognized that the uncontrolled discharge of ballast
water and sediments from ships has led to the transfer of harmful aquatic
organisms and pathogens, causing injury or damage to the environment,
human health, property and resources. In response to this, guidelines for the
control and management of ships ballast water to minimize the transfer of
harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens were adopted by IMO in 1997 to
supersede earlier MEPC guidelines. Following further extensive consider-
ation of the subject, an International Conference was convened in 2004 at
which the International Convention for the Control and Management of
Ships Ballast Water and Sediments was adopted.
This publication contains the texts of the Convention in English, French and
Spanish, plus four resolutions that were adopted by the Conference.
209
GUIDELINES FOR THE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIPS BALLAST
WATER TO MINIMIZE THE TRANSFER OF HARMFUL AQUATIC ORGANISMS
AND PATHOGENS
These guidelines are intended to assist Governments and appropriate
authorities, ship masters, operators and owners, and port authorities, as well
as other interested parties in minimizing the risk of introducing harmful
aquatic organisms and pathogens from ships ballast water and associated
sediments while protecting ships safety.
POLLUTION PREVENTION EQUIPMENT REQUIRED UNDER MARPOL 73/78
(1996 edition)
The purpose of this publication is to provide easy and up-to-date reference to
all applicable IMO resolutions on shipboard pollution-prevention equipment
required under MARPOL 73/78. This includes equipment for the separation
of oil from water, the treatment of sewage and the incineration of garbage
and other shipboard wastes.
MANUAL ON OIL POLLUTION
This manual addresses oil pollution problems rather than safety measures. It
is a particularly useful guide for Governments of developing countries and for
those persons directly associated with the sea transportation and transfer of
oil. The manual is divided into six sections:
Section I Prevention
Out of print.
Section II Contingency Planning (1995 edition)
Section III Salvage (1997 edition)
Section IV Combating Oil Spills (2005 edition)
Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (1998 edition)
Section VI IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification of Oil Spills
(1998 edition)
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION PREPAREDNESS,
RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION (OPRC), 1990 (1991 edition)
OPRC-HNS PROTOCOL 2000
This publication reproduces the text of the Protocol on Preparedness,
Response and Co-operation to Pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious
Substances, 2000.
210
IMO/UNEP GUIDELINES ON OIL SPILL DISPERSANT APPLICATION
INCLUDING ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS (1995 edition)
The Guidelines provide up-to-date information on the use of oil spill
dispersants. They are intended primarily for use by Member Governments
and other oil spill responders and should be read with the Manual on Oil
Pollution, section IV: Combating Oil Spills (IA569E).
IMO/FAO GUIDANCE ON MANAGING SEAFOOD SAFETY
DURING AND AFTER OIL SPILLS (2003 edition)
The IMO/FAO Guidance on managing seafood safety during and after oil
spills provides a very useful guide to identify the various problems that will
affect fisheries and aquaculture enterprises in the event of an oil spill. This
document will be useful to spill responders and managers with responsibil-
ities for protecting public health and those in the fisheries sector as well as
consumers concerned about the safety and quality of seafood.
FIELD GUIDE FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE IN TROPICAL WATERS (1997 edition)
MANUAL ON CHEMICAL POLLUTION
Section 1 Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (1999 edition)
Section 2 Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (1991 edition)
211
NOTES
212
Section V
MANUAL ON OIL POLLUTION
ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS
OF OIL POLLUTION RESPONSE
1998 Edition
B
London, 1998
Printed in the United Kingdom by Halstan & Co. Ltd., Amersham, Bucks
4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3
ISBN 92-801-1424-7
IMO PUBLICATION
Sales number: I572E
No part of this publication may, for sales purposes,
be produced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
Foreword
The Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC), at its thirty-
third session, agreed that a new section V of the IMO Manual on Oil
Pollution, dealing with administrative aspects and, in particular, with
the roles and functions of entities which could be involved in an oil
pollution emergency and its aftermath, should be developed. The text
of this section was approved and authorized for publication by the
MEPC at its thirty-sixth session.
Section I Prevention (out of print; revision under consideration)
Section II Contingency Planning (revised edition published in 1995)
Section III Salvage (revised edition published in 1997)
Section IV Combating Oil Spills (published in 1988; revision under
consideration)
Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response (this
publication)
The MEPC wishes to express its appreciation to the many experts who
assisted in the preparation of the text and contributed tables and dia-
grams; in particular, to the International Oil Pollution Compensation
Funds, the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited,
the International Salvage Union and the International Group of
P&I Clubs.
A series of sections of the Manual on Chemical Pollution are currently in
the course of preparation and some of them have already been
published:
Section 1 Problem Assessment and Response Arrangements (1987
edition; currently under review)
Section 2 Search and Recovery of Packaged Goods Lost at Sea (1991
edition)
iii
Contents
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Part I Roles and functions of entities which could be involved
in an oil pollution emergency and its aftermath
Chapter 1 The shipowner
1.1 General rights and obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Notification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Pollution response and clean-up. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2 The ship operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Chapter 3 The master . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 4 The cargo owner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter 5 The flag State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 6 The coastal State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chapter 7 The salvors
7.1 Professional salvors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7.2 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989. . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 8 The liability underwriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Part II Compensation for oil pollution damage
Chapter 9 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter 10 The 1969 Civil Liability Convention and
the 1971 Fund Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
the 1992 Fund Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Chapter 12 Recovery of compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Chapter 13 Guidelines for facilitation of response to
an oil pollution incident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Appendices
Appendix 1 Chapter IX of SOLAS 1974
and Assembly resolution A.741(18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Appendix 2 Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78
and Assembly resolution A.851(20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Appendix 3 Lloyds Standard Form
of Salvage Agreement, 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
v
Appendix 4 International Group of P&I Clubs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Appendix 5 Extracts from IOPC Funds
Claims Manual (5th edition). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Appendix 6 Resolution A.869(20): Guidelines for
facilitation of response to an oil pollution
incident pursuant to article 7 and
annex of the International Convention
on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response
and Co-operation, 1990. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Contents
vi
Abbreviations
The following explanations of abbreviated expressions used in this
Manual may be helpful to the user:
1969 Civil Liability Convention International Convention on Civil Liability
for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969
1992 Civil Liability Convention International Convention on Civil Liability
for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, as amended by the
Protocol of 1992 relating thereto
CLC Certificate Certificate of Insurance or Other Financial Security
in respect of Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
CRISTAL Contract regarding a Supplement to Tanker
Liability for Oil Pollution
Funds International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds
1971 Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of
an International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage, 1971
1992 Fund Convention International Convention on the Establishment of
an International Fund for Compensation for Oil
Pollution Damage, 1971, as amended by the
1969 Intervention Convention International Convention relating to
Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil
Pollution Casualties, 1969
1973 Intervention Protocol Protocol relating to Intervention on the High
Seas in Cases of Pollution by Substances Other
Than Oil, 1973
IOPC Funds International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds
ISM Code International Management Code for the Safe
Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention
ISU International Salvage Union
ITOPF International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation
Limited
LL 1966 International Convention on Load Lines, 1966
LLMC 1976 Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime
Claims, 1976
LOF 1995 Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement
vii
MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, 1973, as amended by the
OPRC 1990 International Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990
1910 Salvage Convention Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules
of Law relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea,
1910
1989 Salvage Convention International Convention on Salvage, 1989
SDR Special Drawing Right. The US dollar equivalents of
SDRs vary according to the current exchange rates.
The rate for the present publication is 1 SDR =
US$1.34925 (31 December 1997).
SOLAS 1974 International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea, 1974
1978 SOLAS Protocol Protocol of 1978 relating to SOLAS 1974
STCW 1978 International Convention on Standards of Training,
Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978
TOVALOP Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning
Liability for Oil Pollution
UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
1982
Abbreviations
viii
Introduction
This section of the Manual on Oil Pollution is intended to provide the
reader, in particular on-scene commanders, lead agencies and others
involved in the management of oil pollution response, with an
appreciation of the various interests involved in an oil pollution
emergency and its aftermath, as well as a general review of the
international legal regimes governing limitation of liability and
compensation for oil pollution damage. This section is not intended
to provide an authorized or definitive commentary on the legal
relationships between the various entities involved in an oil poll-ution
emergency or an interpretation of relevant international conventions.
The reference section includes sources of more comprehensive
information on these subjects, and the reader is encouraged to make
use of them if more detailed information is required.
1
Part I
Roles and functions of entities which could be
involved in an oil pollution emergency
and its aftermath
Chapter 1 The shipowner
1.1 General rights and obligations
1.1.1 There may be a great diversity of ownership or possessory interests
in a ship. The main ones which a coastal State is likely to encounter in a
marine pollution emergency are: the shipowner, bareboat charterer, and
manager or operator. The role of the shipowner is mainly discussed here.
The phrase shipowner is used here, although of course in some cases a
ship may be owned by more than one entity in equal or unequal shares. In
such cases, there is usually an agreement between the different owners
that one of them will take operational decisions on behalf of all of them,
and joint ownership only becomes of particular interest when recovery of
damages is sought.
1.1.2 Unless there is a bareboat charterer or manager of the ship, the
shipowner is normally the entity responsible for the operation of the ship,
and the master will be the agent of the shipowner for that purpose, at least
until direct contact is established between the coastal State and the
shipowner. For this reason the role of the master is discussed separately in
chapter 3.
1.1.3 The interests in the ship are protected under international law to a
considerable extent. Not only is there freedom of navigation on the high
seas,* but ships are entitled to the right of innocent passage through the
territorial sea. These rights of the ship are, however, affected where a
marine pollution emergency occurs which threatens or actually causes
damage to the coastal State or its territorial sea, so that the coastal State
may, in accordance with international law and its own internal law, take
steps which interfere with those freedoms. This is dealt with further in
chapter 6 under the rights of the coastal State.
1.1.4 The first concern of the shipowner in a marine pollution emergency
will be to see that the ship and all the life thereon is preserved, and that as
much as possible of the cargo, which he has contractually undertaken to
deliver to the destination named in the bill of lading, is so delivered. He is
therefore concerned to protect both his proprietary interest in the ship and
his contractual obligations concerning the cargo. If the ship is aground, he
* In this context, high seas means beyond territorial waters.
3
will want to arrange for it to resume its voyage as soon as practicable, and
this will rightly be the primary focus of his immediate concern, rather than
the effect upon the sea or coast of polluting substances which may have
escaped or may be threatening to escape. Because he may be liable to pay
compensation for pollution caused, the shipowner can be expected,
however, either through the master or directly from his office, to liaise
with all others who are directly concerned with the position of the ship in
the emergency.
1.1.5 In addition to the general rights and obligations concerning the
operation of the ship, the shipowner may have certain specific obligations
concerning: (a) a document to be developed and carried on board for oil
pollution preparedness and response; (b) notification of the marine
pollution emergency to the nearest coastal State; (c) pollution response
and clean-up; and (d) compensation.
1.2 Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan
1.2.1 One of the salient documents required to be developed and carried
on board for oil pollution preparedness and response is a Shipboard Oil
Pollution Emergency Plan. Since 4 April 1993, every oil tanker of 150 gross
tonnage and above and every ship other than a tanker of 400 gross
tonnage and above have had to carry on board such a Plan approved by the
flag State. In the case of ships built before 4 April 1993, this requirement
shall apply from 4 April 1995 (regulation 26 of Annex I of the International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified
by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78),* and article 3 of
the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and
Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC 1990),
{
which entered into force on 13 May
1995). Such a Plan shall be in accordance with the Guidelines for the
development of Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plans developed by
IMO.
{
The Plan shall consist of:
(a) the procedure to be followed by the master or other persons to
report an oil pollution incident;
(b) the list of authorities or persons to be contacted in the event of
an oil pollution incident; and
(c) a detailed description of the action to be taken immediately by
persons on board to reduce or control the discharge of oil
following the incident.
1.2.2 The International Management Code for the Safe Operation of
Ships and for Pollution Prevention (ISM Code),
}
which will be made
mandatory on 1 July 1998 by amendments to the International Conven-
{
{
}
Refer to IMO sales publications IMO-186E and IMO-117E.
4
Manual on Oil Pollution V: Administrative aspects
tion for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS 1974),* also requires
emergency preparedness, i.e., the Company should establish proce-
dures to identify, describe and respond to potential emergency shipboard
situations. In the ISMCode, the Company means the owner of the ship or
any other organization or person such as the manager, or the bareboat
charterer, who has assumed the responsibility for operation of the ship
from the shipowner and who, on assuming such responsibility, has agreed
to take over all duties and responsibility imposed by the Code (regulation
IX/1 of SOLAS 1974 and paragraph 1.1.2 of the ISM Code).
Please refer to more detailed information in paragraph 5.6 of this Manual.
Also refer to the new chapter IX of SOLAS 1974 and the ISM Code as set
out in appendix 1.
1.3 Notification
1.3.1 The shipowner may be obliged by an applicable regulation (under
the law of the flag State or of the coastal State, either or both of which may
derive from international conventions to which these States are party) to
notify the nearest coastal State of the marine pollution emergency which
has arisen. Normally this obligation will fall upon the master of the ship,
but if the ship has been abandoned, or if the masters report is incomplete,
then the obligation on the shipowner to make a report may arise. The
obligation to report, which Parties to MARPOL 73/78 undertake to
implement in their internal law for ships registered in their territory, is
contained in Protocol I of that Convention. The text of Protocol I of
MARPOL 73/78, together with Assembly resolution A.648(16), is set out for
convenience in appendix 2. Article 4 of OPRC 1990 is to similar effect.
1.4 Pollution response and clean-up
1.4.1 The obligation of a shipowner to take pollution response and clean-
up measures depends upon the law of the State where the pollution
occurs. The shipowners obligation to pay for such measures may be
governed by the 1969 or 1992 International Convention on Civil Liability
for Oil Pollution Damage (1969 or 1992 Civil Liability Convention), if the
ship is registered in a State which is party to those Conventions. These
Conventions require a shipowner to maintain insurance to cover his
liability for pollution and other third-party liabilities under the Conven-
tions. The International Convention on Salvage, 1989 (1989 Salvage
Convention),
{
may also apply if a salvage contract is entered into. The 1989
Salvage Convention entered into force on 14 July 1996.
1.4.2 Under most insurance contracts, and indeed under the general
principles of many systems of insurance law, even though he is insured,
the shipowner must act as a prudent person without insurance, and
therefore he must act within his capabilities so as to minimize his
{
5
Part I, chapter 1
potential liabilities. The clause in the insurance contract which enshrines
this principle is often called the sue and labour clause. The principle is
simple: a shipowner should not be allowed to so act that the liabilities
which the insurer has underwritten will be increased if an alternative
course of action is open to him. Therefore coastal States should find the
shipowner very co-operative in any efforts the coastal State wants to make
which would have the effect of reducing the shipowners ultimate potential
liability, although in the past there have been some cases where this has
not been so. Often, disagreement arises when there is a conflict between
the shipowners desire to minimize liability and the coastal States desired
action. In any event, whatever response and clean-up assistance the
shipowner is able to muster, he will normally have behind him the
resources, the technical advice and services of his liability underwriter
(usually a P & I Club). In practice, the liability underwriter is usually very
closely involved, and so this is further discussed in chapter 8.
1.4.3 Under article 8(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, which entered
into force on 14 July 1996, the owner is under a duty to the salvor to co-
operate fully with him during the course of the salvage operations and, in
so doing, to exercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to the
environment.
1.4.4 These contractual obligations, if they apply, are owed to different
people the first, to the liability underwriter, and the second, to the salvor.
None are owed to the coastal State, although the coastal State may well
become involved in the owners implementation of them.
1.4.5 The shipowner also incurs legal obligations to the coastal State
whose waters are being polluted. These legal obligations can conflict with
the shipowners contractual obligations. In these cases, it is very important
to clarify who will pay the costs involved for any response action required
by the coastal States.
Chapter 2 The ship operator
2.1 The ship may be owned by one entity, such as a bank or other
financial institution, and leased or bareboat chartered to another entity.
This is a common method of financing, whereby the shipping company
which wants to use the ship has the possession of it but the bare legal
ownership resides in the institution which puts up the money for its
purchase. The relationship between the shipowner and the lessee or
bareboat charterer is governed by a contract of lease or bareboat charter
for our purposes there is no significant difference, so we shall refer to the
bareboat charterer below. In this connection, it should be noted that the
bareboat charterer will be required to comply with the requirements of the
ISM Code (see paragraphs 1.2.2 and 5.6).
2.2 It is the bareboat charterer who has the possession of the whole
ship, and it is therefore he who is responsible for the commercial and
operational management of the ship, and not the shipowner. Thus, where
this type of arrangement is in operation, the master will not be the agent of
6
the shipowner but the agent of the bareboat charterer, and the latter will
fulfill all of the roles and functions which were discussed above under
paragraph 1.1, so that for most purposes one can read bareboat charterer
for shipowner.
2.3 The notable exception concerns the liability of the shipowner under
the 1969 and 1992 Civil Liability Conventions, which cannot be directly
assumed by any other person.
2.4 In any event, the bareboat charterer would wish to avail himself of
any right of limitation which he may have under the relevant law, such as
the Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, 1976 (LLMC
1976)* (see paragraph 9.2).
2.5 It should be noted that the 1989 Salvage Convention places an
obligation on the owner to co-operate with a salvor and in so doing to
exercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to the environment. The
1989 Salvage Convention does not define owner, and so it is left to each
State Party to define it in its own legislation. Such legislation may or may
not provide that a bareboat charterer shall be in the same position as an
owner in this respect.
2.6 Another common arrangement which may complicate the picture
still further on the side of the interests in the ship is the appointment of
ship managers or operators who run the day-to-day non-commercial side
of the ships operation. Managers would normally be responsible for
providing the ship with officers and crew and ensuring that the ship is
maintained and insured. Operators have a similar, but lesser, role. In each
case the shipowner (or bareboat charterer, as the case may be) retains
commercial control of the ship and takes the commercial risks and
benefits of its operation, deciding whether to trade the ship directly for his
own benefit or to charter the ship out. Where there is a manager or
operator (who employs the master), the master will still be the agent of the
shipowner or bareboat charterer (as the case may be) for purposes of
dealing with the operation of the ship and for salvage purposes. However,
the master will additionally represent his employer, and his act or neglect
may make his employer liable for compensation. Managers and operators
usually enjoy the same rights to limit their liability as shipowners and
bareboat charterers.
Chapter 3 The master
3.1 The master is the officer aboard ship entrusted with the prosecu-
tion of the entire maritime adventure. He is, therefore, responsible for the
safety of the ship, the cargo and all personnel aboard, and he will take
such action as he can to achieve this as soon as the incident giving rise to
7
Part I, chapters 2, 3
the emergency occurs. He will give priority to saving life. His responsibility
and authority are further described in the ISM Code (see paragraph 5.6 of
this manual and the ISM Code, the latter of which appears in appendix 1).
3.2 If the ship is in distress, the master will be responsible to see that a
distress signal is sent, and he may, under regulation V/10(b) of SOLAS
1974, requisition any ship with which he is in contact and which he
considers best able to render him assistance, whereupon the master of the
requisitioned ship must proceed with all speed to the assistance of the
distressed ship. In addition, under article 11 of the Convention for the
Unification of Certain Rules of Law relating to Assistance and Salvage at
Sea, 1910 (1910 Salvage Convention), every master is bound to render
assistance to any person found in danger of being lost at sea, so far as he
can do so without serious danger to his ship and persons thereon. Article
10 of the 1989 Salvage Convention is to similar effect.
3.3 The master is usually the person responsible for making notifica-
tion to the nearest coastal State of the incident giving rise to the marine
pollution emergency (see paragraph 1.3.1 and appendix 2 for details).
3.4 The master is in most, if not all, systems of law the agent of the
shipowner in the navigation and shipboard management of the ship.
Where the cargo is in danger, he is usually also deemed the agent of the
cargo owner insofar as any action to save the cargo is taken. Coastal States
may therefore deal with the master in confidence that his word will bind
the shipowner and cargo owner insofar as the security of ship and cargo
are concerned when their owners are themselves not in contact with the
coastal State.
3.5 The agency of the master is the legal basis for the law of salvage.
The role of salvors is discussed in chapter 7, but here it may be noted that
the master is therefore able to reach agreement with a salvor himself. The
master will send out distress calls as appropriate after the incident occurs,
and he will call specifically for tugs if that is what he needs. Even if he does
not call specifically for tugs, any salvage tug in the vicinity hearing a
distress message is likely to try to contact the ship and may proceed in its
direction on speculation. The salvage tug will attempt to secure an
agreement for its services with the master.
3.6 Under article 6(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, the authority of
the master to conclude a contract for salvage operations with a salvor on
behalf of the owners of the ship and the cargo is given effect in the laws of
all States Parties thereto. There is also a new dimension to his legal
responsibilities: under article 8(2), the master is under a duty to the salvor
to co-operate fully with him during the course of the salvage operations
and, in so doing, to exercise care to prevent or minimize damage to the
environment.
3.7 Now that telecommunications are sophisticated, in a marine
pollution emergency, a master will often attempt to be in direct contact
with his shipowners office once the emergency has arisen, so that the
8
shoreside management may become involved in the decisions which are
apparently being made by the master alone. However, it is worth noting
that, whether the master is in contact with his shoreside office or not, his
decisions on the protection of the marine environment should not be
unduly influenced by instructions given by his shoreside office, taking into
account that the protection of the marine environment must be the
masters prime concern in all situations which arise and that economic
and other pressures on the master should not at any time interfere with
the decisions he must take in that regard.
3.8 It was for this reason, therefore, that the IMO Assembly adopted
resolution A.443(XI), in November 1979, on decisions of the shipmaster
with regard to maritime safety and marine environment protection after
the Amoco Cadiz incident in 1978. The resolution invites Governments to
take necessary steps to safeguard the master in the proper discharge of his
responsibilities in regard to maritime safety and the protection of the
marine environment by ensuring that:
(a) [t]he shipmaster is not constrained by the shipowner, charterer
or any other person from taking in this respect any decision which, in
the professional judgement of the shipmaster, is necessary; and,
(b) [t]he shipmaster is protected by appropriate provisions, including
the right of appeal, contained in, inter alia, national legislation, collective
agreements or contracts of employment, from unjustifiable dismissal or
other unjustifiable action by the shipowner, charterer or any other
person as a consequence of the proper exercise of his professional
judgement.
3.9 It should also be noted that when the marine pollution emergency
has arisen, the masters considerable responsibility may very well lie
heavily upon him and the pressure on him may be very great. He may very
well feel personally responsible for what has happened. In many cases, an
inquiry may follow which could result in his licence being suspended or
revoked. There may be considerable danger in staying aboard ship. It is
important that anyone dealing with the master during or in the immediate
aftermath of the marine pollution emergency is aware of these possibilities
and acts accordingly.
Chapter 4 The cargo owner
4.1 The owner of the cargo at the time of the marine pollution
emergency will not necessarily be either the shipper or the consignee, for
the ownership may have changed hands once or more than once since the
ship sailed. Initially, therefore, it may not be easy to establish who owns
the cargo, although the chain of enquiry will start with the shipper named
in the bill of lading, a copy of which will be retained on board by the
master. Bulk cargoes tend to be owned by a single entity, or perhaps by a
few different entities. Packaged cargoes, on the other hand, are more likely
to be owned by a greater variety of different entities.
9
Part I, chapter 4
4.2 While cargo interests collectively are the ones who contribute to the
two international funds outlined in part II, chapters 10 and 11, the
individual cargo owner would not normally be liable to compensate any
person suffering pollution damage, and certainly there is no international
legal regime which makes provision for the liability of the cargo owner for
such damage. However, that does not mean that the identity of the cargo
owner will be irrelevant to the question of compensation.
4.3 Once the cargo owner becomes aware of the marine pollution
emergency, his interest will lie mainly in ensuring that as much as
possible of his cargo is actually delivered to the port of destination. This is
the task which has been delegated to the shipowner, and, under the bill of
lading or other contract governing the carriage of the cargo by sea (such as
a charter-party), this responsibility will remain with the shipowner
throughout the marine pollution emergency unless and until the ship-
owner abandons the voyage. For this reason the cargo owner does not
normally feature much in the dramatis personae of a marine pollution
emergency.
4.4 The cargo owners interest extends also to a liability to contribute in
general average and salvage: in respect of both of these liabilities, he will
normally be insured by the cargo underwriter. Since the cargo owner (or
the cargo underwriter, using the right of subrogation) will look primarily to
the shipowner for compensation for any loss or contamination of the cargo,
it can be readily appreciated that the interests of the shipowner and the
cargo owner are somewhat in tension.
4.5 The cargo owners knowledge of the nature of the cargo will vary
enormously according to the type of entity concerned. If the cargo owner is
an end-user of the type of cargo involved, he may very well have technical
people on his staff who are familiar with the behavioural characteristics of
the cargo, which is almost invariably the source of the marine pollution
emergency (the main exception being the escape of marine fuel oil or
marine diesel used as bunkers). Therefore the cargo owner may be
someone to whom the coastal State or even the shipowner may turn for
advice about the cargo and how to handle it in the emergency. If the cargo
owner is a trading company which does not use the cargo itself, such
technical expertise is less likely to be available from that source and it may
have to be sought from the manufacturer of the cargo or from an industry
body. One particular aspect where cargo owners have become involved in
the marine pollution emergency concerns the lightering of the stricken
ship. It is not uncommon for the cargo owner particularly an end-user
to assist in the identification of a suitable lightering ship to be hired for the
job.
4.6 Under article 8(2) of the 1989 Salvage Convention, if a salvage
contract to which that Convention applies is entered into, the owner of any
property in danger including the cargo owner and the owner of freight at
10
risk is under a duty to the salvor to co-operate fully with him during the
course of the salvage operations and, in so doing, to exercise care to
prevent or minimize damage to the environment.
Chapter 5 The flag State
5.1 The major effects of the flag States role are felt to take place before
the marine pollution emergency, for it is the flag State which is responsible
for: enacting and enforcing all design and equipment standards, all safety
standards, and all crew certification and training; issuing certificates
provided for by international conventions; setting minimum staffing levels
and standards relating to the prevention of collisions and the prevention of
pollution; and exercising jurisdiction and control over the ship while it is
on the high seas. However, there are obligations on a flag State after a
marine casualty has occurred.
5.2 Under article 12 of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State is obliged to
discover the facts of a casualty in which one of its ships has been involved
if the casualty has produced a major deleterious effect upon the marine
environment, so that it can determine whether any change in the
regulatory regime is necessary. In addition, most States with sizeable
fleets have made provision for holding a marine inquiry when there is
serious loss of life, and, under regulation I/21 of SOLAS 1974, a flag State
must hold such an inquiry when it judges that such an investigation may
assist in determining what changes in the SOLAS 1974 regulations might
be desirable. Apart from SOLAS 1974 as modified by the Protocol of 1978
relating thereto (1978 SOLAS Protocol), the International Convention on
Load Lines, 1966 (LL 1966),* and MARPOL 73/78, no other international
conventions currently in force make extensive provisions for the holding of
marine inquiries.
5.3 Under article 94(7) of the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS), which entered into force on 16 November 1994,
the flag State is under a more extensive duty to hold a marine inquiry,
including where there has been serious damage to ships or installations of
another State or to the marine environment, and the other State involved
shall co-operate in such an inquiry.
5.4 Under article 5(3) of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State is entitled to
receive notification if any other State Party denies the ship entry to its
ports or offshore terminals or takes any action against the ship for the
reason that it does not comply with MARPOL 73/78.
5.5 Under article 6 of MARPOL 73/78, the flag State must co-operate
with other Parties in the detection of violations and the enforcement of the
provisions of the Convention; if presented with evidence of a violation, the
flag State must investigate the matter and, if satisfied that there is
sufficient available evidence for proceedings to be brought for a violation, it
11
Part I, chapter 5
must instigate such proceedings. Similar, but less detailed, provisions
exist in regulation I/19 of SOLAS 1974 as modified by the 1978 SOLAS
Protocol, article 21 of LL 1966 and article X of the International Convention
on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers,
1978 (STCW 1978). Where a coastal State presents a flag State with
evidence of a violation, it can always contact the flag State to see what is
the outcome of the investigation which the flag State conducts, and to offer
assistance in every way with the presentation of oral or written evidence at
any subsequent legal proceedings which the flag State may bring.
5.6 SOLAS 1974 was amended in May 1994 at a SOLAS Conference to
add a new chapter IX to the Convention which is designed to make
mandatory the ISM Code, which was adopted by IMO in November 1993 by
Assembly resolution A.741(18). The ISM Code takes into account that the
most important means of preventing maritime casualties and pollution of
the sea from ships is to design, construct, equip and maintain ships and to
operate them with properly trained crews in compliance with international
conventions and standards relating to maritime safety and pollution
prevention. The Code provides an international standard for the safe
management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention (see
appendix 1). The amendments will enter into force under tacit acceptance
on 1 July 1998 (unless rejected in the meantime by one third of
Contracting Governments or by Contracting Governments whose com-
bined merchant fleets make up at least 50% of world tonnage).
5.7 The new chapter IX of SOLAS 1974 applies to ships, regardless of
the date of construction, as follows:
(1) passenger ships including passenger high-speed craft, not later
than 1 July 1998;
(2) oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers and
cargo high-speed craft of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, not
later than 1 July 1998; and
(3) other cargo ships and mobile offshore drilling units of 500 gross
tonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 2002.
Chapter 6 The coastal State
6.1 Within OPRC 1990, salient features are stipulated in article 6
(National and regional systems for preparedness and response) and article
7 (International co-operation in pollution response). Specifically, under
article 6, each Party shall:
(a) establish a national system for responding promptly and
effectively to oil pollution incidents which has, as a minimum,
developed a national contingency plan and designated national
authorities and operational focal points responsible for oil
pollution preparedness and response, reporting and handling
requests for assistance;
12
(b) within its capabilities either individually or through bilateral or
multilateral co-operation and, as appropriate, in co-operation
with the oil and shipping industries and other relevant entities,
establish a minimum level of pre-positioned oil spill response
equipment, proportionate to the risk involved, and programmes
for its use; and
(c) commit to co-operate and render assistance to Parties that
request assistance to deal with oil pollution incidents, subject to
capability and availability of relevant resources.
6.2 Whether a coastal State is a Party to OPRC 1990 or not, in general,
the different roles of the coastal States various competent authorities will
be defined in its constitution and in its marine pollution contingency plan.
These plans vary from State to State, and the considerations which should
be taken into account in preparing them should include those contained
in this document. Elaboration of the process of drawing up such a plan is
covered by other documents, such as section II of the Manual on Oil
Pollution, Contingency Planning.* Therefore, here the roles and functions of
the various competent authorities of a coastal State will be discussed as if
there was but one national authority to deal with the marine pollution
emergency, and this will simply be referred to as the coastal State.
6.3 When faced with a marine pollution emergency, the coastal State
must look both to its international rights and duties and to its national
position. Insofar as the former are concerned, every State has a general
duty under customary international law to warn other States of a marine
pollution threat of which it becomes aware and which is likely to affect
them, and this is reinforced by article 8(3) of MARPOL 73/78, which
requires States to notify the flag State and any other State which may be
affected. Article 5 of OPRC 1990 is to similar effect. Principle 21 of the 1972
Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
went so far as to say that
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and
the principles of international law ... the responsibility to ensure that
activities within their jurisdiction and control do not cause damage to
the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national
jurisdiction.
(Articles 194(2) and 198 of UNCLOS contain a specific obligation to notify
other States which the coastal State deems likely to be affected.) Therefore,
once a marine pollution emergency is actually within the jurisdiction and
control of a coastal State, the coastal State must consider the likely effect
on other States and take the appropriate action, which, at the bare
minimum, is to notify those likely to be affected and keep them informed.
13
Part I, chapter 6
6.4 Such general obligations may have been given greater precision in
an inter-governmental regional agreement which commits the groups of
States who are Party thereto to co-operate in responding to major incidents
of marine pollution which are likely to affect more than one State. If a
coastal State is a Party to one of these, then its provisions should be
implemented. Under such an agreement, a coastal State is usually under a
duty to report marine pollution incidents to neighbouring States which
may be affected, to take the necessary response actions, and to monitor the
situation. Other Parties to the agreement are usually obliged to use their
best endeavours to respond to requests for assistance which may be made
by the coastal State affected and to co-operate in pollution response action.
Any regional mutual aid centre which may have been established
pursuant to such a regional agreement will be able to assist States Parties
in the task of implementing such an agreement in the actual marine
pollution emergency, primarily by providing technical advice and liaising
with other sources of assistance. There may also be a list of equipment
stockpiles established by oil companies or groups of countries which a
coastal State may be able to use.
6.5 If the coastal State chooses to focus its attention on its own
response to the marine pollution emergency, then one question which may
arise is the extent to which the coastal State may take action against the
wishes of the master or other parties who have interests in the ship or
cargo. Ideally, the coastal State will have considered the international law
position on intervention in conjunction with the preparation of its
contingency plan before the marine pollution emergency arises, and will
have enacted legislation or made other satisfactory provision for the taking
of appropriate steps when an emergency arises. Some coastal States have
chosen to establish marine pollution emergency funds which provide for
some independence in these decisions.
6.6 A detailed analysis of the international law on the right to intervene
is outside the scope of this document, but mention should be made of the
International Convention relating to Intervention on the High Seas in
Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, 1969 (1969 Intervention Convention),*
which gives greater precision to rights existing under customary interna-
tional law. The 1969 Intervention Convention deals only with rights to
intervene on the high seas, and does not cover the position in territorial
waters (the position in internal waters being a matter purely for the
domestic law of the coastal State). Under customary international law,
however, the position in territorial waters is similar to that adopted in the
1969 Intervention Convention.
* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-402E. Also, a relevant protocol extended the coverage of
the Convention to include substances other than oil (Protocol relating to Intervention on the High
seas in Cases of Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil, 1973 (1973 Intervention Protocol)).
Description of this Protocol is beyond the scope of the present publication.
14
6.7 The 1969 Intervention Convention permits the coastal State to
intervene on the high seas against the wishes of the owner of the ship and
the cargo to the extent necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave
and imminent danger to the coastline or related interests from pollution or
the threat of pollution of the sea, following upon a maritime casualty,
which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful conse-
quences. The measures taken must be proportionate to the damage actual
or threatened, and if they exceed this the coastal State must pay
compensation to those who have suffered thereby. Also, the right to
intervene must be preceded by due consultation with States or persons
whose interests are affected, except in cases of extreme urgency.
6.8 The related interests in protection of which intervention is possible
include tourism, fishing and other marine resources and wildlife, so that
intervention under this Convention is possible on purely environmental
grounds. IMO maintains a list of experts under the 1969 Intervention
Convention who may be called upon for consultation in such an
emergency.
6.9 One of the possible options for intervention which a coastal State
has is to require salvage services to be accepted or provided, or even to
undertake them itself. There are certain practical problems in implement-
ing such an imposed requirement where the responsible Parties are
unwilling to take action. However, articles 5 and 9 of the 1989 Salvage
Convention recognize that States may wish to control or provide such
services themselves by providing that nothing in the Convention shall
affect provisions which the coastal State may have made in this respect
(although salvors carrying out such services under the control of a public
authority are still entitled to avail themselves of the Conventions rights
and remedies).
6.10 In fact it is relatively unusual that the coastal State will need to
exercise its rights to intervene or to control salvage operations. The coastal
State has an absolute right in international law to deny a ship entry to any
of its ports or offshore installations, and very often this is the only thing
the coastal State will want to do that causes disagreement. In most cases,
co-operation between the master and the coastal State achieves all that is
necessary, and the coastal States task of co-ordinating and arranging all
the pollution response and clean-up actions under its contingency plan is
not hindered by the ship or cargo interests.
6.11 Under article 11 of the 1989 Salvage Convention, Parties to the
Convention have to take into account the need for co-operation between
salvors and others when regulating or deciding upon salvage matters,
such as admittance into ports of ships in distress or the provision of
facilities to salvors, so that operations to save life or property in danger, as
well as preventing damage to the environment, are taken into account.
6.12 After a marine pollution emergency is over, a marine inquiry is
often held. Co-operation between flag States in the holding of marine
inquiries has already been mentioned in chapter 5.
15
Part I, chapter 6
6.13 One administrative aspect of port State which is of interest to a
coastal State is worthy of discussion in this chapter. A number of IMO
conventions contain provisions for port State control inspections, but
previously these have been limited primarily to certification and the phy-
sical condition of the ship and its equipment. However, new regulation 8A
of Annex I of MARPOL 73/78, which entered into force on 3 March 1996,
makes it possible for ships to be inspected when in the ports of other
Parties to MARPOL 73/78 to ensure that crews are able to carry out
essential shipboard procedures relating to marine pollution prevention.
The procedures for the control of operational requirements relating to the
safety of ships and pollution prevention are contained in Assembly
resolution A.787(19).*
6.14 Extending port State control to operational requirements is seen as
an important way of improving the efficiency with which international
safety and anti-pollution treaties are implemented.
Chapter 7 The salvors
7.1 Professional salvors
7.1.1 The majority of professional salvors are members of the Interna-
tional Salvage Union (ISU). This organization represents some 43
companies based in 32 different countries around the world. The salvage
companies have tugs and other salvage equipment at a number of different
ports and areas throughout the world and some of the companies have
salvage tugs stationed at various strategic locations. Some salvage tugs are
being maintained at salvage stations in certain coastal States as a result of
arrangements made between their owners and other commercial interests
or the authorities in those States. When a salvage company is engaged to
assist a marine casualty they will be able to bring specialist expertise to
the task which is unique to the marine industry. Their business is not
without risks, and frequently the skills and efforts of salvage officers have
saved ships and their cargoes from extreme situations. Some companies
have the ability to mobilize equipment, either from their own resources or
from elsewhere, together with expert personnel at very short notice.
7.1.2 The number of salvage tugs in operation has significantly
decreased in recent years, and those that remain are frequently engaged
in ocean towage of rigs, barges, etc., on commercial terms. However, salvage
of casualties is still normally undertaken on traditional no cure no pay
terms, whereby, if successful, the tugowner/salvage company will earn a
reward based upon a number of factors, including the risks from which
the property was saved, the time occupied in the services, the dangers to
the salvors property and personnel, the value of the salved property, the
skills shown by the salvors and the expenses incurred by them in
* Refer to Assembly resolution A.787(19), Procedures for port State control; see IMO sales publication
number IMO-650E.
16
rendering the services. The 1910 Salvage Convention enshrines these
principles and forms the basis of salvage law of the States Party thereto.
When the 1989 Salvage Convention entered into force on 14 July 1996, it
replaced the 1910 Salvage Convention, thereby introducing substantial
changes to the salvage industry.
7.1.3 On a traditional no cure no pay basis, if no property is saved, the
salvor receives no reward for his efforts. This basis of working obviously
carries with it considerable financial risk, and a salvor therefore expects to
be rewarded far more generously than on normal commercial terms.
Indeed, the 1989 Salvage Convention stipulates that the reward shall be
fixed with a view to encouraging salvage operations, taking into account
the following criteria without regard to the order in which they are
presented... (see paragraphs 1(a) to (j) of article 13 of the 1989 Salvage
Convention). Statistical data collected and published by ISU have shown
that the revenue from over 2,000 salvage services carried out between
1978 and 1992 under no cure no pay terms has averaged just over 6% of
the property values salved. To achieve any such average there are
obviously awards at either end of the scale; however, on a traditional no
cure no pay basis, the award cannot exceed the value of the property
salved.
7.1.4 Salvage services rendered under other forms of commercial
contract, i.e., Daily Rate or Lump Sum, do not call for elaboration
here. Professional salvors will not normally work on such a basis for
normal salvage services. If a non-salvage commercial contract is utilized,
there will have been negotiation between the parties, who may include the
coastal State. No special limiting considerations are therefore relevant to a
marine pollution emergency in such a case. Salvage services rendered
under no cure no pay terms do, however, give rise to important
considerations for the handling of a marine pollution emergency.
7.1.5 The contract that salvors will normally offer to the master and/or
owners of a ship involved in a marine casualty will be the current version
of Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement (LOF 1995). This form,
reproduced in appendix 3, was issued by Lloyds following the enactment
of the 1989 Salvage Convention into English law on 1 January 1995. The
services to be provided to the casualty are set out in clause 1(a) of LOF
1995, namely:
The Contractor (salvor) shall use his best endeavours: (i) to salve the
[ship to be named] and/or her cargo freight bunkers stores and any other
property thereon and take them to [place to be named] or to such other
place as may hereafter be agreed either place to be deemed a place of
safety or if no such place is named or agreed to a place of safety and
(ii) while performing the salvage services to prevent or minimize damage
to the environment.
The Agreement is governed under clause 1(g) by English law and provides
for arbitration in London before one of the panel of Lloyds salvage
arbitrators, who are all lawyers experienced in marine salvage claims.
17
Part I, chapter 7
7.1.6 LOF 1995 extends an obligation upon the Contractor originally
contained in the 1980 edition of Lloyds Form, which was to prevent the
escape of oil from the ship and/or her cargo bunkers and stores. For the
first time the Contractor is bound to prevent or minimize damage to the
environment. The 1989 Salvage Convention defines damage to the
environment as substantial physical damage to human health or to
marine life or resources in coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent
thereto, caused by pollution, contamination, fire, explosion or similar
major incidents (see article 1(d) of the 1989 Salvage Convention). In
reality, salvors have always made considerable efforts during any salvage
operations to avoid pollution and to co-operate with national and/or local
authorities.
7.1.7 It is important to recall that a salvage agreement, be it LOF 1995 or
some other form of agreement, is normally entered into between the
salvage company and the master of the ship involved in a casualty as agent
for the owners of the ship, cargo, bunkers and stores. The coastal State is
not a party, and usually is not involved in the negotiations. Salvage is a
voluntary arrangement and cannot be imposed on unwilling parties. A
coastal State wishing to place a ship under a duty to accept salvage
services may, in certain cases, do so under its law (see chapter 6), but
implementing this, if one or both parties is unwilling, may prove to be
difficult.
7.1.8 On occasions, professional salvors may need to engage the services
of other companies to assist them in the provision of salvage services to
the casualty. It will be appreciated that no company can expect to have all
the ships, other floating plant, equipment and personnel immediately
available at the site of a casualty. In such situations the salvage company
will sometimes need to sub-contract assistance from other organizations.
This may range from the provision of additional tugs or anti-pollution
ships through to lightering ships. Some of these units could be entitled to
a salvage award in their own right; however, where a professional salvor
has been engaged, he can be expected to organize such assistance on
terms which will not lead to a proliferation of salvage claims. This may
involve utilizing, for example, the ISU Sub-Contract Award Sharing
Agreement, or other daily rate or lump sum terms.
7.2 The International Convention on Salvage, 1989
7.2.1 One of the main purposes of the Convention is to reflect the
interests of environmental protection in the way salvage contracts work. In
this regard it should be noted that LOF 1995 now incorporates the 1989
Salvage Convention.
7.2.2 The Convention applies whenever judicial or arbitration proceed-
ings relating to matters dealt with in the Convention are brought in a State
Party (see article 2). It applies to all types of salvage operations except those
relating to fixed or floating platforms, mobile offshore drilling units which
are actually on location and ships that are entitled to sovereign immunity
18
(unless such immunity is waived). It applies to almost all types of ship and,
in particular, it applies to the salvage of ships carrying all types of
environmentally hazardous cargo, whether carried in bulk or in packages.
It also applies to unladen ships which themselves present a threat of
pollution. Because of the wide definition of damage to the environment in
article 1, its environmental protection provisions apply not just to damage
to flora and fauna, but also to human health, and the cause may be
pollution, contamination, fire, explosion or any similar major incident.
7.2.3 By article 6, the parties to a salvage contract can, if they wish, vary
the provisions of the Convention in their contract, but they cannot vary the
duties to prevent or minimize damage to the environment which the
Convention contains. These duties are, therefore, applicable whenever the
Convention applies to a salvage operation, even if the other provisions have
been varied by the contract.
7.2.4 The main obligations of a salvor, which are owed not to the coastal
State but to the owners of the ship and property in danger, are contained
in article 8(1). The salvor must not only carry out the salvage operations
with due care, but in doing this, he must exercise due care to prevent or
minimize damage to the environment. In this way, due care to protect the
environment becomes a legal duty in all of the salvage operations to which
the Convention applies, and it cannot be varied by the contract. In return,
article 13(1) grants to the salvor the right to have the skill he has exercised
and the efforts he has made in preventing or minimizing damage to the
environment taken into account when the reward for successful or partly
successful salvage is fixed. Also, the risk of liability he has run (which
would include liability for damage to the environment) may also be taken
into account.
7.2.5 However, if, despite his due care, the salvage operations were not
successful, or if they were only partly successful, or if the value of the
successfully salved ship, cargo and freight at risk was low, it would be
possible for the salvor to have spent considerable sums in fulfilling his
duty to protect the environment which are not recouped, let alone
rewarded. Article 14 deals with this situation and intends to give the
salvor an incentive to salve any ship, whatever the value of her hull, cargo
and freight at risk and however environmentally dangerous the situation
may be. It does this by making provision for the salvor to be awarded
special compensation, in certain circumstances. There are two precondi-
tions to the award of this special compensation:
(a) the salvor must have carried out salvage operations in respect of
a ship which by itself or its cargo threatened damage to the
environment, and
(b) the amount of any reward he has earned under article 13 must
be less than the amount of special compensation assessed
under article 14.
19
Part I, chapter 7
7.2.6 The Convention therefore envisages that, in every case where the
ship or cargo threatens damage to the environment, two calculations will
be carried out: the reward to be fixed under article 13 and the special
compensation to be fixed under article 14. If the reward figure exceeds the
figure for special compensation, then in fact only the reward is payable. If
the special compensation figure exceeds the reward figure, then the reward
is topped up to the level of the special compensation figure (see article
14(4)). The salvor does not get paid twice, but his environmental efforts can
lead to the enhancement of the total remuneration he receives from the
salvage services he performs.
7.2.7 The special compensation varies according to the circumstances. If
there was a threat of damage to the environment, but in fact the salvor did
not by his salvage operations prevent or minimize such damage, then the
special compensation figure is equal to his reasonably incurred out-of-
pocket expenses plus a fair rate for equipment and personnel reasonably
used in the salvage operations (which we shall call below the salvage
expenses). If, on the other hand, his salvage operations did prevent or
minimize damage to the environment, then the special compensation
figure may be increased up to 30% of the salvage expenses. Where
exceptional service has been rendered, the special compensation may be
increased still more, but in no case shall the total increase be more than
100% of the expenses incurred by the salvor.
7.2.8 There is a lot at stake for the salvor under these and related
provisions. If he is negligent, both the reward and the special compensa-
tion figures may be reduced. If he is not negligent, at worst he may end up
merely with his salvage expenses reimbursed if there was a threat to the
environment. He must therefore do his job with the care and skill for which
the salvage industry is noted before he earns a good remuneration. He
must also carefully consider the location of the casualty in relation to the
definition of damage to the environment, as, if the casualty is not within
or close to coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto, then the
special compensation provisions of article 14 may not apply. In this event,
the salvor could be back to the traditional no cure no pay scenario.
Chapter 8 The liability underwriter
8.1 The third-party liabilities of the shipowner, and of any bareboat
charterer, manager or operator of the ship, will generally be covered by
mutual insurance associations called Protection and Indemnity Associa-
tions which together cover over 90% of the worlds ocean-going shipping.
These associations are normally referred to as P&I Clubs, the word Club
being used to denote their nature as mutual associations of shipowners.
Some discussion of the structure of P&I Clubs is relevant here, as this
helps to account for the particular character of these organizations, which
affects the way they are able to interact with coastal States in a marine
pollution emergency.
8.2 Examples of coverage offered by a P&I Club are:
20
(1) personal injury to or illness or loss of life of crew members and
passengers, and loss of their effects;
(2) one fourth of collision liability;
(3) excess collision liability, including payments in excess of the
limit of the hull policies and items of claim excluded from
policies such as oil pollution, dock damage, wreck removal and
loss of life, personal injury and illness;
(4) oil pollution liabilities;
(5) other claims for damage to property, including damage to other
ships and their cargoes without collision, and dock damage;
(6) towage contract liabilities;
(7) removal of the wreck of an entered ship; and
(8) liabilities for loss or damage to cargo and other property on
board an entered ship.
8.3 It should be borne in mind that a P&I Club covers only the ship-
owners legal liabilities in the sense of damage or compensation which the
owner is legally obliged to pay to others, together with certain other losses,
costs and expenses which are specified in the terms of the insurance given
to shipowners.
8.4 A P&I Club is an association of shipowners and others with similar
interests in ships. The association is usually incorporated as a company
limited by guarantee, and is governed by a board, appointed by the
members. The day-to-day management is often carried out by a separate
partnership or management company. The association insures its
members against their third-party liabilities on terms specified in the
P&I Clubs Rules, and it raises the funds to enable it to do so by calling up
the necessary sums from its members. After taking a certain measure of
the risk itself, a Club will usually arrange reinsurance, first by a pooling
arrangement with other P&I Clubs for a certain amount, and then on the
open market. The largest P&I Clubs are members of the International
Group of P&I Clubs, a list of whose members appears in appendix 4.
Except in the case of oil pollution risks, once a claim reaches the limit of
reinsurance it is further pooled with other P&I Clubs. Therefore, unique
among insurance contracts, P&I Clubs currently offer unlimited cover for
all risks except oil pollution risks. The availability of cover for oil pollution
risks varies from year to year according to what the reinsurance market
will bear. As an example, for the year noon GMT on 20 February 1995 to
noon GMT on 20 February 1996, this limit was US$500 million.
8.5 It should, however, be noted that, in practice, the coverage of the
maximum amount does not apply except where the shipowner loses his
right to limitation of liability. As already mentioned, since the P&I Clubs
cover only the legal liabilities of their members, and members are normally
entitled to limit their liability under various international conventions or
national law, the insurance cover is mostly, in practice, restricted to the
limitation amount applicable to the ship. In oil pollution cases, the
21
Part I, chapter 8
insurance cover is normally limited in accordance with the site of the ship,
up to a maximum of 14 million Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) (US$18.9
million) pursuant to the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, or 59.7 million
SDRs (US$80.6 million) pursuant to the 1992 Civil Liability Convention.*
8.6 Because the insurance offered has always been related to liabilities,
P&I Clubs have traditionally had legal expertise amongst their manage-
ment. In the case of a marine pollution emergency, many legal experts with
whom a coastal State would have to deal will not only be qualified lawyers
but they will generally have experience in the handling of pollution claims
(mainly oil pollution claims) in many parts of the world. By contrast, the
officials of the coastal State may be dealing with a marine pollution
emergency for the very first time.
8.7 The main job of the liability underwriter in a marine pollution
emergency is to handle all claims against their members and to pay the
valid ones. Under the terms of the insurance, the underwriter will normally
have the right to take over the handling of all claims above a certain
amount and, because of this, the underwriter will usually get involved in
decisions which affect the eventual size of a claim right from the
beginning, even before any formal claim is raised. For this and for other
reasons, in a marine pollution emergency, the coastal State may find that
very early on the most important person it is dealing with is not the
shipowner himself but his liability underwriter. In the text which follows,
the liability underwriter is assumed to be a P&I Club, since P&I Clubs
account for the vast majority of all shipowners pollution liability
insurance world-wide, either directly or by way of reinsurance.
8.8 Where a ship is covered by a Certificate of Insurance or Other
Financial Security in respect of Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage
(CLC Certificate) it should not normally be necessary to arrest a ship, but
where a ship has been arrested, for whatever reason, a P&I Club may put
up financial security to ensure the release of the ship. This is commonly
done by the claimant accepting a letter of undertaking from the P&I Club
itself. The shipowner may need help with removing the crew from the ship,
or with repatriating them, or the master or other officer may need help with
local officials who are holding them against the payment of a possible fine.
The P&I Clubs have legal and other representatives in many ports all over
the world and, either directly or through them, are able to provide such
assistance.
8.9 In an oil pollution case the P&I Clubs have a very close relationship
with the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited
(ITOPF). ITOPF will be called in by the shipowner or his P&I Club in
almost every case of any size involving oil pollution, so that now it probably
has more experience in the practical aspects of response and clean-up, and
* The limits of liability indicated throughout this document are based on specific units of account, i.e.,
Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), the US dollar equivalents of which vary depending upon the current
exchange rate. The rate of conversion for the purposes of the present publication is 1 SDR =
US$1.34925 (31 December 1997).
22
in deciding upon the reasonableness of actions taken, than any other
organization. It is, therefore, able to advise the P&I Club and the
shipowner on the type and extent of oil pollution which has occurred,
what effect it is likely to have under different scenarios, what needs to be
done to abate or prevent the effects, and the most efficient way in carrying
out this advice. This advice is also available to the coastal State, should it
ask for it, and in many cases the coastal State has asked ITOPF to help
arrange and co-ordinate the pollution response and clean-up. If the oil
pollution affects a State Party to the International Convention on the
Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution
Damage 1971 or 1992 (1971 or 1992 Fund Convention), there is also close
co-operation between the P&I Clubs concerned and the International Oil
Pollution Compensation Funds 1971 and 1992 (IOPC Funds) (see chapter
10). This co-operation usually extends to the appointment of joint technical
experts, including those from ITOPF.
8.10 The P&I Club will also be involved in the decision concerning a
possible lightering of the ship, since the owners of the lightering ship will
usually demand a complete indemnity from the shipowner against any
liabilities which they may incur as a result of undertaking the lightering,
and the shipowner will want to ensure that his P&I Club will be insuring
his liability under that indemnity. If the ship is a wreck and needs to be
removed, then again the P&I Club will be involved, since wreck removal is
one of the risks which they insure.
8.11 When the time comes for claims to be presented to the shipowner or
others responsible, except in a small case, it will normally be the P&I Club
which is the entity with which the claimant will have to deal in fact,
under the 1969 and 1992 Civil Liability Conventions, the P&I Club
normally provides the certificate of insurance on which the ships CLC
Certificate is based. In oil pollution cases, the IOPC Funds may also
become involved (see chapter 10). Not only will the P&I Club negotiate
claims with the claimant (directly or through local lawyers or agents), but,
if legal proceedings are commenced, it will usually be the P&I Club which
takes the decisions concerning how the claimis defended. In all claims, the
P&I Clubs aim to provide a service to their members, and part of that
service is to ensure that only provable, valid claims are actually paid.
Claims which are unreasonable will normally be vigorously resisted with
all the considerable expertise of the Club; equally, well-presented, valid
claims are normally paid as soon as possible. Considerations relating to
making a claim are discussed further in chapter 12.
23
Part I, chapter 8
Part II
Compensation for oil pollution damage
Chapter 9 Outline
9.1 The law relating to compensation for oil pollution damage and the
cost of measures to prevent such damage is a highly technical one, and a
summary of all of the relevant provisions and principles is beyond the
scope of this Manual. However, States and others need to bear in mind the
question of cost recovery when deciding what measures to take in a marine
pollution emergency. It should be noted that the discussion in this part II
concerns, for the most part, liability and compensation regimes derived
from international conventions.
9.2 It was the Torrey Canyon incident in 1967 which provided a major
stimulus for the development of four international regimes two voluntary
agreements and two international conventions through which compen-
sation for clean-up costs and pollution damage was made available
following spills of persistent oil from tankers. The two voluntary regimes
were the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil
Pollution (TOVALOP) and the Contract regarding a Supplement to Tanker
Liability for Oil Pollution (CRISTAL). Although originally conceived only as
interim arrangements, the two voluntary agreements co-existed for more
than 25 years with the two international conventions on liability, which
were developed under the auspices of IMO, viz. the 1969 Civil Liability
Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention. However, it was decided in
November 1995 by the industries concerned that there was no longer a
need for TOVALOP and CRISTAL, and the two voluntary agreements were
terminated on 20 February 1997. Details on these two expired agreements
are, therefore, beyond the scope of this Manual.
9.3 The international system of liability and compensation created by
the conventions is unique in the field of environmental pollution. Of
particular importance is the fact that the regime applies regardless of
whether or not the tanker causing the spill was at fault. Claimants can
therefore receive compensation promptly, without the need for lengthy and
costly litigation. This also ensures that Government authorities can take
actions to prevent or minimize pollution damage in the knowledge that, as
long as their actions are reasonable for the circumstances, the costs they
incur will normally be reimbursed.
9.4 Further details on each of the international conventions on liability
and compensation are provided in chapters 10 and 11.
25
the 1971 Fund Convention
10.1 Under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, the registered owner of a
tanker is strictly liable (i.e., liable also in the absence of fault) for pollution
damage caused by an escape or discharge of oil from the tanker, including
measures to prevent or minimize such damage. This strict liability is,
however, subject to certain defences.
10.2 The scope of application of the Conventions has the following main
limitations. The Conventions apply only when the oil concerned is
persistent, for example, crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil, lubricating oil,
or whale oil. The Conventions are limited to damage caused in the territory
of Contracting States and to measures (wherever taken) to prevent or
minimize such damage. These Conventions apply only to ships which are
actually carrying oil in bulk as cargo, i.e., normally laden tankers. Spills
from tankers during ballast voyages are therefore not covered by this
Convention, nor are spills of bunker oil from ships other than tankers.
10.3 The shipowner also has certain defences. The shipowner is not
liable at all if he can prove the damage (a) resulted from an act of war,
hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a natural phenomenon of an
exceptional, inevitable and irresistible character, or (b) was wholly caused
by an act or omission done with intent to cause damage by a third party, or
(c) was wholly caused by the negligence or other wrongful act of any
Government or other authority responsible for the maintenance of lights
or other navigational aids in the exercise of that function.
10.4 Unless the pollution damage was caused as a result of the actual
fault or privity of the shipowner, the shipowner is entitled to limit his
liability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention to 133 SDRs (US$179)
per limitation ton of the tanker or 14 million SDRs (US$18.9 million),
whichever is the less. These amounts, when expressed in local currency,
vary from time to time in accordance with exchange rates.
10.5 Any tanker carrying more than 2,000 tonnes of persistent oil in
bulk as cargo must be insured against the liability arising under the 1969
Civil Liability Convention. This cover is normally provided by a P&I Club or
other insurer.
10.6 Additional compensation may be obtainable from the International
Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1971 (1971 Fund) if the affected State is
a Party to the 1971 Fund Convention in certain cases when the shipowner
is exempt from liability or if the shipowners limit is exceeded.
10.7 The 1971 Fund was set up pursuant to the 1971 Fund Conven-
tion.* The 1971 Fund will compensate those who have suffered oil
pollution damage in the territory, including the territorial sea, of a Con-
tracting State to the 1971 Fund Convention. Also, the costs of measures to
* Refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-420B.
26
prevent or minimize such damage, wherever taken, are compensable under
the 1971 Fund Convention. The compensation is available to the extent
that a claimant has been unable to obtain compensation from the
shipowner (and his insurer) under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention.
This is usually because the damage exceeds the owners liability under the
1969 Civil Liability Convention, but can also be because the owner is
financially incapable of meeting his obligations under that Convention or
because the owner can invoke one of the defences under that Convention.
10.8 The exceptions and defences of the 1971 Fund are similar to, but
less restricted than, those available to the shipowner under the 1969 Civil
Liability Convention. The 1971 Fund will compensate victims in the
following cases not covered by the 1969 Civil Liability Convention where
the damage:
(a) resulted from a natural phenomenon of an exceptional,
inevitable and irresistible character;
(b) was wholly caused by an act or omission done with intent to
cause damage by a third party; or,
(c) was wholly caused by the negligence or other wrongful act of
any Government or another authority responsible for the
maintenance of lights or other navigational aids in the exercise
of that function.
The maximum amount payable by the 1971 Fund for one incident is 60
million SDRs (US$81.0 million). The amount of compensation available
under the 1971 Fund Convention is unrelated to the size of the tanker and
is inclusive of any compensation actually paid by the shipowner or his
insurer under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention. Where the amount of
established claims against the 1971 Fund exceeds the aggregate amount
of compensation payable, the amount available shall be distributed in
such a manner that the proportion between any established claim and the
amount of compensation actually recovered by the claimant under the
1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention is the same
for all claimants.
10.9 The owner of a ship registered in or flying the flag of a State Party to
the 1971 Fund Convention is indemnified by the 1971 Fund for a part of
the total amount of his liability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention.
The maximum indemnification payable by the 1971 Fund to the ship-
owner is 33 SDRs (US$45) for each ton of the ships limitation tonnage
(gross tonnage minus net tonnage plus capacity of engine-room space); for
ships over 83,333 tons, the indemnification is somewhat higher, with a
maximum of 5,667,000 SDRs (US$7.6 million) for ships over 105,000 tons.
10.10 The 1971 Fund is administered by a Secretariat which has its
headquarters in London, in the building of the International Maritime
Organization. The Secretariat also administers the 1992 Fund (see
paragraph 11.3).
27
Part II, chapter 10
the 1992 Fund Convention
11.1 An international conference held in London in 1984 adopted two
Protocols amending the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971
Fund Convention. These Protocols provide significantly higher limits of
compensation and a wider scope of application than the Conventions in
their original version.
11.2 It became clear in 1990 that these 1984 Protocols would not come
into force in the foreseeable future. As a result, an International
Conference was held in 1992 under the auspices of IMO which adopted
two new Protocols to amend the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the
1971 Fund Convention. The two Protocols are entitled the Protocol of 1992
to amend the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution
Damage, 1969, and the Protocol of 1992 to amend the International
Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensa-
tion for Oil Pollution Damage. The 1992 Protocols have the same
substantive provisions as the 1984 Protocols, but have different entry-
into-force provisions. The Conventions as amended by the Protocols are
known as the 1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 Fund
Convention.*
11.3 The 1992 Civil Liability Convention and the 1992 Fund Convention,
the latter of which is supplementary to the former, entered into force on 30
May 1996. The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund 1992 (1992
Fund) was established under the 1992 Fund Convention, upon its entry
into force, for the purpose of administering the regime of compensation
created by the Convention. The 1992 Fund is administered jointly with the
1971 Fund (see paragraph 10.10).
11.4 The main differences between the new regime (1992 Civil Liability
Convention and 1992 Fund Convention) and the old regime (1969 Civil
Liability Convention and 1971 Fund Convention) are as follows:
(1) special liability limit for owners of small ships and a substantial
increase of the limitation amounts: the limits under the 1992
Civil Liability Convention are:
(a) for a ship not exceeding 5,000 units of tonnage, 3 million
SDRs (US$4.1 million);
(b) for a ship with a tonnage between 5,000 and 140,000
units of tonnage, 3 million SDRs plus 420 SDRs (US$567)
for each additional unit of tonnage; and
(c) for a ship exceeding 140,000 units of tonnage, 59.7 mil-
lion SDRs (US$80.6 million);
28
(2) an increase in the limit of compensation payable by the 1992
Fund to 135 million SDRs (US$182.2 million), including the
compensation payable by the shipowner under the 1992 Civil
Liability Convention;
(3) a simplified procedure for increasing the limitation amounts in
the two Conventions;
(4) the shipowner is no longer indemnified by the Fund for part of
his liability under the 1969 Civil Liability Convention (see
paragraph 10.9);
(5) extended geographical scope of application of the Conventions
beyond the territorial seas to include the exclusive economic
zone established under UNCLOS;
(6) pollution damage caused by spills of persistent oil from unladen
tankers covered, including spills of cargo or bunker oil from
both laden and unladen tankers;
(7) expenses incurred for preventive measures are recoverable even
when no spill of oil occurs, provided that there was a grave and
imminent threat of pollution damage (the 1969/1971 Conven-
tions apply only to damage caused or measures taken after an
incident has occurred in which oil has escaped or been
discharged); and
(8) a new definition of pollution damage, retaining the basic
wording of the present definition with the addition of a phrase
to clarify that, with regard to environmental damage, only costs
incurred for reasonable measures to reinstate the contaminated
environment are included in the concept of pollution damage.
11.5 The 1992 Fund Convention provided a mechanism for the
compulsory denunciation of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the
1971 Fund Convention. The requirements for compulsory denunciation
were fulfilled on 15 November 1996. As a result, the States which had
deposited instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession in
respect of the 1992 Fund Convention were obliged to deposit instruments
of denunciation of the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund
Convention by 15 May 1997. These denunciations will take effect on 15
May 1998. From 16 May 1998, it will no longer be possible for a State to
belong to both regimes.
Chapter 12 Recovery of compensation
12.1 Another main role of the coastal State comes in obtaining
compensation for pollution damage. The coastal State needs to keep two
aspects of compensation constantly in mind as it decides its response.
12.2 First, the possibility of recovery needs to be balanced against other
important factors, such as the expectations of the local population and the
need to preserve the environment for its own sake. In general, the coastal
State will only be able to recover the costs of response measures which
29
Part II, chapters 11, 12
were considered reasonable in the circumstances. Claims for measures to
prevent or minimize pollution damage are assessed on the basis of
objective criteria. The fact that a Government or other public body decides
to take certain measures does not in itself mean that the measures are
reasonable for the purpose of the Conventions. The technical reason-
ableness is assessed on the basis of the facts available at the time of the
decision to take the measures. However, those in charge of the operations
should continually reappraise their decisions in the light of developments
and further technical advice. The fact that the response measures turned
out to be ineffective or the decision was shown to be incorrect with the
benefit of hindsight are not reasons in themselves for disallowing a claim
for the costs involved. A claim may be rejected, however, if it could have
been foreseen that the measures would be ineffective but they were
instigated nevertheless, because, for example, it was considered necessary
to be seen to be doing something. In addition, if far more resources than
necessary for the circumstances are mobilized, the full cost of such
mobilization may not be considered reasonable by those responsible for
compensation.
12.3 A discussion of what types of damage qualify for compensation
under the various national and international legal regimes is beyond the
scope of this publication. However, in the case of persistent oil spills
covered by the international regimes, compensation is normally available
to Governments and public and private bodies for reasonable clean-up
costs. Compensation is also available for damage to property and on
certain conditions for economic loss caused by the spill. The types of
claims which are normally covered are:
(1) measures to prevent or minimize pollution e.g., deploying booms
to protect fish farms;
(2) clean-up operations at sea and on the shore;
(3) disposal of recovered oil and oily debris;
(4) the cleaning or replacement of damaged property (e.g., fishing
nets);
(5) economic loss suffered as a result of contamination by those
who depend directly on earnings from coastal or sea-related
activities (e.g., fishermen).
12.4 Compensation is also available under the regimes for reasonable
costs actually incurred in reinstating damaged environments, but not for
environmental damage based on a purely notional basis. Attempts have
been made in the past to use theoretical methods for calculating damage to
the environment, which in 1980 prompted the Assembly of the 1971 Fund
to pass a resolution which states that the assessment of compensation by
the 1971 Fund is not to be made on the basis of an abstract quan-
tification of damage calculated in accordance with theoretical models.
This policy was codified in the new definition of pollution damage
contained in the 1992 Protocols (see paragraph 11.4(8)).
30
12.5 In order to obtain compensation, a claimant must be able to show
that he has suffered an economic loss as a result of the contamination and
the amount of this loss. It is essential that comprehensive records are kept
detailing all operations and expenditures resulting from the incident. Daily
worksheets should be compiled by supervisory personnel to record the
operations in progress, the equipment in use, where and how it is being
used, the number of personnel employed, how and where they are deployed
and the materials consumed. Recording such information is facilitated by
using standard worksheets, which should be designed to suit the
particular circumstances of the spill and the response organization in
the country concerned.
12.6 Major expenditures are often incurred for the use of aircraft, ships,
specialized equipment, heavy machines, trucks and personnel. Some of
these resources may be Government-owned whereas others may be the
subject of contractual arrangements. Detailed records should be kept of
actual time employed on clean-up and for what purpose. The appointment
of a financial controller to the response team may be valuable to ensure
that adequate records are kept and the expenditure is controlled.
12.7 The most difficult claims to prove are those for economic loss other
than damage to property. Such losses are usually suffered not by the
coastal State itself but by individuals or businesses in the State. In claims
of this nature, comparative figures for earnings in previous periods and
during the period when economic loss was suffered must be presented. A
comparison will be made with similar areas outside the area affected by
the spill. This involves a great deal of documentation. The claimant must
show that the loss was caused by contamination.
12.8 The speed with which claims are settled depends largely on how
long it takes for claimants to provide the information required. It is
advisable to contact those bodies likely to be involved in paying
compensation (and their technical advisers) as soon as possible after the
incident to discuss the presentation of claims.
12.9 Claimants should submit their claims as soon as possible after the
damage has occurred. If a formal claim cannot be made shortly after an
incident, the IOPC Funds would appreciate being notified as soon as
possible of the claimants intention to present a claim at a later stage.
Claimants will ultimately lose their right to compensation from the
shipowner/insurer and the 1971/1992 Funds unless they bring court
action against the shipowner/insurer and the 1971/1992 Funds within
three years of the date on which the damage occurred. Although the
damage may occur sometime after an incident took place, court action
must in any case be brought within six years of the date of the incident.
Claimants are recommended to seek legal advice on the formal require-
ments of court actions, to avoid their claims being time-barred.
31
Part II, chapter 12
12.10 The IOPC Funds are closely and actively involved in claims
assessment, and, pursuant to an agreement with the International Group
of P&I Clubs, claims are handled jointly by the IOPC Funds and the Club
involved. Very often the technical assistance of ITOPF will be called upon.
The result is that normally claimants need present their claims only once.
12.11 It is important that Governments inform the IOPC Funds promptly
of any incidents in respect of which the Funds will have to pay
compensation or in respect of which there is a real possibility that the
Funds might have to make such payments.
12.12 If there is a reasonable likelihood that the IOPC Funds will be
involved, potential claimants should consult with the Funds and their
technical experts at the earliest possible time, especially in respect of any
major items of expenditure. The objective of the IOPC Funds is to
compensate the victims of pollution under the terms set out in the 1971
Fund Convention and the 1992 Fund Convention; the Funds therefore
regard themselves as providing an international public service, and their
claims handling is conducted accordingly. Extracts from the IOPC Funds
Claims Manual (5th edition, December 1996) are presented in appendix 5
of this publication.
Chapter 13 Guidelines for facilitation of response
to oil pollution incidents
13.1 The previous chapter outlined the procedures that have to be
considered for being able to recover compensation for the costs incurred in
responding to an oil spill and any resulting pollution damage. Part of a
response operation could involve the use of resources brought into a State
from another country. While the costs associated with such outside
assistance may be recovered under existing liability and compensation
regimes the manner in which such resources are accessed requires careful
planning.
13.2 At the first intersessional meeting of the OPRC Working Group in
March 1993, countries set out to have IMO develop operational guidelines
and recommendations on the means by which States should give effect to
article 7(3) of the OPRC Convention dealing with facilitation of response to
an oil pollution incident.
13.3 Article 7 of the OPRC Convention, International co-operation in
pollution response, inter alia, stipulates the following:
(3) In accordance with international agreements, each Party shall
take necessary legal or administrative measures to facilitate:
(a) the arrival and utilization in and departure from its territory
of ships, aircraft and other modes of transport engaged in
responding to an oil pollution incident or transporting
personnel, cargoes, materials and equipment required to
deal with such an incident; and
32
(b) the expeditious movement into, through, and out of its
territory of such personnel, cargoes, materials and equip-
ment referred to in paragraph (a).
13.4 Following careful deliberation on this issue during the thirty-fourth,
thirty-seventh and thirty-eighth sessions of the Marine Environment
Protection Committee, the Committee forwarded to the twentieth Assembly
of IMO a resolution, which was approved (resolution A.869(20)), to provide
guidance for States in implementing the aforementioned article of the
Convention. This Assembly resolution is presented in appendix 6 of this
publication.
33
Part II, chapter 13
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References
Directory of publishers
Assuranceforeningen Gard, P.O. Box 1563 Myrene, 4801 Norway.
Belhaven Press, P.O. Box 87, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2, United Kingdom.
Drewry Shipping Consultants Ltd, 11 Heron Quay, London E14 4JF,
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The Law of the Sea Institute, University of Hawaii at Manoa,
2515 Dole Street, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States.
Lloyds of London Press, 27 Swinton Street, London WC1X 9NW,
United Kingdom.
Longman Group UK Ltd, Westgate House, The High, Harlow, Essex
CM20 1YR, United Kingdom.
Manchester University Press, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL,
United Kingdom.
Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, United Kingdom.
William S. Hein & Co. Inc., 1285 Main Street, Buffalo, NY 14209,
United States.
38
Appendix 1
SOLAS 1974 Chapter IX
MANAGEMENT FOR THE SAFE OPERATION OF SHIPS
Regulation 1
Definitions
For the purpose of this chapter, unless expressly provided otherwise:
1 International Safety Management (ISM) Code means the Interna-
tional Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution
Prevention adopted by the Organization by resolution A.741(18), as may be
amended by the Organization, provided that such amendments are
adopted, brought into force and take effect in accordance with the
provisions or article VIII of the present Convention concerning the
amendment procedures applicable to the annex other than chapter I.
2 Company means the owner of the ship or any other organization or
person such as the manager, or the bareboat charterer, who has assumed
the responsibility for operation of the ship from the owner of the ship and
who on assuming such responsibility has agreed to take over all the duties
and responsibilities imposed by the International Safety Management
Code.
3 Oil tanker means an oil tanker as defined in regulation II-1/2.12.
4 Chemical tanker means a chemical tanker as defined in regulation
VII/8.2.
5 Gas carrier means a gas carrier as defined in regulation VII/11.2.
6 Bulk carrier means a ship which is constructed generally with
single deck, top-side tanks and hopper side tanks in cargo spaces, and is
intended primarily to carry dry cargo in bulk, and includes such types as
ore carriers and combination carriers.
7 Mobile offshore drilling unit (MODU) means a vessel capable of
engaging in drilling operations for the exploration for or exploitation of
resources beneath the sea-bed such as liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons,
sulphur or salt.
8 High-speed craft means a craft as defined in regulation X/1.2.
Note: Chapter IX was accepted on 1 January 1998, by the tacit acceptance procedure, and will enter
into force on 1 July 1998.
39
Regulation 2
Application
1 This chapter applies to ships, regardless of the date of construction,
as follows:
.1 passenger ships including passenger high-speed craft, not later
than 1 July 1998;
.2 oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers and
cargo high-speed craft of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, not
later than 1 July 1998; and
.3 other cargo ships and mobile offshore drilling units of 500 gross
tonnage and upwards, not later than 1 July 2002.
2 This chapter does not apply to government-operated ships used for
non-commercial purposes.
Regulation 3
Safety management requirements
1 The company and the ship shall comply with the requirements of
the International Safety Management Code.
2 The ship shall be operated by a company holding a Document of
Compliance referred to in regulation 4.
Regulation 4
Certification
1 A Document of Compliance shall be issued to every company which
complies with the requirements of the International Safety Management
Code. This document shall be issued by the Administration, by an
organization recognized by the Administration, or at the request of the
Administration by another Contracting Government.
2 A copy of the Document of Compliance shall be kept on board the
ship in order that the master can produce it on request for verification.
3 A Certificate, called a Safety Management Certificate, shall be
issued to every ship by the Administration or an organization recognized
by the Administration. The Administration or organization recognized by it
shall, before issuing the Safety Management Certificate, verify that the
company and its shipboard management operate in accordance with the
approved safety-management system.
Regulation 5
Maintenance of conditions
The safety-management system shall be maintained in accordance with
the provisions of the International Safety Management Code.
40
Regulation 6
Verification and control
1 The Administration, another Contracting Government at the
request of the Administration or an organization recognized by the
Administration shall periodically verify the proper functioning of the
ships safety-management system.
2 Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3 of this regulation, a ship
required to hold a certificate issued pursuant to the provisions of
regulation 4.3 shall be subject to control in accordance with the provisions
of regulation XI/4. For this purpose such certificate shall be treated as a
certificate issued under regulation I/12 or I/13.
3 In cases of change of flag State or company, special transitional
arrangements shall be made in accordance with the guidelines developed
by the Organization.*
Resolution A.741(18)
Adopted on 4 November 1993
INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT CODE FOR THE SAFE
OPERATION OF SHIPS AND FOR POLLUTION PREVENTION
(INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT (ISM) CODE)
THE ASSEMBLY,
RECALLING Article 15(j) of the Convention on the International Maritime
Organization concerning the functions of the Assembly in relation to
regulations and guidelines concerning maritime safety and the prevention
and control of marine pollution from ships,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A.680(17), by which it invited Member Govern-
ments to encourage those responsible for the management and operation
of ships to take appropriate steps to develop, implement and assess safety
and pollution-prevention management in accordance with the IMO
Guidelines on Management for the Safe Operation of Ships and for
Pollution Prevention,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A.596(15), by which it requested the Maritime
Safety Committee to develop, as a matter of urgency, guidelines, wherever
relevant, concerning shipboard and shore-based management, and its
decision to include in the work programme of the Maritime Safety
* Refer to the Guidelines on the implementation of the ISM Code by Administrations, adopted by the
Organization by Assembly resolution A.788(19) (refer to IMO sales publication number IMO-117E).
41
Appendix 1
Committee and the Marine Environment Protection Committee an item on
shipboard and shore-based management for the safe operation of ships
and for the prevention of marine pollution, respectively,
RECALLING FURTHER resolution A.441(XI), by which it invited every State to
take the necessary steps to ensure that the owner of a ship which flies the
flag of that State provides such State with the current information
necessary to enable it to identify and contact the person contracted or
otherwise entrusted by the owner to discharge his responsibilities for that
ship in regard to matters relating to maritime safety and the protection of
the marine environment,
RECALLING FURTHER resolution A.443(XI), by which it invited Governments to
take the necessary steps to safeguard the shipmaster in the proper
discharge of his responsibilities in regard to maritime safety and the
protection of the marine environment,
RECOGNIZING the need for appropriate organization of management to
enable it to respond to the need of those on board ships to achieve and
maintain high standards of safety and environmental protection,
RECOGNIZING ALSO that the most important means of preventing maritime
casualties and pollution of the sea from ships is to design, construct, equip
and maintain ships and to operate them with properly trained crews in
compliance with international conventions and standards relating to
maritime safety and pollution prevention,
NOTING that the Maritime Safety Committee is developing requirements for
adoption by Contracting Governments to the International Convention for
the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, which will make compliance with
the Code referred to in operative paragraph 1 mandatory,
CONSIDERING that the early implementation of that Code would greatly
assist in improving safety at sea and protection of the marine environment,
NOTING FURTHER that the Maritime Safety Committee and the Marine
Environment Protection Committee have reviewed resolution A.680(17)
and the Guidelines annexed thereto in developing the Code,
HAVING CONSIDERED the recommendations made by the Maritime Safety
Committee at its sixty-second session and by the Marine Environment
Protection Committee at its thirty-fourth session,
1. ADOPTS the International Management Code for the Safe Operation of
Ships and for Pollution Prevention (International Safety Management (ISM)
Code), set out in the annex to the present resolution;
2. STRONGLY URGES Governments to implement the ISM Code on a
national basis, giving priority to passenger ships, tankers, gas carriers,
bulk carriers and mobile offshore units which are flying their flags, as soon
as possible but not later than 1 June 1998, pending development of the
mandatory applications of the Code;
3. REQUESTS Governments to inform the Maritime Safety Committee
and the Marine Environment Protection Committee of the action they have
taken in implementing the ISM Code;
42
4. REQUESTS the Maritime Safety Committee and the Marine Environ-
ment Protection Committee to develop guidelines for the implementation of
the ISM Code;
5 REQUESTS ALSO the Maritime Safety Committee and the Marine
Environment Protection Committee to keep the Code and its associated
guidelines under review and to amend them as necessary;
6. REVOKES resolution A.680(17).
Annex
INTERNATIONAL SAFETY MANAGEMENT (ISM) CODE
Safety and pollution-prevention management requirements
Preamble
1 The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for
the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution prevention.
2 The Assembly adopted resolution A.443(XI), by which it invited all
Governments to take the necessary steps to safeguard the shipmaster in
the proper discharge of his responsibilities with regard to maritime safety
and the protection of the marine environment.
3 The Assembly also adopted resolution A.680(17), by which it further
recognized the need for appropriate organization of management to enable
it to respond to the need of those on board ships to achieve and maintain
high standards of safety and environmental protection.
4 Recognizing that no two shipping companies or shipowners are the
same, and that ships operate under a wide range of different conditions,
the Code is based on general principles and objectives.
5 The Code is expressed in broad terms so that it can have a wide-
spread application. Clearly, different levels of management, whether shore-
based or at sea, will require varying levels of knowledge and awareness of
the items outlined.
6 The cornerstone of good safety management is commitment from
the top. In matters of safety and pollution prevention it is the commitment,
competence, attitudes and motivation of individuals at all levels that
determines the end result.
43
Appendix 1
1 General
1.1 Definitions
1.1.1 International Safety Management (ISM) Code means the Inter-
national Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for
Pollution Prevention as adopted by the Assembly, as may be amended by
the Organization.
1.1.2 Company means the owner of the ship or any other organization or
person such as the manager, or the bareboat charterer, who has assumed
the responsibility for operation of the ship from the shipowner and who, on
assuming such responsibility, has agreed to take over all duties and
responsibility imposed by the Code.
1.1.3 Administration means the Government of the State whose flag the
ship is entitled to fly.
1.2 Objectives
1.2.1 The objectives of the Code are to ensure safety at sea, prevention of
human injury or loss of life, and avoidance of damage to the environment,
in particular to the marine environment and to property.
1.2.2 Safety-management objectives of the Company should, inter alia:
.1 provide for safe practices in ship operation and a safe working
environment;
.2 establish safeguards against all identified risks; and
.3 continuously improve safety-management skills of personnel
ashore and aboard ships, including preparing for emergencies
related both to safety and environmental protection.
1.2.3 The safety-management system should ensure:
.1 compliance with mandatory rules and regulations; and
.2 that applicable codes, guidelines and standards recommended
by the Organization, Administrations, classification societies
and maritime industry organizations are taken into account.
1.3 Application
The requirements of this Code may be applied to all ships.
1.4 Functional requirements for a safety-management system
Every Company should develop, implement and maintain a safety-manage-
ment system (SMS) which includes the following functional requirements:
.1 a safety and environmentalprotection policy;
.2 instructions and procedures to ensure safe operation of ships
and protection of the environment in compliance with relevant
international and flag State legislation;
44
.3 defined levels of authority and lines of communication between,
and amongst, shore and shipboard personnel;
.4 procedures for reporting accidents and non-conformities with
the provisions of this Code;
.5 procedures to prepare for and respond to emergency situations;
and
.6 procedures for internal audits and management reviews.
2 Safety and environmental protection policy
2.1 The Company should establish a safety and environmental-protec-
tion policy which describes how the objectives given in paragraph 1.2 will
be achieved.
2.2 The Company should ensure that the policy is implemented and
maintained at all levels of the organization both, ship-based and shore-
based.
3 Company responsibilities and authority
3.1 If the entity who is responsible for the operation of the ship is other
than the owner, the owner must report the full name and details of such
entity to the Administration.
3.2 The Company should define and document the responsibility,
authority and interrelation of all personnel who manage, perform and
verify work relating to and affecting safety and pollution prevention.
3.3 The Company is responsible for ensuring that adequate resources
and shore-based support are provided to enable the designated person or
persons to carry out their functions.
4 Designated person(s)
To ensure the safe operation of each ship and to provide a link between the
Company and those on board, every Company, as appropriate, should
designate a person or persons ashore having direct access to the highest
level of management. The responsibility and authority of the designated
person or persons should include monitoring the safety and pollution-
prevention aspects of the operation of each ship and ensuring that
adequate resources and shore-based support are applied, as required.
5 Masters responsibility and authority
5.1 The Company should clearly define and document the masters
responsibility with regard to:
.1 implementing the safety and environmental-protection policy of
the Company;
.2 motivating the crew in the observation of that policy;
45
Appendix 1
.3 issuing appropriate orders and instructions in a clear and
simple manner;
.4 verifying that specified requirements are observed; and
.5 reviewing the SMS and reporting its deficiencies to the shore-
based management.
5.2 The Company should ensure that the SMS operating on board the
ship contains a clear statement emphasizing the masters authority. The
Company should establish in the SMS that the master has the overriding
authority and the responsibility to make decisions with respect to safety
and pollution prevention and to request the Companys assistance as may
be necessary.
6 Resources and personnel
6.1 The Company should ensure that the master is:
.1 properly qualified for command;
.2 fully conversant with the Companys SMS; and
.3 given the necessary support so that the masters duties can be
safely performed.
6.2 The Company should ensure that each ship is manned with quali-
fied, certificated and medically fit seafarers in accordance with national
and international requirements.
6.3 The Company should establish procedures to ensure that new
personnel and personnel transferred to new assignments related to safety
and protection of the environment are given proper familiarization with
their duties. Instructions which are essential to be provided prior to sailing
should be identified, documented and given.
6.4 The Company should ensure that all personnel involved in the
Companys SMS have an adequate understanding of relevant rules,
regulations, codes and guidelines.
6.5 The Company should establish and maintain procedures for
identifying any training which may be required in support of the SMS
and ensure that such training is provided for all personnel concerned.
6.6 The Company should establish procedures by which the ships
personnel receive relevant information on the SMS in a working language
or languages understood by them.
6.7 The Company should ensure that the ships personnel are able to
communicate effectively in the execution of their duties related to the SMS.
46
7 Development of plans for shipboard operations
The Company should establish procedures for the preparation of plans
and instructions for key shipboard operations concerning the safety of the
ship and the prevention of pollution. The various tasks involved should be
defined and assigned to qualified personnel.
8 Emergency preparedness
8.1 The Company should establish procedures to identify, describe and
respond to potential emergency shipboard situations.
8.2 The Company should establish programmes for drills and exercises
to prepare for emergency actions.
8.3 The SMS should provide for measures ensuring that the Compa-
nys organization can respond at any time to hazards, accidents and
emergency situations involving its ships.
9 Reports and analysis of non-conformities, accidents
and hazardous occurrences
9.1 The SMS should include procedures ensuring that non-conformi-
ties, accidents and hazardous situations are reported to the Company,
investigated and analysed with the objective of improving safety and
pollution prevention.
9.2 The Company should establish procedures for the implementation
of corrective action.
10 Maintenance of the ship and equipment
10.1 The Company should establish procedures to ensure that the ship
is maintained in conformity with the provisions of the relevant rules and
regulations and with any additional requirements which may be
established by the Company.
10.2 In meeting these requirements the Company should ensure that:
.1 inspections are held at appropriate intervals;
.2 any non-conformity is reported, with its possible cause, if
known;
.3 appropriate corrective action is taken; and
.4 records of these activities are maintained.
10.3 The Company should establish procedures in its SMS to identify
equipment and technical systems the sudden operational failure of which
may result in hazardous situations. The SMS should provide for specific
measures aimed at promoting the reliability of such equipment or systems.
These measures should include the regular testing of stand-by arrange-
ments and equipment or technical systems that are not in continuous use.
47
Appendix 1
10.4 The inspections mentioned in 10.2 as well as the measures referred
to in 10.3 should be integrated into the ships operational maintenance
routine.
11 Documentation
11.1 The Company should establish and maintain procedures to control
all documents and data which are relevant to the SMS.
11.2 The Company should ensure that:
.1 valid documents are available at all relevant locations;
.2 changes to documents are reviewed and approved by authorized
personnel; and
.3 obsolete documents are promptly removed.
11.3 The documents used to describe and implement the SMS may be
referred to as the Safety Management Manual. Documentation should be
kept in a form that the Company considers most effective. Each ship
should carry on board all documentation relevant to that ship.
12 Company verification, review and evaluation
12.1 The Company should carry out internal safety audits to verify
whether safety and pollution-prevention activities comply with the SMS.
12.2 The Company should periodically evaluate the efficiency of and,
when needed, review the SMS in accordance with procedures established
by the Company.
12.3 The audits and possible corrective actions should be carried out in
accordance with documented procedures.
12.4 Personnel carrying out audits should be independent of the areas
being audited unless this is impracticable due to the size and the nature of
the Company.
12.5 The results of the audits and reviews should be brought to the
attention of all personnel having responsibility in the area involved.
12.6 The management personnel responsible for the area involved
should take timely corrective action on deficiencies found.
13 Certification, verification and control
13.1 The ship should be operated by a Company which is issued a
document of compliance relevant to that ship.
13.2 A document of compliance should be issued for every Company
complying with the requirements of the ISM Code by the Administration,
by an organization recognized by the Administration or by the Government
of the country, acting on behalf of the Administration in which the
48
Company has chosen to conduct its business. This document should be
accepted as evidence that the Company is capable of complying with the
requirements of the Code.
13.3 A copy of such a document should be placed on board in order that
the master, if so asked, may produce it for the verification of the
Administration or organizations recognized by it.
13.4 A certificate, called a Safety Management Certificate, should be
issued to a ship by the Administration or organization recognized by the
Administration. The Administration should, when issuing the certificate,
verify that the Company and its shipboard management operate in
accordance with the approved SMS.
13.5 The Administration or an organization recognized by the Adminis-
tration should periodically verify the proper functioning of the ships SMS
as approved.
49
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS
AND SHIP REPORTING REQUIREMENTS,
INCLUDING GUIDELINES FOR REPORTING INCIDENTS
INVOLVING DANGEROUS GOODS, HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
AND/OR MARINE POLLUTANTS
THE ASSEMBLY,
regulations and guidelines concerning maritime safety and the prevention
and control of marine pollution from ships,
RECALLING ALSO resolution 3 of the International Conference on Maritime
Search and Rescue, 1979, on the need for an internationally agreed format
and procedure for ship reporting systems,
CONSIDERING that current national ship reporting systems may use different
procedures and reporting formats,
REALIZING that such different procedures and reporting formats could
cause confusion to masters of ships moving from one area to another
covered by different ship reporting systems,
BELIEVING that such confusion could be alleviated if ship reporting systems
and reporting requirements were to comply as far as practicable with
relevant general principles and if reports were made in accordance with a
standard format and procedures,
RECALLING the General Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and Ship
Reporting Requirements, Including Guidelines for reporting Incidents
Involving Dangerous Goods, Harmful Substances and/or Marine Pollu-
tants, adopted by resolution A.648(16),
RECOGNIZING that States Parties to the International Convention relating to
Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969)
and the Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of
Marine Pollution by Substances Other Than Oil (1973) may take such
measures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or
eliminate grave and imminent danger to their coastline or related interests
from pollution or threat of pollution of the sea by oil and substances other
50
than oil following upon a maritime casualty or acts related to such a
casualty, which may reasonably be expected to result in major harmful
consequences,
RECOGNIZINGALSO the need for coastal States to be informed by the master of
an assisting ship, or of a ship undertaking salvage, of particulars of the
incident and of action taken,
RECOGNIZING FURTHER that an incident involving damage, failure or break-
down of the ship, its machinery or equipment could give rise to a
significant threat of pollution to coastlines or related interests,
HAVING CONSIDERED the recommendation made by the Maritime Safety
Committee at its sixty-seventh session and by the Marine Environment
Protection Committee at its thirty-ninth session,
1. ADOPTS the General Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and Ship
Reporting Requirements, Including Guidelines for Reporting Incidents
Involving Dangerous Goods, Harmful Substances and/or Marine Pollu-
tants set out in the annex to the present resolution;
2. URGES Governments to ensure that ship reporting systems and
reporting requirements comply as closely as possible with the general
principles specified in the annex to the present resolution;
3. URGES ALSO Governments to bring the reporting format and proce-
dures to the notice of shipowners and seafarers as well as of the
designated authorities concerned;
4. RECOMMENDS Governments and States Parties to MARPOL 73/78 to
implement the Guidelines, in accordance with paragraph (2) of article V of
Protocol I thereof;
5. REVOKES resolution A.648(16).
Annex
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS
AND SHIP REPORTING REQUIREMENTS,
INCLUDING GUIDELINES FOR REPORTING INCIDENTS
INVOLVING DANGEROUS GOODS, HARMFUL SUBSTANCES
AND/OR MARINE POLLUTANTS
1 General principles
1.1 Ship reporting systems and reporting requirements are used to
provide, gather or exchange information through radio reports. The
information is used to provide data for many purposes, including search
and rescue, vessel traffic services, weather forecasting and prevention of
marine pollution. Ship reporting systems and reporting requirements
should, as far as practicable, comply with the following general principles:
51
Appendix 2
.1 reports should contain only information essential to
achieve the objectives of the reporting system;
.2 reports should be simple and use the standard interna-
tional ship reporting format and procedures; where
language difficulties may exist, the languages used should
include English, using where possible the Standard Marine
Navigational Vocabulary, or alternatively the International
Code of Signals. The standard reporting format and
procedures to be used are given in the appendix to this
annex;
.3 the number of reports should be kept to a minimum;
.4 no charge should be made for communication of reports;
.5 safety- or pollution-related reports should be made without
delay; however, the time and place of making non-urgent
reports should be sufficiently flexible to avoid interference
with essential navigational duties;
.6 information obtained from the system should be made
available to other systems when required for distress,
safety and pollution prevention purposes;
.7 basic information (ships particulars, on-board facilities
and equipment, etc.) should be reported once, be retained
in the system and be updated by the ship when changes
occur in the basic information reported;
.8 the purpose of the system should be clearly defined;
.9 Governments establishing a ship reporting system should
notify mariners of full details of the requirements to be met
and the procedures to be followed. Details of types of ships
and areas of applicability, of times and geographical
positions for submitting reports, of shore establishments
responsible for operation of the system and of the services
provided should be clearly specified. Chartlets depicting
boundaries of the system and providing other necessary
information should be made available to mariners;
.10 the establishment and operation of a ship reporting system
should take into account:
.10.1 international as well as national responsibilities and
requirements;
.10.2 the cost to ship operators and responsible authorities;
.10.3 navigational hazards;
.10.4 existing and proposed aids to safety; and
.10.5 the need for early and continuing consultation with
interested parties, including a sufficient period to allow
for trial, familiarization and assessment to ensure
52
satisfactory operation and to allow necessary changes to be
made to the system;
.11 Governments should ensure that shore establishments
responsible for operation of the system are manned by
properly trained persons;
.12 Governments should consider the interrelationship be-
tween ship reporting systems and other systems;
.13 ship reporting systems should preferably use a single
operating radio frequency; where additional frequencies
are necessary, the number of frequencies should be
restricted to the minimum required for the effective
operation of the system;
.14 information provided by the system to ships should be
restricted to that necessary for the proper operation of the
system and for safety;
.15 ship reporting systems and requirements should provide
for special reports from ships concerning defects or
deficiencies with respect to their hull, machinery, equip-
ment or manning, or concerning other limitations which
could adversely affect navigation and for special reports
concerning incidents of actual or probable marine pollu-
tion;
.16 Governments should issue instructions to their shore
establishments responsible for the operation of ship
reporting systems to ensure that any reports involving
pollution, actual or probable, are relayed without delay to
the officer or agency nominated to receive and process
such reports, and to ensure that such an officer or agency
relays these reports without delay to the flag State of the
ship involved and to any other State which may be affected;
.17 States which are affected or likely to be affected by
pollution incidents and which may require information
relevant to the incident should take into account the
circumstances in which the master is placed, and should
endeavour to limit their requests for additional informa-
tion; and
.18 the appendix to this annex does not apply to danger
messages referred to under regulation V/2 of the 1974
SOLAS Convention, as amended. The present practice of
transmitting such messages should remain unchanged.
53
Appendix 2
2 Guidelines for reporting incidents
involving dangerous goods
2.1 The intent of these Guidelines and those contained in the appendix
is to enable coastal States and other interested parties to be informed,
without delay, when any incident occurs involving the loss, or likely loss,
overboard of packaged dangerous goods into the sea.
2.2 Reports should be transmitted to the nearest coastal State. When
the ship is within or near an area for which a ship reporting system has
been established, reports should be transmitted to the designated shore
station of that system.
3 Guidelines for reporting incidents
involving harmful substances and/or marine pollutants
3.1 The intent of these Guidelines and those contained in the appendix
is to enable coastal States and other interested parties to be informed,
without delay, of any incident giving rise to pollution, or threat of pollution,
of the marine environment, as well as of assistance and salvage measures,
so that appropriate action may be taken.
3.2 In accordance with article V(1) of Protocol I of MARPOL 73/78, a
report shall be made to the nearest coastal State.
3.3 Whenever a ship is engaged in or requested to engage in an
operation to render assistance to or undertake salvage of a ship involved in
an incident referred to in subparagraph 1(a) or (b) of article II of Protocol I
of MARPOL 73/78, as amended, the master of the former ship should
report, without delay, the particulars of the action undertaken or planned.
The coastal States should also be kept informed of developments.
3.4 The probability of a discharge resulting from damage to the ship or
its equipment is a reason for making a report.
Appendix
1 Procedures
Reports should be sent as follows:
Sailing plan (SP) Before or as near as possible to the time of
departure from a port within a reporting systemor
when entering the area covered by a system.
Position report (PR) When necessary to ensure effective operation of
the system.
Deviation report (DR) When the ships position varies significantly from
the position that would have been predicted from
previous reports, when changing the reported
route, or as decided by the master.
54
Final report (FR) On arrival at destination and when leaving the
area covered by a system.
Dangerous goods
report (DG)
When an incident takes place involving the loss or
likely loss overboard of packaged dangerous
goods, including those in freight containers,
portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and ship-
borne barges, into the sea.
Harmful substances
report (HS)
When an incident takes place involving the
discharge or probable discharge of oil (Annex I of
MARPOL 73/78) or noxious liquid substances in
bulk (Annex II of MARPOL 73/78).
Marine pollutants
report (MP)
In the case of loss or likely loss overboard of
harmful substances in packaged form, including
those in freight containers, portable tanks, road
and rail vehicles and shipborne barges, identified
in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods
Code as marine pollutants (Annex III of MARPOL
73/78).
Any other report Any other report should be made in accordance
with the system procedures as notified in accor-
dance with 1.1.9 of the General Principles.
2 Standard reporting format and procedures
2.1 Sections of the ship reporting format which are inappropriate
should be omitted from the report.
2.2 Where language difficulties may exist, the languages used should
include English, using where possible the Standard Marine Navigational
Vocabulary. Alternatively, the International Code of Signals may be used to
send detailed information. When the International Code is used, the
appropriate indicator should be inserted in the text, after the alphabetical
index.
2.3 For route information, latitude and longitude should be given for
each turn point, expressed as in C in the list below, together with type of
intended track between these points, for example RL (rhumb line), GC
(great circle) or coastal, or, in the case of a coastal sailing, the estimated
date and time of passing significant points expressed by a six-digit group
as in B in the list below.
55
Appendix 2
Telegraphy Telephone
(alternative)
Function Information required
Name of system (e.g.
AMVER/AUSREP/
MAREP/ECAREG/
JASREP)
Name of system (e.g.
AMVER/
AUSREP/MAREP/
ECAREG/JASREP)
System identifier Ship reporting system or
nearest appropriate coast radio
station
State in full Type of report Type of report:
SP Sailing plan
PR Position report
DR Deviation report
FR Final report
DG Dangerous goods
report
HS Harmful substances
report
MP Marine pollutants report
Give in full Any other report
A Ship
(alpha)
Ship Name, call sign or ship station
identity, and flag
B Time
(bravo)
Date and time
of event
A six-digit group giving day
of month (first two digits), hours
and minutes (last four digits). If
other than UTC, state time zone
used
C Position
(charlie)
Position A four-digit group giving latitude in
degrees and minutes suffixed with
N (north) or S (south) and a five-
digit group giving longitude in
degrees and minutes suffixed with
E (east) or W (west); or
D Position
(delta)
Position True bearing (first three digits) and
distance (state distance) in nautical
miles from a clearly identified
landmark (state landmark)
E Course
(echo)
True course A three-digit group
F Speed
(foxtrot)
Speed in knots
and tenths of
knots
A three-digit group
G Departed
(golf)
Port of departure Name of last port of call
H Entry
(hotel)
Date, time and
point of entry into
system
Entry time expressed as in B and
entry position expressed as
in C or D
I Destination and ETA
(india)
Destination and ex-
pected time of arrival
Name of port and date/time group
expressed as in B
J Pilot
(juliet)
Pilot State whether a deep-sea
or local pilot is on board
K Exit
(kilo)
Date, time and point
of exit from system or
arrival at the ships
destination
Exit time expressed as in B and
exit position expressed as in C or D
L Route
(lima)
Route information Intended track
M Radiocommunications
(mike)
Radiocommunications State in full names of stations/
frequencies guarded
56
Telegraphy Telephone
(alternative)
Function Information required
N Next report
(november)
Time of next
report
Date/time group expressed as in B
O Draught
(oscar)
Maximum present
static draught in
metres
Four-digit group giving metres and
centimetres
P Cargo
(papa)
Cargo on board Cargo and brief details of any
dangerous cargoes as well as
harmful substances and gases that
could endanger persons or the
environment (See detailed report-
ing requirements)
Q Defect, damage,
deficiency, limitations
(quebec)
Defects/damage/
deficiencies/other
limitations
Brief details of defects, damage,
deficiencies or other limitations
(See detailed reporting require-
ments)
R Pollution/dangerous
goods lost overboard
(romeo)
Description of
pollution or dangerous
goods lost overboard
Brief details of type of pollution (oil,
chemicals, etc.) or dangerous
goods lost overboard; position
expressed as in C or D
(See detailed reporting
requirements)
S Weather
(sierra)
Weather conditions Brief details of weather and sea
conditions prevailing
T Agent
(tango)
Ships representative
and/or owner
Details of name and particulars of
ships representative or owner or
both for provision of information
(See detailed reporting require-
ments)
U Size and type
(uniform)
Ship size and type Details of length, breadth, tonnage,
and type, etc., as required
V Medic
(victor)
Medical personnel Doctor, physicians assistant,
nurse, personnel without medical
training
W Persons (whiskey) Total number of per-
sons on board
State number
X Remarks
(x-ray)
Miscellaneous Any other information including,
as appropriate, brief details of
incident and of other ships
involved either in incident,
assistance or salvage
(See detailed reporting
requirements)
Y Relay (yankee) Request to delay
report to another
system, e.g. AMVER,
AUSREP, JASREP,
MAREP, etc.
Content of report
Z End of report (zulu) End of report No further information required
57
Appendix 2
3 Guidelines for detailed reporting requirements
3.1 Dangerous goods reports (DG)
3.1.1 Primary reports should contain items A, B, C (or D), M, Q, R, S, T, U,
X of the standard reporting format; details for R should be as follows:
R 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.
2 UN Number or Numbers.
3 IMO hazard class or classes.
4 Names of manufacturers of goods when known, or
consignee or consignor.
5 Types of packages, including identification marks.
Specify whether portable tank or tank vehicle, or
whether vehicle or freight container or other cargo
transport unit containing packages. Include official
registration marks and numbers assigned to the unit.
6 An estimate of the quantity and likely condition of the
goods.
7 Whether lost goods floated or sank.
8 Whether loss is continuing.
9 Cause of loss.
3.1.2 If the condition of the ship is such that there is danger of further
loss of packaged dangerous goods into the sea, items P and Q of the
standard reporting format should be reported; details for P should be as
follows:
P 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.
goods.
3.1.3 Particulars not immediately available should be inserted in a
supplementary message or messages.
3.2 Harmful substances reports (HS)
3.2.1 In the case of actual discharge, primary HS reports should contain
items A, B, C (or D), E, F, L, M, N, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard reporting
format. In the case of probable discharge (see 3.4), item P should also be
included. Details for P, Q, R, T and X should be as follows:
58
P 1 Type of oil or the correct technical name of the noxious
liquid substances on board.
3 Pollution category (A, B, C or D), for noxious liquid
substances.
4 Names of manufacturers of substances, if appropriate,
when known, or consignee or consignor.
5 Quantity.
Q 1 Condition of the ship, as relevant.
2 Ability to transfer cargo/ballast/fuel.
R 1 Type of oil or the correct technical name of the noxious
liquid discharged into the sea.
3 Pollution category (A, B, C or D), for noxious liquid
substances.
4 Names of manufacturers of substances, if appropriate,
when known, or consignee or consignor.
5 An estimate of the quantity of the substances.
6 Whether lost substances floated or sank.
8 Cause of loss.
9 Estimate of the movement of the discharge or lost
substances, giving current conditions if known.
10 Estimate of the surface area of the spill, if possible.
T 1 Name, address, telex and telephone number of the
ships owner and representative (charterer, manager or
operator of the ship or their agent).
X 1 Action being taken with regard to the discharge and the
movement of the ship.
2 Assistance or salvage efforts which have been re-
quested or which have been provided by others.
3 The master of an assisting or salvaging ship should
report the particulars of the action undertaken or
planned.
3.2.2 After the transmission of the information referred to above in the
initial report, as much as possible of the information essential for the
protection of the marine environment as is appropriate to the incident
should be reported in a supplementary report as soon as possible. That
information should include items P, Q, R, S and X.
59
Appendix 2
3.2.3 The master of any ship engaged in or requested to engage in an
operation to render assistance or undertake salvage should report, as far
as practicable, items A, B, C (or D), E, F, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the
standard reporting format. The master should also keep the coastal State
informed of developments.
3.3 Marine pollutants reports (MP)
3.3.1 In the case of actual discharge, primary MP reports should contain
items A, B, C (or D), M, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard reporting format. In
the case of probable discharge (see 3.4), item P should also be included.
Details for P, Q, R, T and X should be as follows:
P 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.
goods.
Q 1 Condition of the ship, as relevant.
2 Ability to transfer cargo/ballast/fuel.
R 1 Correct technical name or names of goods.
4 Names of manufacturers of goods, when known, or
goods.
7 Whether lost goods floated or sank.
9 Cause of loss.
T 1 Name, address, telex and telephone number of the
ships owner and representative (charterer, manager or
operator of the ship or their agent).
60
X 1 Action being taken with regard to the discharge and
movement of the ship.
2 Assistance or salvage efforts which have been re-
quested or which have been provided by others.
3 The master of an assisting or salvaging ship should
report the particulars of the action undertaken or
planned.
3.3.2 After the transmission of the information referred to above in the
initial report, as much as possible of the information essential for the
protection of the marine environment as is appropriate to the incident
should be reported. That information should include items P, Q, R, S and X.
3.3.3 The master of any ship engaged in or requested to engage in an
operation to render assistance or undertake salvage should report, as far
as practicable, items A, B, C (or D), M, P, Q, R, S, T, U, X of the standard
reporting format. The master should also keep the coastal State informed
of developments.
3.4 Probability of discharge
3.4.1 The probability of a discharge resulting from damage to the ship or
its equipment is a reason for making a report. In judging whether there is
such a probability and whether the report should be made, the following
factors, among others, should be taken into account:
.1 the nature of the damage, failure or breakdown of the ship,
machinery or equipment; and
.2 sea and wind state and also traffic density in the area at the
time and place of the incident.
3.4.2 It is recognized that it would be impracticable to lay down precise
definitions of all types of incidents involving probable discharge which
would warrant an obligation to report. Nevertheless, as a general guideline
the master of the ship should make reports in cases of:
.1 damage, failure or breakdown which affects the safety of ships;
examples of such incidents are collision, grounding, fire,
explosion, structural failure, flooding, cargo shifting; and
.2 failure or breakdown of machinery or equipment which results
in impairment of the safety of navigation; examples of such
incidents are failure or breakdown of steering gear, propulsion
plant, electrical generating system, essential shipborne naviga-
tional aids.
61
Appendix 2
MARPOL 73/78, AS AMENDED
Protocol I
Provisions concerning Reports on Incidents
Involving Harmful Substances
(in accordance with article 8* of the MARPOL Convention)
Article I
Duty to report
(1) The master or other person having charge of any ship involved in
an incident referred to in article II of this Protocol shall report the
particulars of such incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible
in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol.
(2) In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph (1) of this article
being abandoned, or in the event of a report from such a ship being
incomplete or unobtainable, the owner, charterer, manager or operator of
the ship, or their agent shall, to the fullest extent possible, assume the
obligations placed upon the master under the provisions of this Protocol.
Article II
When to make reports
(1)
{
The report shall be made when an incident involves:
(a) a discharge above the permitted level or probable discharge of
oil or of noxious liquid substances carried in bulk for whatever
reason including those for the purpose of securing the safety of
the ship or for saving life at sea; or
* Article 8 (of MARPOL 73/78): Reports on incidents involving harmful substances:
(1) A report of an incident shall be made without delay to the fullest extent possible in accordance
with the provisions of Protocol I to the present Convention.
(2) Each Party to the Convention shall:
(a) make all the arrangements necessary for an appropriate officer or agency to receive and
process all reports on incidents; and
(b) notify the Organization with complete details of such arrangements for circulation to
other Parties and Member States of the Organization.
(3) Whenever a Party receives a report under the provisions of the present article, that Party shall
relay the report without delay to:
(a) the Administration of the ship involved; and
(b) any other State which may be affected.
(4) Each Party to the Convention undertakes to issue instructions to its maritime inspection
vessels and aircraft and to other appropriate services, to report to its authorities any incident
referred to in Protocol I to the present Convention. That Party shall, if it considers it
appropriate, report accordingly to the Organization and to any other Party concerned.
{
Article II(1) incorporates the amendments adopted by the MEPC at its thirty-eighth session by
resolution MEPC.68(38), which entered into force on 1 January 1998.
62
(b) a discharge or probable discharge of harmful substances in
packaged form, including those in freight containers, portable
tanks, road and rail vehicles and shipborne barges; or
(c) damage, failure or breakdown of a ship 15 metres in length or
above which:
(i) affects the safety of the ship; including but not limited to
collision, grounding, fire, explosion, structural failure,
flooding and cargo shifting; or
(ii) results in impairment of the safety of navigation; in-
cluding but not limited to failure or breakdown of steering
gear, propulsion plant, electrical generating system, and
essential navigational aids;
or
(d) a discharge during the operation of the ship of oil or noxious
liquid substances in excess of the quantity or instantaneous
rate permitted under the present Convention.
(2) For the purposes of this Protocol:
(a) Oil referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) of this article means oil as
defined in regulation 1(1) of Annex I of the Convention.
(b) Noxious liquid substances referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) of
this article means noxious liquid substances as defined in
regulation 1(6) of Annex II of the Convention.
(c) Harmful substances in packaged form referred to in subpara-
graph (1)(b) of this article means substances which are
identified as marine pollutants in the International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code).
Article III
Contents of report
Reports shall in any case include:
(a) identity of ships involved;
(b) time, type and location of incident;
(c) quantity and type of harmful substance involved;
(d) assistance and salvage measures.
Article IV
Supplementary report
Any person who is obliged under the provisions of this Protocol to send a
report shall, when possible:
63
Appendix 2
(a) supplement the initial report, as necessary, and provide
information concerning further developments; and
(b) comply as fully as possible with requests from affected States
for additional information.
Article V
Reporting procedures
(1) Reports shall be made by the fastest telecommunications channels
available with the highest possible priority to the nearest coastal State.
(2) In order to implement the provisions of this Protocol, Parties to the
present Convention shall issue, or cause to be issued, regulations or
instructions on the procedures to be followed in reporting incidents
involving harmful substances, based on guidelines developed by the
Organization.
64
Appendix 3
Lloyds Standard Form of Salvage Agreement, 1995
65
Appendix 3
66
67
Appendix 3
68
69
Appendix 3
70
Appendix 4
International Group of P&I Clubs
1. American Steamship Owners Mutual Protection
and Indemnity Association Inc.
5 Hanover Square Tel: +1 212 269 2350
New York NY 10004 Fax: +1 212 825 1391
United States
Managers: Shipowners Claims Bureau Inc.
2. Assuranceforeningen Gard (Gjensidig)
P.O. Box 1563 Myrene Tel: +47 370 19100
4801 Arendal Fax: +47 370 24810
Norway
3. Assuranceforeningen Skuld
P O Box 1376 Vika Tel: +47 220 02200
0114 Oslo Fax: +47 224 24222
Norway
4. The Britannia Steam Ship Insurance Association Ltd
New City Court Tel: +44 171 407 3588
20 St. Thomas Street Fax: +44 171 403 3942
London SE1 9RR
United Kingdom
Managers: Tindall Riley (Marine) Ltd
5. The Japan Ship Owners Mutual Protection & Indemnity Association
2-15-14 Nihonbashi-Ningyocho Tel: +81 3 3662 7211
Chuo-ku Fax: +81 3 3662 7225
Tokyo 103
Japan
6. The Liverpool and London Steamship Protection
and Indemnity Association Ltd
Royal Liver Building, 1st floor Tel: +44 151 236 3777
Pier Head Fax: +44 151 236 0053
Liverpool L3 1HU
United Kingdom
7. The London Steam-Ship Owners Mutual Insurance Association Ltd
52 Leadenhall Street Tel: +44 171 488 1444
London EC3A 2BJ Fax: +44 171 488 0012
United Kingdom
Managers: A. Bilbrough & Co. Ltd
71
Appendix 4
8. The Newcastle Protection & Indemnity Association
Centro House Tel: +44 191 232 4591
3 Cloth Market Fax: +44 191 232 5361
Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 1NT
United Kingdom
9. The North of England Protection & Indemnity Association Ltd
2-8 Fenkle Street
Newcastle-upon-Tyne NE1 5DS Tel: +44 191 232 5221
United Kingdom Fax: +44 191 261 0540
10. The Shipowners Mutual Protection and Indemnity
Association (Luxembourg)
St. Clare House, Tel: +44 171 488 0911
30-33 Minories Fax: +44 171 480 5806
London EC3N 1BP
United Kingdom
11. The Standard Steamship Owners Protection & Indemnity
Association (Bermuda) Ltd
International House Tel: +44 171 488 3494
World Trade Centre Fax: +44 171 481 9545
1 St. Katharines Way
London E1 9UN
United Kingdom
Managers: Charles Taylor Co. Ltd
12. The Steamship Mutual Underwriting Association (Bermuda) Ltd
Aquatical House Tel: +44 171 247 5490
39 Bell Lane Fax: +44 171 377 2912
London E1 7LU
United Kingdom
Managers: Steamship Mutual Underwriting Association (Bermuda) Ltd
13. The Swedish Club (Sveriges Angfartygs Assurans Forening)
Gullebergs Strandgata 6 Tel: +46 316 38 400
P.O. Box 171 Fax: +46 311 56 711
401 22 Goteborg
Sweden
14. The United Kingdom Mutual Steam Ship Assurance
Association (Bermuda) Ltd
International House Tel: +44 171 283 4646
26 Creechurch Lane Fax: +44 171 283 5614
London EC3A 5BA
United Kingdom
Managers: Thomas Miller P&I
72
15. The West of England Ship Owners Mutual Insurance
Association (Luxembourg)
224 Tower Bridge Road Tel: +44 171 716 6000
London SE1 2UP Fax: +44 171 716 6100
United Kingdom
Managers: The West of England Ship Owners Insurance Services Ltd
73
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Extracts from IOPC Funds Claims Manual
5th edition, December 1996
II Presenting a Claim
The role of the IOPC Funds
The role of the IOPC Funds is to compensate those suffering pollution
damage. The 1971 Fund and the 1992 Fund endeavour to settle claims out of
court, so that claimants receive compensation as promptly as possible. Claimants
nevertheless have the right to take their claims to the competent national court.
The joint Secretariat of the IOPC Funds is pleased to advise on the
preparation and submission of claims. Claimants may consult the Secretariat on
other matters, for example before undertaking preventive measures or engaging
experts for surveying purposes.
Who is entitled to compensation?
Anyone who has suffered pollution damage in a Member State of either the
1971 Fund or the 1992 Fund may make a claim against the respective
Organisation for compensation. Claimants may be private individuals, partner-
ships, companies, private organisations or public bodies, including States or local
authorities.
If several claimants suffer similar damage, they may find it more
convenient to submit co-ordinated claims. This can also facilitate claims handling
by the Secretariat of the IOPC Funds.
To whom should a claim be addressed?
Claims for compensation under the 1969 or 1992 Civil Liability Conventions
should be brought against the shipowner liable for the damage, or directly against
his insurer. The insurer will normally be one of the Protection and Indemnity
Associations (P & I Clubs) which insure the third-party liabilities of shipowners.
To obtain compensation under the 1971 or 1992 Fund Conventions,
claimants should submit their claims directly to the IOPC Funds at the following
address:
International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds
4 Albert Embankment
London SE1 7SR
United Kingdom
Telephone: +44-171-582 2606
Telefax: +44-171-735 0326
Telex: 23588 IMOLDN G
E-mail: iopcfund@dircon.co.uk
74
The IOPC Funds co-operate closely with the P & I Clubs in the settlement of
claims. The P & I Club concerned and the IOPC Funds usually jointly investigate
the incident and assess the damage. Full supporting documentation should be
submitted either to the shipowner/P & I Club or to the IOPC Funds. If the
documentation is presented to the shipowner or the P & I Club, the IOPC Funds
should be notified directly of any claim against it under the 1971 Fund
Convention or the 1992 Fund Convention.
In some cases, claims are channelled through the office of a designated local
surveyor. Claimants should in such cases submit their claims to that office, for
forwarding to the IOPC Funds and the P & I Club for decision. Occasionally,
when an incident gives rise to a large number of claims, the IOPC Funds and the
P & I Club jointly set up a local claims office so that claims may be processed
more easily. Claimants should then submit their claims to that local claims office.
Details of claims offices are given in the local press. All claims are referred to the
P & I Club and to the IOPC Funds for decision on their admissibility. Neither
designated local surveyors nor local claims offices may decide on the admissibility
of claims.
Within what period should a claim be made?
Claimants should submit their claims as soon as possible after the damage has
occurred. If a formal claim cannot be made shortly after an incident, the IOPC
Funds would appreciate being notified as soon as possible of a claimants
intention to present a claim at a later stage.
Claimants will ultimately lose their right to compensation under the 1971 or
1992 Fund Convention unless they bring court action against the 1971 Fund or
1992 Fund, as the case may be, within three years of the date on which the damage
occurred, or make formal notification to the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund, as
appropriate, of a court action against the shipowner or his insurer within that
three-year period (see Articles 6.1 and 7.6 of the 1971 Fund Convention and of
the 1992 Fund Convention). Although damage may occur some time after an
incident takes place, court action must in any case be brought within six years of
the date of the incident. The same applies to claimants right to compensation
from the shipowner and his insurer under the 1969 or 1992 Civil Liability
Convention. Claimants are recommended to seek legal advice on the formal
requirements of court actions, to avoid their claims becoming time-barred.
The IOPC Funds endeavour to settle claims out of court. However, claimants
are advised to present their claims against the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund well in
advance of the expiry of the periods mentioned above. This allows time for claims
to be examined and settled out of court, but also ensures that claimants will be
able to sue the 1971 Fund or 1992 Fund for compensation and prevent their
claims from being time-barred, if they and the IOPC Funds are unable to agree on
amicable settlements of the claims.
75
Appendix 5
How should a claim be presented?
Claims against the IOPC Funds should be made in writing (including telefax
or telex). A claim should be presented clearly and with sufficient detail for the
IOPC Funds to assess the amount of the damage on the basis of the facts and the
supporting documentation presented. Each item of a claim must be substantiated
by an invoice or other relevant supporting documentation, such as work sheets,
explanatory notes, accounts and photographs. It is the responsibility of claimants
to submit evidence supporting their claims.
The IOPC Funds usually appoint surveyors and technical advisers to
investigate the technical merit of claims. Claims can be settled promptly only if
claimants co-operate fully with these surveyors and advisers and provide all
information relevant to the assessment of the claims.
The speed with which claims are settled depends largely on how long it takes
for claimants to provide the IOPC Funds with the required information.
Claimants are therefore advised to follow this Manual as closely as possible. If the
documentation in support of a claim is likely to be considerable, claimants should
contact the IOPC Funds (or where appropriate the designated surveyor or local
claims office) as soon as possible after the incident to discuss claim presentation.
The working languages of the IOPC Funds are English and French. Claim
settlement will proceed more quickly if claims, or at least claim summaries, are
submitted in one of these languages.
What information should a claim contain?
Each claim should contain the following basic information:
^ the name and address of the claimant, and of any representative
^ the identity of the ship involved in the incident
^ the date, place and specific details of the incident, if known to the claimant,
unless this information is already available to the IOPC Funds
^ the type of pollution damage sustained
^ the amount of compensation claimed.
Additional information may be required for specific types of claim. This is
described in more detail in Section III (pages 24-26 and 30-31).
Claim settlement procedure
The claim settlement procedure of the 1971 Fund and the 1992 Fund is laid
down in their Internal Regulations, which are adopted by the Governments of
Member States.
Claims submitted to the IOPC Funds are dealt with as promptly as possible.
The Director of the IOPC Funds has the authority to make final settlement of
claims within certain limits. If those limits are exceeded, the Director has to
submit the claim settlements to the Executive Committee of the 1971 Fund or the
76
Assembly of the 1992 Fund for decision. These bodies are composed of
representatives of the Governments of Member States. The 1971 Fund Executive
Committee normally meets three or four times a year; the 1992 Fund Assembly
will meet when required. These bodies may give the Director extended authority
to settle claims arising from a particular incident.
The Director may make provisional payments before the final settlement of a
claim, if victims would otherwise suffer undue financial hardship. Provisional
payments are subject to special conditions and limits.
If the total amount of the claims approved by the 1971 Fund or the 1992
Fund, or established by a court for a particular incident exceeds the total amount
of compensation available under the relevant Conventions, the compensation
paid to each claimant will be reduced proportionately. When there is a risk that
this situation will arise, the IOPC Funds may have to restrict payments of
approved claims or provisional payments to a fixed percentage, to ensure that all
claimants are given equal treatment.
III Admissible Claims
Claims policy of the IOPC Funds
The IOPC Funds can accept only those claims which fall within the
definitions of pollution damage and preventive measures laid down in the
Conventions. A uniform interpretation of the definitions is essential for the
functioning of the system of compensation established by the Conventions.
The policy of the IOPC Funds on the admissibility of claims for
compensation has been established by the Governments of Member States. Each
claim has its own particular characteristics, and it is therefore necessary to
consider each claim on the basis of its own merits, in the light of the particular
circumstances of the case. The criteria adopted by the IOPC Funds therefore
allow for a certain degree of flexibility.
General criteria
The following general criteria apply to all claims:
^ any expense/loss must actually have been incurred
^ any expense must relate to measures which are deemed reasonable and
justifiable
^ a claimants expense/loss or damage is admissible only if and to the extent
that it can be considered as caused by contamination
^ there must be a link of causation between the expense/loss or damage covered
by the claim and the contamination caused by the spill
^ a claimant is entitled to compensation only if he has suffered a quantifiable
economic loss
77
Appendix 5
^ a claimant has to prove the amount of his loss or damage by producing
appropriate documents or other evidence.
A claim is thus admissible only to the extent that the amount of the loss or
damage is actually demonstrated. A certain flexibility is nevertheless exercised in
respect of the requirement to present documents, taking into account the
particular circumstances of the claimant or industry concerned or of the country
in question. All elements of proof are considered, but the evidence provided must
give the IOPC Funds the possibility of forming their own opinion on the amount
of the loss or damage actually suffered.
78
Appendix 6
GUIDELINES FOR FACILITATION OF RESPONSE TO AN OIL
POLLUTION INCIDENT PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 7 AND ANNEX
OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION
PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION, 1990
THE ASSEMBLY,
guidelines concerning the prevention and control of marine pollution from
ships,
RECALLING ALSO resolution A.625(15) concerning the arrangements for the
entry and clearance of marine pollution resources during emergency
situations,
BEING AWARE that the International Convention on Oil Pollution Prepared-
ness, Response and Co-operation, 1990 (OPRC Convention), 1990, and in
particular, article 7 thereof, stipulates inter alia, that each Party to the
OPRC Convention shall take necessary legal or administrative measures to
facilitate: the arrival and utilization in and departure from its territory of
ships, aircraft and other modes of transport engaged in responding to an
oil pollution incident or transporting personnel, cargoes, materials and
equipment required to deal with such an incident; and the expeditious
movement into, through, and out of its territory of such personnel, cargoes,
materials and equipment,
BEING AWARE ALSO that the annex to the OPRC Convention makes provision
for the reimbursement of costs of assistance,
BEING AWARE FURTHER that experience in responding to a major oil pollution
incident requiring resources outside a country has clearly demonstrated
the critical importance of administrative procedures to facilitate rapid
provision of assistance and deployment of human resources and
equipment,
NOTING the decisions and recommendations made by the Marine Environ-
ment Protection Committee at its thirty-eighth session,
1. ADOPTS the Guidelines for Facilitation of Response to an Oil Pollution
Incident Pursuant to Article 7 and Annex of the OPRC Convention set out
in the annex to the present resolution;
79
Appendix 6
2. URGES Contracting Parties to the above-mentioned OPRC Convention
to implement the Guidelines;
3. URGES ALSO all Member Governments to implement the Guidelines;
4. REQUESTS the Marine Environment Protection Committee to keep the
Guidelines under review, taking into account experience gained in their
use.
Annex
GUIDELINES FOR FACILITATION OF RESPONSE TO AN OIL
POLLUTION INCIDENT PURSUANT TO ARTICLE 7 AND ANNEX
OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON OIL POLLUTION
PREPAREDNESS, RESPONSE AND CO-OPERATION, 1990
1 If a State needs assistance in the event of an oil pollution incident, it
may ask for assistance from other States, indicating the scope and type of
assistance required. A State to which a request for assistance is directed
should promptly decide and inform the requesting State whether it is in a
position to render the assistance required and indicate the scope and
terms of the assistance that might be rendered.
2 The States concerned should co-operate to facilitate the prompt
provision of assistance agreed to under paragraph 1 of these Guidelines,
including, where appropriate, action to minimize the consequences and
effects of the oil pollution incident, and to provide general assistance.
Where States do not have bilateral or multilateral agreements which cover
their arrangements for providing mutual assistance, the assistance should
be rendered in accordance with the following provisions, unless the States
agree otherwise.
3 The requesting State is responsible for overall supervision, control
and co-ordination of the response to the incident and of the assistance
supplied. Personnel sent by the assisting State are normally in charge of
the immediate operational supervision of its personnel and equipment.
The personnel involved in the assisting operation should act in accordance
with the relevant laws of the requesting State, which should endeavour to
inform the assisting State of the relevant laws. The appropriate authorities
of the requesting State shall co-operate with the authority designated by
the assisting State.
4 The requesting State should, to the extent of its capabilities, provide
local facilities and services for the proper and effective administration of
the assistance, including decontamination activities, and should ensure
the protection and return of personnel, equipment and materials brought
into its territory by, or on behalf of, the assisting State for such a purpose.
5 The requesting State should use its best efforts to afford to the
assisting State and persons acting on its behalf the privileges, immunities
or facilities necessary for the expeditious performance of their assistance
80
function. The requesting State should not be required to apply this
provision to its own nationals or permanent residents or to afford them the
privileges and immunities referred to above.
6 A State should, at the request of the requesting or assisting State,
endeavour to facilitate the transit through its territory of duly notified
personnel, equipment and property involved in the assistance to and from
the requesting State.
7 The requesting State should facilitate the entry into, stay in and
departure from its national territory of duly notified personnel and of
equipment and property involved in the assistance.
8 With regard to actions resulting directly from the assistance
provided, the requesting State should reimburse the assisting State for
the loss or any damage to equipment or other property belonging to the
assisting State. The requesting State should also reimburse the assisting
State for expenses involved in such assistance arising from the death of, or
injury to, persons, or the loss or damage to property, incurred by personnel
acting on behalf of the assisting State. This would not prevent the
requesting State from seeking reimbursement as part of its claim under
the appropriate compensation convention.
9 The States concerned should co-operate closely in order to facilitate
the settlement of legal proceedings and claims which could result from
assistance operations.
10 The affected or requesting State may at any time, after appropriate
consultations and by notification, request the termination of assistance
received or provided under this Convention. Once such a request has been
made, the States concerned should consult one another with a view to
making arrangements for the proper termination of the assistance.
11 As the assistance should not be delayed for administrative or other
reasons, the necessary legislation should be adopted during the prepared-
ness phase, i.e. before the incident which would require assistance. This is
particularly relevant to paragraphs 4 to 8 above.
12 Similar facilitation should be implemented by States concerned
when personnel or equipment are provided on behalf of a shipowner, a
cargo owner or other relevant entities.
13 In some oil pollution incidents, a shipowner, cargo owner or other
private entity may be best placed to call upon dedicated equipment,
materials and trained operators to assist with the clean-up response. In
order to benefit from the availability of such resources and to ensure their
rapid deployment, the State requesting or being offered assistance should
facilitate the entry, clearance and subsequent return of persons, materials
and equipment provided. Public authorities should, in so far as it is
possible, waive customs and excise duties and other taxes on any
equipment and materials provided on a temporary basis for the purpose
of assisting in the response to an oil pollution incident.
81
Appendix 6
Section VI
MANUAL ON
OIL POLLUTION
IMO GUIDELINES
FOR SAMPLING
AND IDENTIFICATION
OF OIL SPILLS
B
London, 1998
Printed in the United Kingdom by Signal Press Ltd
2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3
ISBN 92-801-1451-4
IMO PUBLICATION
No part of this publication may be produced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
Foreword
The IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identification of Oil Spills are
intended to provide guidance to governments, including those of
developing countries, on the techniques, equipment and strategies for
sampling oil to identify unknown sources of spilled oil. Although
references are given for the laboratory methods required for analysis,
the emphasis in this text is on the details of the field work required to
collect the samples.
The integrity of the samples at every point from collection through
shipment and analysis is important. The foundation of any chemical
analysis is sampling. Sampling correctly provides a representative
portion of oil that is not contaminated by other products. Storage and
shipment ensure that the sample will not deteriorate before it can be
analysed. For oil spills in particular, the analytical process involves
comparing the chemical characteristics, or fingerprints, of the spilled
oil and various suspected sources. Therefore, success in matching spills
to sources depends on knowing locations where samples should be
taken. The education of field samplers with the information in this
publication will facilitate the identification of the sources of spilled oil.
This publication has been written to provide a comprehensive and
detailed explanation of all aspects of the sampling process. These
Guidelines, which deliberately include many different options that are
currently in use, may be used in several ways. They can be provided
directly to field personnel or used as a basis to prepare guidelines
specifically for individual countries.
The draft of this document was developed by a working group formed of
technical experts who attended the 1995 Oil Spill Research and
Development Forum, which was held at IMO headquarters in London
in May 1995. LCDR Kristy Plourde of the US Coast Guard Marine
Safety Laboratory chaired the working group and prepared the draft,
with active participation by experts from Australia, Bulgaria, the
United Kingdom, Germany and Denmark.
iii
Contents
Page
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Acronyms and abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Supplies and equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6 Planning ahead for sample collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7 Sampling procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8 Sample identification and security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9 Storing the samples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
10 Requesting laboratory analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11 Shipping samples to the laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
12 Choosing a laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
13 Laboratory analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Appendix A Oil sampling and shipping checklists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Appendix B Chain-of-custody record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Appendix C Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbers
for petroleum products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Appendix D Flashpoint ranges for typical petroleum products. . . . . 37
Appendix E ASTM and NORDTEST standards for analysis
of waterborne oil spill samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
v
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Why? Identification of the responsible party or source for an
oil spill incident may require the laboratory analysis of oil samples. This
is one part of the overall task of investigating the oil spills and suspected
sources. It is possible to identify differences between one oil and another
and similarities between a spilled oil and its source. Many laboratories
have the ability to do the laboratory analysis and interpretation.
Comparison of the spilled oil with its potential source samples can
provide evidence of the source of the oil. This guide was written to help
people who have the task of collecting oil samples and sending them to a
laboratory. This is a very important task, as important as the analysis in
the laboratory. If the tasks are not done correctly, either the laboratory
will not be able to identify the source of the oil or the results will not
stand up to legal examination. In either case, all the work of sampling,
the laboratory analysis and the investigation may be wasted.
1.2 Who? This guide is written in the form of instructions for the
sample collector. It is very unusual for someone to be specialized as an
oil sample collector and to have no other task responsibilities.
Experience is helpful; however, one purpose of this guide is to train
sample collectors with no experience. Reading this guide, obtaining
sampling supplies and practicing before a spill occurs will result in a
better response in a real spill situation.
1.3 What? There are a number of different parts of the task of taking
a sample from the water and sending it to a laboratory. Some involve
thinking about where and how to sample; others involve the details of
paperwork that are critical to establishing the legal chain of custody for
the samples. It is also important to know how to store samples and how
to pack and ship samples so that they arrive unbroken. This guide
discusses each of these topics in detail in different chapters. This guide
does not address legal requirements and only addresses general
sampling procedures. Consult the legal requirements for your country
to determine what evidentiary procedures are required. This includes,
but is not limited to: laws and regulations pertaining to oil pollution,
procedures for evidence collection and storage, witnesses required
during evidence collection, number of samples required from each
sampling point, limitations as to when/where samples are collected,
procedures for interviewing potential defendants, reports, photographs,
etc.
1.4 When? The best time is sooner rather than later. Petroleumoil is
a complex mixture of many different chemical components. When oil is
spilled, it begins to weather, or change, due to differences in the
properties of these components. Evaporation of the lightest, most
volatile, of these components is the primary process. Although the
1
chemist understands the weathering processes and how it affects the
data, analysis is always easier with fresh oil. Another consideration is
that the source of oil may change with time, especially if it is a mixture of
oils within a bilge. A timely response is critical for the success of these
cases.
1.5 How? The directions are accompanied by illustrations and
pictures. They describe the technical procedures to be used and have
been found to work. This manual has been compiled from procedures
used by either NORDTEST (European analytical standard) or the US
Coast Guard. There are a variety of approaches that may be useful for a
given situation. Implementation of these techniques will depend on
equipment and supplies that are locally available. Sampling techniques
need not be restricted in concept to those described here, although legal
requirements for specific countries may do so. Innovations that preserve
the sample integrity, lower the cost of supplies, or increase the ease of
sampling are encouraged. Suggestions for additions to this manual may
be sent to the International Maritime Organization (IMO).
2 DEFINITIONS
Bilge water: a mixture including water and oil collected in the bilge of the
machinery space in a ship as a result of leakage, drainage, etc.
Chain of custody: the series of actions taken in transferring a sample so
that the sample cannot be tampered with or altered accidentally. The oil
portion is typically a mixture of fuel oils and lubricating oils.
Enclosed space: a space which has any of the following characteristics:
limited openings for entry and exit, unfavourable natural ventilation, not
designed for continuous worker occupancy. It includes, but is not limited
to, cargo spaces, double bottoms, fuel tanks, pump-rooms, compressor
rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct keels, inter-barrier spaces, engine
crankcases and sewage tanks.
Deck log-book: full nautical and cargo handling record of a ships voyage,
written up at the end of each watch (or duty period) by the officer in
charge.
Emulsified oil: suspended mixture of two immiscible fluids (water and
oil), one being dispersed in the other in the form of fine droplets.
Engine log-book: a book in which all particulars relating to the operation
of the propelling and auxiliary machinery are entered by the engineers in
charge.
Flashpoint: the temperature in degrees Celsius at which a product will
give off enough flammable vapour to be ignited. A detailed definition of
this property is contained in volume II of the International Maritime
Dangerous Goods Code, class 3: Flammable Liquids.
Homogeneous: uniform throughout in composition.
Heterogeneous: any mixture or solution comprising two or more
substances, whether or not they are uniformly dispersed.
Inhomogeneous: not uniform throughout in composition.
2
Limited quantity: as defined by International Air Transport Association
(IATA) Dangerous Goods Regulations, section 2.8.
Log-book: a ships journal or tabulated summary of the performance of
the vessel, her engines and other daily events, entered by the master
according to the law.
Oil record book: a book in which all operations concerning oil or oily
mixtures are entered, compulsory on oil tankers of 150 grt and over,
and on other ships of 400 grt and over.
Responsible party: a person or group identified as the source or cause of
the oil spill.
Sample: a representative portion of an oil spill or source product which
can be transported to a laboratory for identification and analysis.
Oil sheen: an extremely thin layer or film of petroleum product causing
some visual evidence on the water surface.
Oil slick: a thin film of oil on water.
Slop: mixture of water and oil residues from cargo tanks in oil tankers
that may contain oil/water emulsions, paraffin wax, sediments and other
tank residues.
Sludge: deposits, generally from the purification of fuel and lubrication
oils, consisting of mixtures including oil, paraffin wax, sediments and
other tank residues.
Tank washings: tank washing water containing cargo tank residues
including oil, paraffin wax, sediment and other foreign matter such as
tank cleaning chemicals.
Tarballs: oil that has evaporated and possibly mixed with debris and has
formed into a solid mass or solid form.
Weathering: all changes in oil composition which take place after the
spillage, including evaporation, dissolution, oxidation, biological
decomposition, etc.
3 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
IMO International Maritime Organization
IATA International Air Transport Association
grt gross tons
UN United Nations
N.O.S. not otherwise specified
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
SOP standard operating procedures
MARPOL 73/78 International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, 1973, as amended by the
ISO International Standards Organization
3
4 SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT
4.1 Obtain in advance Sampling equipment should be obtained in
advance and ready for use. Consult with appropriate legal authorities to
determine numbers of samples required.
4.2 Pre-clean sampling equipment Sampling equipment should be
pre-cleaned to remove any oil residues (including finger oils) that may
mix with the oil collected and interfere with the laboratory analysis. The
use of sampling containers contaminated with oil should be avoided.
Sampling equipment, if not purchased pre-cleaned, should be cleaned
with a detergent wash, rinsed with distilled water, and then rinsed with
solvent (like dichloromethane, hexanes, etc.). The larger the volume of oil
collected, the less likely the oil-contaminated jar (or collection device) will
contaminate the sample. Pre-cleaned supplies, if needed, can be wrapped
in aluminium foil to prevent contamination while being stored or
transported to the spill.
4.3 List of supplies and equipment Sampling equipment may
include, but is not limited to, the following:
.1 Sample jars for collecting samples (figure 1), glass, approxi-
mately 250 ml in size and pre-cleaned prior to use. The jar
lids should be lined with Teflon
1
(TFE fluorocarbon polymer)
or aluminium.
.2 Plastic containers should not be used. Part of the plastic may
mix with the oil and change the oil. However, if all you have is
plastic containers or even bags, it is better to use these than
nothing at all.
.3 Equipment for sheen collection: TFE fluorocarbon polymer
nets (figure 2) or bags (figure 3), rings and extension poles.
TFE fluorocarbon polymer sheets of mesh fabric may also be
used.
.4 Disposable gloves, 100% nitrile medical examination gloves
(figure 4). Gloves help in two ways; they keep oil from getting
on your hands and keep oils from your hands from getting
into the sample.
.5 Cardboard shipping tubes for packing sample jars for ship-
ment.
.6 Tape for sealing sample jars and shipping tubes, approxi-
mately 2 cm wide. Also, tape for closing fibreboard box, ap-
proximately 10 cm wide.
.7 Fibreboard boxes for shipping samples, approximately
25 cm 6 25 cm 6 25 cm.
.8 Sorbent material for packing in boxes to absorb oil if jars leak.
.9 Greaseproof plastic bags for lining shipping boxes, approxi-
mately 50 cm 6 65 cm.
4
Figure 1
Figure 2
5
Figure 3
Figure 4
6
.10 Sampling log-book to record all relevant information about
the samples and spill situation.
.11 Chain of custody and sample identification labels, white ad-
hesive, approximately 5 cm 6 10 cm, water- and oil-resistant
(see figure 13).
.12 Shipping labels, pressure-sensitive, approximately 10 cm 6
10 cm: hazard class 3 Flammable Liquid label or hazard
class 9 Miscellaneous label (see figure 17).
.13 Envelope, heavy-duty, to keep paperwork clean and dry dur-
ing shipment, water-vapour-proof and greaseproof.
.14 Towels, absorbent cloth or paper, to clean sample jars after
sample is taken.
.15 Twine, string or cord for hard-to-reach sample areas, cotton,
six-ply (six threads twisted together).
.16 Tongue depressors or pre-cleaned metal scoop to aid in col-
lecting samples of heavy oils or tar balls.
.17 Sampling kit case to hold all sampling equipment ready for
transport to spill location.
5 SAFETY
5.1 Think of safety first. When collecting samples from the spill, try to
stay upwind of the spill.
5.2 It is important to wear clean gloves to protect your hands when
collecting samples. This is true for both spill samples and suspect
samples. This limits the exposure you will get to dangerous chemical
compounds often found in petroleum oils (like benzene).
5.3 Collecting oil samples is often done at night or in cold weather.
Staying alert is very important. If you are unsure if it is safe to collect a
sample, it is probably best to wait until more information is known or
until weather conditions improve.
5.4 When sampling any source, you should be accompanied by a
member of the crew. It can be very dangerous taking samples from
vessels and other sources, therefore persons sampling from such
sources should be experienced or acquainted with the general
construction of vessels and be aware of confined space entry
regulations. Seek advice when in doubt. If taking samples from a ship,
the sample collector should be accompanied by a member of the ships
crew at all times. The sample collector should be experienced with ships
and the dangers associated with them, especially the dangers of entering
confined spaces.
6 PLANNING AHEAD FOR SAMPLE COLLECTION
Planning ahead involves thinking about sampling the spilled oil and
taking samples from those who are suspected of causing the spill.
Take samples of the spilled oil first because the oil will change after
exposure to the environment.
7
6.1 Spill samples Sample different parts of the spilled oil as soon as
possible. The oil may spread out on the water. If this happens, it can be
hard to collect a sample. The number of samples taken depends on the
size and location of the spill. For large spills, take at least three samples
of the oil from different places, or one sample from each locality if the
spill is widely dispersed. For small spills, do your best to take one or two
samples.
6.2 Suspect samples Samples should be collected fromanyone who
may have spilled the oil. This means all facilities or vessels in the area of
the spilled oil at the time of the spill. On a vessel, you may need to take
samples from different places like the fuel tank, day tank, cargo tank,
waste oil or slop tanks and the bilge. Read and be familiar with the
guidelines in section 7.6. Be prepared to take samples from each tank
and the bilge if you cannot see where the spill came from. Do not try to
determine the oil type by just looking at its colour. For example, just
because a spilled oil is black does not mean that it came from a bilge. It
may be a weathered fuel oil. This is a common error made by samplers.
After deciding who the suspects are and which tanks, etc., to sample,
investigators must document (1) which suspects were sampled and (2)
why any possible suspects were not sampled. Note that factors such as
wind and water flow direction might eliminate a vessel or facility from
being a suspect. In general, however, all possible suspects should be
sampled.
6.3 Reference samples (blanks or clean water samples) This
sample is taken to show what the water was like before the oil spill.
The sample should be taken upstream and away from the spill area.
However, because spilled oil, especially a light oil, spreads rapidly, a very
thin layer of oil on the surface of the water may not be visible to the
unaided eye. A reference sample can also be collected from other
background environments (beach, etc.) whenever relevant, in order to
determine whether the spilled oil has been contaminated by an earlier
spill or other organic material. If there is a limited volume of oil in the
spill, a reference sample should be taken. Close harbour areas tend to
have higher background levels and therefore reference samples should
be taken in these areas.
7 SAMPLING PROCEDURES
7.1 Main types of samples The following main types of oil or oily
mixture may occur at spill sites and suspected sources:
. oil, oily water, heavily emulsified oil, tarballs or lumps on the
water surface
. mixtures of oil and sorbents or other materials which are
soaked with oil
. mixtures of oil and foreign materials on beaches
8
. oiled animals on the water surface or on beaches
. neat oil in tanks on ships, offshore constructions or land fa-
cilities
. oily water in bilges and slop tanks on ships, offshore con-
structions or land facilities
. oily sludge in sludge tanks on ships, offshore oil installations/
drilling rigs or land facilities.
7.2 Sample contamination Do not contaminate samples with
traces of other oils. Preferably wear disposable nitrile gloves to reduce
the risk of sample contamination. Use the gloves once and then discard
them. The sampling equipment should also, as far as possible, be
disposable and discarded afterwards. If the equipment is to be used
again, it must be carefully cleaned and stored in a clean condition.
When thin oil films are sampled, only very small amounts of oil are
obtained. It is very important to avoid contamination by other oils.
Such oils may originate from cooling water and can adhere to the hull
of the sampling vessel. Even traces of lubricating oil or fuel oil can ruin
samples. When sampling from a vessel, sample upwind and be careful
not to contaminate the sample from the vessel sides and engine exhaust.
Helicopter downdraft (exhaust) can also cause contamination of oil
samples.
Surface waters of harbours and river outlets may contain evident traces
of petroleum. When sampling these types of spills, it is important to take
reference samples from the water as well.
7.3 Sample volume In general, take samples from the heaviest oil
accumulations. Each sample should contain 10 to 200 ml of oil, if
possible. This volume is usually easy to collect, when sampling
suspected sources. However, the laboratory analysis requires smaller
volumes of oil. Even extremely small amounts of oil should be considered
for laboratory examination.
When collecting samples from very thin oil films on the water surface, it
can be difficult to acquire even visible traces of oil in the sample. In such
cases, the sample seems to consist of pure water. It must be emphasized
that even such water samples with a sheen or a smell of oil may be
useful for laboratory analysis.
The sample jars should be filled no more than three-quarters full. When
samples are shipped, they often go through temperature changes. These
temperature changes cause the liquid in the jar to expand. To leave extra
space for this increase, do not fill the jars more than three-quarters full.
7.4 Number of samples It is important to sample all possible
sources of a spill in order to determine responsibility. It is also important
to collect the samples as soon as possible after the spill. If the correct
source sample is not obtained shortly after the spill, it may be impossible
9
to obtain a relevant sample at a later date. If this happens, the analyses of
the spill samples will become useless with respect to determining the
source of the spill.
Several samples should be taken when sampling bilges, slop tanks or
oily-water separators. These sources are often highly inhomogeneous,
and several different locations or sampling points may be required to
obtain a representative sample of the oil.
Take at least one sample from each sampling point on board ship or in
the offshore or land-based installation. If necessary for administrative
reasons, more than one sample may be taken from each point.
Consult the legal requirements for your country to determine the
number of samples required from each sampling point. Usually one to
three sets of samples are required from each sampling point.
7.5 Spill sampling techniques The following are several tech-
niques for collecting samples. See the flow chart in figure 6 for help in
determining the most appropriate technique.
7.5.1 Skimming technique This technique will probably be the
most common technique used (figure 5).
. Unscrew the lid from the sample jar. Hold the jar in one hand
and the lid in the other hand or another safe position. Gently
lower the sample jar into the water and gently skimthe oil layer
fromthe water into the sample jar. Repeat this until the sample
jar is about three-quarters full.
. If a layer of oil on water is not visible in the sample jar, proceed
to section 7.5.2. If the necessary equipment is not available, try
the following technique: lift the sample jar from the water.
Place the lid on the jar and tighten the lid. Turn the jar over and
let it stand for two to three minutes. Gently unscrew the
sample jar lid and let the water layer drain out of the sample
jar. Seal the lid and return the jar to its upright position. Re-
peat if necessary.
. Another useful refinement of the skimming technique involves
the use of a bucket. The bucket has small holes in the bottom
or a stainless-steel sieve allowing much of the water to drain
away from the oil. After drainage of water, repeat the skimming
technique as necessary to increase the amount of oil in the
bucket. Then transfer the oil to the sample jar by using a
stainless-steel or TFE fluorocarbon polymer scraper to scrape
the sides of the bucket. Clean the bucket prior to using it again.
. Small pieces of wood floating on the water may help move oil
into the jar.
. If sampling from a vessel, sample upwind, away from vessel
exhaust.
10
Figure 5 Collection of oil samples on water using sampling jar
11
Figure 6 Flow chart for sampling oil spills. This chart presents
recommended ways to collect oil samples, using a minimum amount of
supplies. There are other valid means of collecting samples which will
produce similar results.
7.5.2 Collecting from sheens
Method A, using conical TFE fluorocarbon polymer bag
. Attach the bag to a metal ring, which may be fitted to a pole.
. Cut the bottomof the bag, giving a hole approximately 1 to 2 cm
in diameter.
. Collect sufficient oil in bag by repeated skimming and drainage
of water.
. After water is all drained off, allow oil to flow into a sample jar
by holding jar under lower opening of the bag.
12
Figure 7 Collection of thin sheen oil samples using
TFE fluorocarbon polymer net
Method B, using TFE fluorocarbon polymer net (figure 7)
. Attach the net to a metal ring, which may be fitted to a pole.
. Collect sample by skimming through the sheen and straining
the oily water through the net. Slowly skim the water surface
with the net, back and forth, several times.
. Unclip the net from the ring.
. Place the entire net into a sample jar.
. Discard the ring.
Method C, using sorbent sheets (figure 8)
The sorbent sheets are made of TFE fluorocarbon polymer or TFE
fluorocarbon polymer-coated glass fibres. The sheet absorbs the oil
and repels the water.
. Place the sorbent sheet on the water surface for a few minutes
to absorb the oil. Or, move the sorbent sheet along the water
surface to absorb the oil. Moving the sorbent sheet may pro-
duce better absorption.
. Place the oily sorbent sheet directly in the sample jar.
. In a separate sample jar, provide the laboratory with blank or
clean sorbent sheets to be used as blind references.
13
Figure 8 Collection of thin sheen oil samples using
TFE fluorocarbon polymer sorbent sheet
Chemically treated sorbent pads, though good for cleaning up oil spills,
should not be used to collect oil samples from thin sheens as the
chemicals in the pads can mix with the oil and interfere with the
laboratory analysis if there is only limited volume of oil sample. If
used, a clean sample of the sorbent pad should also be sent to the
laboratory for comparison.
7.5.3 Oil on beaches and oil-coated debris (figure 9)
. Open the sample jar and hold it in one hand. Hold the sample
jar lid in the other hand. Lower the sample jar into the oil and
sand (or other oil mixture) and fill the jar about three-quarters
full.
. If necessary use a wooden tongue depressor, a cleaned scoop or
the lid of the jar, to put the oil mixture/debris into the jar.
14
7.5.4 Oil on animals (figure 10)
Bird feathers and animal fur have natural oils that complicate the
analysis of petroleum oil. If the petroleum remains in contact with the
feathers or fur, the natural oil will dissolve in the petroleum oil. This
contaminates the oil and makes the analysis more difficult. If at all
possible, the oil should be physically removed with a scraper so that it
is no longer in contact with the feathers or fur. If this is not possible, treat
the samples in the following manner:
. Cut off feathers with oil on them and put them into a sample
jar.
. Dead, oiled birds or other animals may be put in plastic bags.
Label the bags and freeze before sending to a laboratory.
. Contact the laboratory before sending any animals. Many lab-
oratories do not have facilities for storing dead animals.
Figure 9 Oil and oil-coated debris on a beach
15
7.6 Obtaining samples from ships and other suspected sources
Consult the legal requirements or standards for your country to
determine the number of samples required from each sampling point
as well as the statutory authority required to take samples. Usually
one to three sets of samples are required from each sampling point.
When sampling any source, you should be accompanied by a member of
the crew. It can be very dangerous taking samples fromvessels and other
sources, therefore persons sampling from such sources should be
experienced or acquainted with the general construction of vessels and
be aware of confined space entry regulations. Seek advice when in doubt.
7.6.1 Sampling from ships (figure 11)
Generally, samples should be taken from all waste tanks, sludge tanks,
and bilges. Try to figure out the path of the oil from the ship to the water
and sample accordingly.
For sampling on board ships, the following documents may give valuable
information:
. Drawings such as the tank plan, capacity plan and air,
filling and sounding pipes are kept on board. They show the
positions and capacities of the different tanks and normally
also indicate what types of oil are carried therein.
Figure 10 Bird feathers contain natural oils that complicate
the analysis of petroleum oil
16
Figure 11 Taking samples from ships can be very dangerous
Figure 12 Potential sources of oil spills include damaged
or disused drilling rigs
17
. The oil record book, log-book, deck log-book and engine log-
book normally contain information about types (grades) of oils
carried in different tanks as well as information about opera-
tions which could lead to an oil discharge. The log-book may be
based on a scrap or rough log-book which is also legal evi-
dence.
When it has been decided where samples should be taken, one of the
following methods may be used:
. Draining directly from tanks located above the double bottom
or from the various piping systems
. Taking samples from bilge wells with a bucket
. Taking samples through manholes or sounding openings. All
tanks are fitted with manholes. It is often difficult to open these
holes, but this is sometimes the only way to obtain a sample
from a tank.
A sampler for tanks may be a glass test-tube placed inside a heavy steel
tube capable of sinking even in high-viscosity oils. The steel tube should
be constructed with an asymmetric end that ensures that it lies
horizontal when touching the tank bottom. This is particularly
convenient when samples are taken in a nearly empty tank where it is
difficult to obtain a reasonable sample volume. When raising the
sampler, the oil should be contained in the test-tube, which should
afterwards be removed and sealed.
When samples of heavy oil residues taken in sludge tanks are from the
bottom of bunker tanks, the viscosity of the oil may be so high that it will
hardly enter the glass test-tube. In this case another sampler designed as
a brush or equipped with lamellas may be used. The sampler and its
outer cover should be sent for analysis.
Owing to the risk of electrostatic charges, sampling in tanks containing
flammable gases must only be carried out using a sampler hanging on a
string of natural, not synthetic, material. Samples should be taken at the
upper, middle and bottom levels of the oil in the tank.
When the oil in sludge tanks and bilges is sampled, particular attention
should be paid to the fact that the oil may not be homogeneously
distributed.
Two checklists, for sampling cargo oil systems and machinery spaces,
respectively, are shown in appendix A. As the designs of ships vary
considerably, the checklists are only to be regarded as guidance. The
design of the actual ship must always be considered when determining
appropriate positions for sampling.
Sampling fromother suspected sources such as offshore and land-based
installations is sometimes needed. Descriptions of sampling in these
cases are not given here. However, much of what has been said above
concerning ships should also apply to these types of sources.
18
7.6.2 Sampling from other suspected sources such as offshore
and land-based installations (drilling rigs, oil production platforms,
oil terminals, etc.) (figure 12)
Detailed descriptions of sampling in these cases are not given here.
However, the following may act as a guide to the potential sources of
oil spillage:
. Mobile drilling rigs
Stabilized crude oil from well tests
Abandoned well heads
. Fixed or moored production systems
Processed crude oil from storage or prior to tanker loading
. Pipelines
Inter-field/Within-field sub-sea pipelines
Main oil line carrying crude oil to shore
Note that pipelines often carry a blend of crude oils originating
from different oil fields.
. Oil terminals
Spillage can arise during:
crude oil loading/unloading operations
loading of bunker fuels via the jetty or lighterage.
In these cases, samples should be requested from the
appropriate storage tanks.
8 SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION AND SECURITY
8.1 Seal the jar Use tape to seal the jar lid to the jar. Tip: seal the
sample jar before placing the labels on the jar.
8.2 Label the jar Place a label on the jar to identify the sample. On
the other side of the jar, place another label for the chain of custody.
Labels should be put on the sample jars immediately after the sample is
taken. Use indelible ink to write on the labels.
Consult the legal requirements or standards for your country to
determine the requirements for evidence labels.
8.2.1 The sample identification label (figure 13) should have the
following information:
Case number
Sample number
Date and time sample was taken
Whether the sample is from the spill or a suspect
Sample description
Name of the person taking the sample
Name of the witness
Other information that may be required: geographic location (latitude/
longitude), signature on suspected source sample from master/
crewman, dates sealed and who sealed sample, etc.
19
Figure 13 Example of sample identification label
8.2.2 The following information will help you fill out the sample
identification label:
.1 case number: unique number assigned by investigator to help
keep track of spills over time;
.2 sample number: use number 1 for the first sample followed by
number 2 for the second sample, etc.;
.3 sample description: identify the sample so that you separate it
from the other samples. For example:
.3.1 for a water sample (spill), the description should have
information relating the sample to a fixed point (ANYPORT
RIVER, 10 YARDS SOUTHEAST OF PIER no. 12, ANYTOWN);
.3.2 for samples from vessels (suspects), the description should
have the name of the vessel and the specific location of the
sample (VESSEL ANYSTAR, ENGINE-ROOM BILGE);
CASE NO. ______________________ SAMPLE NO. ______________________
TIME ___________________________ DATE ______________________________
SPILL & SUSPECTED SOURCE &
SAMPLE DESCRIPTION _______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
LOCATION____________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
SAMPLER ____________________________________________________________
WITNESS_____________________________________________________________
20
.3.3 samples taken from a shore facility should include the
name of the facility, including a city location, and the
location of the sample on the facility (BIGTIME OIL
COMPANY, ANYTOWN, DRAIN VALVE, TANK no. 4A).
8.3 Chain of custody It is important that the samples be kept in a
persons custody or possession. The samples are in a persons
possession if he can see them or if the samples are locked up. It is
common for the person who takes the samples to be the one who takes
possession of them. The possession or custody of the samples will
change when the samples are given up to another person.
Prepare a chain-of-custody record to show the chain of custody for the oil
samples. An example of a custody record is shown in figure 14. The sam-
ple description should be exactly the same as the one on the sample
label. All persons who have control of the samples (or take custody of
them) need to sign in the signature (bottom) part of the custody record as
well as the chain-of-custody label on the sample. The chain-of-custody
document will be sent with the samples to the laboratory. A blank chain-
of-custody record is included in appendix B, although other chain-of-
custody documents may also be used.
9 STORING THE SAMPLES
9.1 Samples should be shipped immediately, but if this is impossible
they can be stored for a short period of time before shipping.
9.2 Store samples in a cool, dark location, under lock and key. Do this
before you transport them away from the spill location. Do not allow the
samples to sit uncovered in a closed vehicle or in direct sunlight. The
samples may change (or weather) if they are exposed to heat and sun-
light. Remember, if the samples change, this will affect the laboratory
results. Place the samples in an insulated pouch or styrofoam cooler.
This will protect them from the heat. A small cooler is best. If the
cooler is hot, rinse it down several times with water. Wipe the sample
jars clean of oil before placing them in the cooler.
9.3 A closed vehicle can get very hot. The temperature can easily reach
508C in the summer sun. If you must keep the samples in a closed vehicle
for a short period, do as follows: wrap them in several layers of
newspaper, a blanket or other insulating material. Move the samples to
a proper storage location as soon as possible.
9.4 The optimum condition for storing oil samples is in a lockable,
explosion-proof refrigerator at 2 to 78C. Do not freeze the samples. At
temperatures below 48C some petroleum oils tend to de-wax, possibly
altering the fingerprint. If you do not have a refrigerator, store the
samples in a cool, dark and secure place.
9.5 Send all samples to the laboratory as soon as possible.
21
Figure 14 Example of chain-of-custody record
22
10 REQUESTING LABORATORY ANALYSIS
10.1 Requesting an oil sample analysis When sending oil samples
to the laboratory, prepare a request letter. This letter gives the laboratory
information to plan the analysis. An investigation report would also be
beneficial to the laboratory.
10.2 Request letter An example of a request letter is shown in fig-
ure 15.
11 SHIPPING SAMPLES TO THE LABORATORY
11.1 Ship samples by a method that assigns a traceable number to the
package of samples to help maintain the chain of custody.
11.2 Shipping guidelines The international shipping of oil samples
is regulated by the International Air Transport Association (IATA).
Adherence to these guidelines will ensure the safe, intact arrival of the
samples at the laboratory and prevent damage to other mail fromleaking
shipping containers. For more information about the legal requirements
for packaging and shipping petroleumoils and other hazardous material
refer to IATAs Dangerous Goods Regulations.
11.3 Packaging In most cases oil will be shipped as either a class 3
Flammable Liquid or a Combustible Liquid as defined by IATA. Under
these regulations untested flammable liquids may be shipped in limited
quantities (defined in section 2.8 of IATAs Dangerous Goods Regulations)
providing they meet the requirements of either packaging group II or III.
Combustible liquids have no mailing restrictions or requirements. See
figure 16 for a flow chart of the information listed below.
11.3.1 Flammable Liquid, packaging group II Consists of oils with
flashpoints of less than 238C (e.g. gasoline, naphtha, and most crude
oils). See appendix D for flashpoint ranges.
. Each inside container (sample jar) must not exceed a capacity of
0.5 l and the entire package must contain no more than a total of
1 l of flammable liquid.
. Each sample jar must be no more than three-quarters full to
allow for expansion of the liquid.
. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/ab-
sorbent material to prevent movement/leakage.
. The gross weight of the complete package must not exceed 30 kg.
. The exterior container must be marked with the Proper Shipping
Name and corresponding UN Number of the contents (e.g., Gas-
oline UN No. 1203). Appendix C contains a list of Proper Shipping
Names and UN Numbers for flammable petroleum products. The
most appropriate name for the sample contents should be used.
If dealing with an unknown sample the shipping name Petro-
leum Products N.O.S. (Oil samples) can be used along with UN
No. 1268. See figure 17 for an example mailing box.
. The package must be labelled with a class 3 Flammable Liquid
label. See figure 17.
23
Figure 15 Example of request letter
7 November 1996
From: Frank Whodunnit
To: Anylab
1. Request analysis of the 8 8 samples listed on the
attached Chain of Custody Record to assist in our
investigation of spill case no. 5432-10 5432-10.
2. For questions about this case, call: JOHN DOE, JOHN DOE,
telephone no. 101-444-1111, fax no. 101-444-1112 telephone no. 101-444-1111, fax no. 101-444-1112.
3. The spill samples were collected from ANYPORT ANYPORT
HARBOUR AND THE ANYTOWN SEWER OUTFALL no. 2 HARBOUR AND THE ANYTOWN SEWER OUTFALL no. 2 (river,
outfall, shore, etc.)
4. Estimated number of litres spilled 300 300;
Estimated cost of clean-up $10,000 $10,000.
5. Wind conditions: X X mild breeze; very windy;
calm.
6. Air temperature: below 08C; 0 to 158C;
X X 15 to 308C; 30 to 358C; over 358C.
7. Sky conditions: overcast; X X bright sun;
rain; other (specify).
8. Spill involves seepage of oil through the soil:
yes X X no. If yes, estimated distance to the nearest
possible suspected source.
9. List any possible non-oil contamination sources
in the area SEWAGE AND SAWDUST SEWAGE AND SAWDUST.
10. Are all samples in this case being sent to the
laboratory? X X Yes No. If no, explain.
11. Have all possible sources been sampled? X X Yes
No. If no, explain why any possible sources were not
sampled.
12. Is there any additional information about the
samples or overall situation which may be helpful to
lab personnel? Yes X X No. If yes, explain.
(signature)
24
Figure 16 Flow chart for labelling oil samples after packaging
Reference: IATAs Dangerous Goods Regulations 39th edition. Effective 1 January 1998.
11.3.2 Flammable Liquid, packaging group III Consists of oils with
flashpoints of more than 238C but less than 60.58C (e.g. kerosene, jet
fuels, turbine fuels, no. 1 fuel oils). See appendix D for flashpoint ranges.
. Each inside container (sample jar) must not exceed a capacity
of 2.5 l and the entire package must contain no more than a
total of 10 l of flammable liquid.
allow for expansion of the liquid.
. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/
absorbent material to prevent movement/leakage.
. The gross weight of the complete package must not exceed
30 kg.
25
FLAMMABLE LIQUID
3
Figure 17 Example of mailing box
. The exterior container must be marked with the Proper
Shipping Name and corresponding UN Number of the con-
tents (e.g. Gasoline UN No. 1203). Appendix C contains a list of
Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbers for flammable pet-
roleum products. The most appropriate name for the sample
contents should be used. If dealing with an unknown sample
the shipping name Petroleum Products N.O.S. (Oil samples)
can be used along with UN No. 1268. See figure 17 for an
example mailing box.
. The package must be labelled with a class 3 Flammable
Liquid label. See figure 17.
26
11.3.3 Proper shipping documentation for flammable liquids Two
copies of a Shippers Declaration for Dangerous Goods document,
completed with the proper information, must be provided to the air
carrier. Figure 18 provides an example of a properly completed Federal
Express Declaration for Dangerous Goods document for a gasoline
sample. Guidance on completing this document is provided below.
. SHIPPER NAME AND ADDRESS
. CONSIGNEE
. PAGE 1 OF 1 PAGES
. Mark out CARGO AIRCRAFT ONLY and RADIOACTIVE
. PROPER SHIPPING NAME (e.g. Gasoline)
. HAZARD CLASS NUMBER (e.g. 3)
. UN NUMBER (e.g. UN No. 1203)
. QUANTITY use volumetric units (e.g. for five 125 ml sample
jars, each containing approximately 100 ml, the proper
quantity would be 500 ml or 0.5 l ) and indicate type of packing
(e.g. 1 fibreboard box).
. PACKING INSTRUCTION (classification of packaging) Most
regulated petroleum oil samples will fall into packaging group
III. Some samples, such as gasoline, naphtha, and some crude
oils are categorized as packaging group II:
The packaging group of the sample is determined as follows:
Packaging group Flashpoint
(closed cup)
Boiling point
II <238C >358C
III >238C <60.58C >358C
. Assign PACKING INSTRUCTION to either
Y305 for packaging group II or Y309 for packaging group III
. AUTHORIZATION Limited quantity
. ADDITIONAL HANDLING INFORMATION A 24-hour tele-
phone number
. NAME/TITLE OF SIGNATORY Print or stamp the name and
title of the person signing the declaration
. PLACE AND DATE Enter the place and date of signing the
declaration
. SIGNATURE Handwritten signature of shipper.
Note: Some carriers may require special dangerous goods transport
document forms. Check with the selected carrier to determine if they
require special forms.
27
Figure 18 Example Shippers Declaration for Dangerous Goods
11.3.4 Combusti bl e l i qui ds and non- combusti bl e l i qui ds
Combustible liquids having a flashpoint between 60.58C and 938C.
These include petroleum products such as no. 2, no. 4, no. 5, and no. 6
fuel oils, diesel fuels, and special fuel oils. The non-combustible liquids
are samples having flashpoints above 938C. Both of these liquids are
28
non-regulated and may be shipped by land or air without the required
regulatory paperwork and by following the guidelines listed below:
allow for expansion of the liquids.
. The exterior container must contain sufficient cushioning/
absorbent material to prevent movement/leakage. The exterior
container must be lined with a greaseproof plastic bag.
. Appendix D contains a list of flashpoint ranges for different
types of petroleum products.
11.3.5 Additional precautions For all shipments apply pressure-
sensitive tape to the sample-jar lid to prevent loosening and leakage in
shipment. Care must be taken when applying tape to the sample jar to
avoid damaging the sample labels.
Note: Do not use sample labels to secure the jar lid to the sample jar.
Place all case documentation in a heavy-duty/greaseproof envelope to
protect it against sample breakage during shipment.
12 CHOOSING A LABORATORY
Ideally, a laboratory should be chosen before any samples are taken.
The requirements of regulations governing the enforcement of oil
pollution laws vary from country to country. The laboratory selected
must meet all the requirements of your countrys legal system.
The analytical methods used for analyses within each country may also
vary. These methods are outlined in detail by standard operating
procedures (SOPs) used in the laboratory. SOPs are often based on
government regulations or on published standards. To date, the
International Standards Organization (ISO) has not developed a set of
standards governing the analysis of waterborne oil spill samples. The
ASTM and NORDTEST have approved standards governing the
analysis of waterborne oil spill samples. A listing of these standards is
provided in appendix E.
For the purpose of providing expert-witness support for the prosecution
of oil spill samples cases, a laboratory located within the same country is
preferable; however, experience and training are required to acquire and
interpret the analytical results.
Many countries have laboratories that are designated to perform oil spill
sample analyses for the identification of oil spill sources. IMO can
provide a list of these laboratories upon request. Several laboratories
have provided assistance to other countries in the process of
developing their own laboratory facilities. A world-wide network of
laboratories linked by computer is envisioned, and is already
established within the framework of six European countries working
on a joint project.
29
If, at the time a spill occurs, there is no laboratory designated, a request
for assistance from a designated laboratory in another country may be
made.
13 LABORATORY ANALYSIS
13.1 About petroleum Petroleum is a complex mixture of thousands
of different organic compounds. It is formed from a variety of organic
materials that are chemically converted under differing geological
conditions over long periods of time. The infinitely variable nature of
these factors results in distinct chemical differences between oils formed
under dissimilar conditions and/or environments. While oil from one
crude oil field is readily distinguishable from another, differences in the
make-up of oils from the same crude oil field can sometimes be observed
as well. Refined oils are fractions usually derived by distillation of crude
oil. Two refined oils of the same type differ because of dissimilarities in
the characteristics of their crude oil feed stocks as well as variations in
refinery processes and any subsequent contact with other oils mixed in
during transfer operation fromresidues in tanks, ships, pipes, hoses, etc.
Thus, all petroleum oils to some extent have chemical compositions that
differ from each other.
13.2 Analytical methods and data interpretation The character-
istic properties of an oil can be explored by a variety of analytical
methods. The results of analysis by any of these methods can be
presented in graph form. In general, when the graphical data for two oils
produced by a particular method are compared, the differences between
the graphs reflect differences between the oils. The laboratory analyst
will try to determine the unique, intrinsic chemical properties of oils via
analytical techniques and establish whether or not a common source
relationship exists between samples of spilled oil and samples of oil from
suspected sources.
Data interpretation in oil spill source identification is not straight-
forward. It is fundamentally different from typical chemical analysis
because the chemical properties of spilled oil are altered when oil is
introduced into the environment. From the moment oil enters the
environment, evaporation, dissolution, photochemical oxidation, bio-
degradation, and other forces begin to alter the oils characteristics or
fingerprint. These combined processes are termed weathering, and can
significantly complicate data interpretation. Contamination of the
spilled oil with other oils or substances is another complicating factor.
The experienced oil spill analyst is familiar with the complexities of the
weathering processes and is able to distinguish real differences between
two oils from those apparent differences resulting from weathering
alterations. Interference from contaminants can usually be recognized
as such and discounted when weighing the test results. However, at
times, severe weathering and/or contamination can mask many of the
inherent differences between oils of a similar type.
By using analytical methods in combination, a skilled laboratory analyst
can distinguish oil samples to a very high degree of certainty.
30
13.3 Using the results of the laboratory The laboratorys results
can serve a useful function of eliminating erroneous suspected sources
as well as pinpointing the actual source in complex oil pollution
investigations. The results and interpretation obtained from the
laboratory should be compared with the other evidence obtained in the
spill investigation.
31
Appendix A
Oil sampling and shipping checklists
References to chapter/section shown in parentheses
A. SAMPLING GENERAL
& 1. Proper sampling supplies/equipment (4.3)
& 2. Sample no more than three-quarters full (7.3)
& 3. Sample no less than 10 ml if possible (7.3)
& 4. Sample jar properly labelled (8.2)
& 5. Lid taped to jar (8.1)
& 6. Sample taken by authorized personnel
& 7. Samples handled as if they were legal evidence
B. SPILL SAMPLING
& 1. Different parts of spill sampled (6.1)
& 2. If needed, reference (blind) samples taken (6.3)
C. SOURCE SAMPLING (See also source checklist below)
& 1. All suspected sources sampled (7.4)
& 2. If possible source not sampled, document why (6.2)
D. CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD (8.3)
& 1. All samples are on chain-of-custody record and descriptions
match those on jar labels
& 2. Each sample identified as spill or suspect
& 3. Chain-of-custody record signed and dated
& 4. Samples handled by authorized personnel
& 5. If samples transferred, chain-of-custody record signed
transferring samples, then recorded and jars signed when
received
E. STORAGE/SHIPMENT (9)
& 1. Samples stored refrigerated at 48C under lock and key in
darkness until shipped to authorized laboratory
& 2. Samples sent to laboratory without delay
F. PAPERWORK BEING FORWARDED TO LABORATORY
& 1. Original chain-of-custody record (8.3)
& 2. Original request letter (10)
G. PAPERWORK BEING KEPT AT OFFICE
& 1. Copy of chain-of-custody record
& 2. Copy of request letter
32
H. PACKING SAMPLES FOR SHIPMENT AND SHIPPING
GUIDELINES (11)
& 1. Samples in cardboard tubes
& 2. Box filled with sorbent material
& 3. Box properly labelled
& 4. Box shipped to authorized laboratory in accordance with national
and international regulations
Checklist for taking samples
in cargo systems of oil tankers
& 1. Identify the designation of the type of oil tanker in accordance
with MARPOL 73/78, Annex I, regulations 5, 13 and 13E, and the
unified interpretation provided in section 2.1. Obtain a copy of the
IOPP Certificate, including the Form B Supplement.
& 2. Identify the loading condition of the ship (loaded, part-loaded, or
in ballast) and the quality of oil carried (last carried), and copy the
bill of lading for the current (latest) voyage.
& 3. Study the oil record book and copy the pages dealing with the
operations under investigation.
& 4. Obtain, if possible, a copy of the diagram of the cargo oil and
ballast pumping and piping systems on the ship.
& 5. Study the printouts fromthe oil discharge monitoring and control
systems and copy the parts covering the current (latest) ballast
voyage.
& 6. Ascertain the current ballast or loading condition and identify
tanks carrying ballast and tanks used for ballast during previous
phases of the voyage.
& 7. Verify the status of the ship in the loadballast handling cycle, i.e.
whether it carries departure or arrival ballast, whether tank
cleaning has been carried out during the voyage and whether
water from the slop tanks has been discharged at sea.
& 8. Take oil samples representing the various qualities of cargo oil
which the ship has carried during the current (latest) voyage, and
mixtures which may have been generated. Take sample of oil
remaining on board at locations where these are likely to collect,
including (as applicable):
& Reference samples carried on board
& All slop tanks (identify also the level of the oil/water interface,
the quantity of slop oil and the quantity of water in each slop
tank)
& Tanks which carry or have carried dirty ballast
& Pump-room bilges
& Stripping pumps
33
& Overboard cross-over line, both sides
& Deballasting lines to sea chests, both sides
& Cargo manifolds on deck
& 9. All samples taken must be clearly identified. See chapter 8 for
more information.
& 10. Take special care to obtain representative samples from slop
tanks and bilges, where the composition of the oil may vary
from place to place.
& 11. Note any additional observations which may be of any value in
determining the likelihood that a discharge has taken place.
Checklist for taking samples
in machinery spaces of ships
& 1. Verify that the ship carries a valid IOPP Certificate. Note whether
the ship is certified as being equipped with 100 ppm or 15 ppm
oily-water separator/filtering equipment. Ascertain whether it
has been granted a waiver for any equipment. Copy the
Certificate, including the Form A Supplement.
& 2. Study the oil record book (machinery part) and copy the pages
covering the period under investigation.
& 3. Check levels and contents. Take samples fromthe following tanks
and spaces:
& All bilge wells
& Bilge water holding tank (note if no bilge water holding tank is
installed)
& Waste oil tanks (the ship may have several)
& Overflow tank for bunker oil
& Fuel and lube oil purifier sludge tanks
& Empty bunker tanks which may have been used for water
ballast
& 4. Also take samples from:
& Service tanks (day tanks) for the engines
& The bilge water separator outlet piping
& The sludge pump outlet piping
& 5. Inspect the bilge water separating/filtering equipment (note the
liquid content at the test cocks, request opening of the filtering
unit if saturation may be expected).
& 6. Inspect the tank top for accumulation of oil and sludge.
& 7. Note the type of cleaning agent used in the engine room and the
claimed rate of consumption.
& 8. If the ship is of 10,000 grt or above and has a 100 ppm separator,
inspect the oil content meter and its recorder. Copy the recorder
printout for the period under investigation.
34
Appendix B
35
Appendix C
Proper Shipping Names and UN Numbers
for petroleum products
Proper Shipping Name UN
Number
Hazard
class
Packaging
group
Fuel, aviation, turbine engine
(jet fuel)
UN No. 1863 3 II or III
Gas oil (includes diesel fuel
and fuel oil)
Gasoline UN No. 1203 3 II
Naphtha UN No. 1255 3 II
Natural gasoline
(includes casing head gasoline)
UN No. 1257 3 II
Petroleum crude oil UN No. 1267 3 II or III
Petroleum oil UN No. 1270 3 II or III
Tars, liquid (includes road
asphalt and oils, bitumen
and cutbacks)
Kerosene UN No. 1223 3 III
Environmentally hazardous
substances, liquid, N.O.S.
Environmentally hazardous
substances, solid, N.O.S.
Note: Names in parentheses and italics are for information only and are
not part of the Proper Shipping Names.
36
Appendix D
Flashpoint ranges for typical petroleum products
Product Typical flashpoint
range (closed cup)
Hazard class
Gasoline approx. 468C Flammable Liquid
Naphtha approx. 298C Flammable Liquid
Crude oils less than 48C Flammable Liquid
Kerosene 53 to 638C Flammable Liquid
No. 1 fuel oil 48 to 638C Flammable Liquid
Jet fuels 43 to 62.58C Flammable Liquid
Turbine fuels 51 to 578C Flammable Liquid
No. 2 fuel oils 62 to 768C Combustible Liquid
Diesel fuels 67 to 928C Combustible Liquid
Special fuel oils 64 to 888C Combustible Liquid
Lubricating oil greater than 2008C Non-regulated
37
Appendix E
ASTM and NORDTEST standards for analysis
of waterborne oil spill samples
ASTM
Contact point ASTM
100 Barr Harbor Drive
West Conchohocken, PA 19428-2959
USA
Tel +1 610 832-9500
Fax +1 610 832-9555
E-mail infoctr@local.astm.org
Standards
D3325 Standard Practice for Preservation of Waterborne Oils
Samples
D3326 Standard Practice for Preparation of Samples for
Identification of Waterborne Oils
D3328 Standard Test Method for Comparison of Waterborne
Petroleum Oils by Gas Chromatography
D3414 Standard Test Method for Comparison of Waterborne Oils by
Infrared Spectroscopy
D3650 Standard Test Method for Comparison of Waterborne
Petroleum Oils by Fluorescence Analysis
D4489 Standard Practice for Sampling of Waterborne Oils
D5739 Standard Practice for Oil Spill Source Identification by Gas
Chromatography and Positive Ion Impact Low Resolution
Mass Spectrometry
E1459 Standard Guide for Physical Evidence Labeling and Related
Documentation
E1492 Standard Practice for Receiving, Documenting, Storing and
Retrieving Evidence in a Forensic Science Laboratory
NORDTEST
Contact point NORDTEST
Postbox 116
02151 Espoo
Finland
Tel +358 9 455 4600
Fax +385 9 455 4272
Standards
NORDTEST method, NT CHEM 001, edition 2: Oil Spill Identification
Oil identification by GC/MS II, Fingerprinting of Biomarkers
Oil identification by GC/MS III, Weathering
38

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Manual on Oil Pollution

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