104 - Cict Unit01

MBR-104: Computers & Information Communication Technology
Unit 01

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Computer education is becoming necessity in todays
world. Whether you belong to any professional
category, you need knowledge about computers. The
depth of knowledge depends upon your
requirement/profession. Definitely, if you are
computer professional then you need in-depth
knowledge about its technology as well as its
functioning. But, if you belong to any other profession
where you are interested only in increasing your
efficiency and productivity, then, you only need to
know very little about computers. That is, you need to
be computer literate, which will enable you to use the
machine specifically as per your need.

To become a computer literate, you should know, what
is a computer is and what it can do?

Basically, computer is an idiot servant; it is very good
for simple and small number of tasks. But it can do
excellent for a good master. This means that unless
you have good knowledge, computer cannot do well
for you. Computers can only do the jobs which can be
done by human beings.

Beside above, computers can store as well as retrieve
numbers; it can add, subtract, multiply and divide
them; it can do these jobs accurately with a very fast
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speed, and the greatest property of computer is it
can follow a list of instructions.

Computer

Computer is an electro-
mechanical (it has electronic as
well as mechanical
components), programmable (use as per ones need)
device that accepts data and processes it to meaningful
information with a very high speed and accuracy.

Computers are the greatest invention of 19
th
Century.
Since then its popularity is increasing exponentially.
Whether children or senior citizen, working or non-
working, business-men or housewife, everyone need
computers for their purpose. With its so wide users it is
our duty to understand/know about its characteristics
as well as its limitations.

Characteristics

Speed: It works with a very high speed.
Accuracy: The results calculated by computer are
always accurate.
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Reliability: The computer is very reliable as it is always
available at your service. Whenever you
need it will perform its duty.
Storage: It has a capability of storing permanently.
Any data stored in computer can be
retrieved any time.
Automation: Once initiated, it will start working and
work till the job finishes.
Versatility: The same computer can serve for
different purposes. It means that same
machine can be used for educational
purpose or entertainment or diagnostics or
publication, prediction etc.
Communication: With the invention of Internet
technology now the computers are capable
of exchanging messages, data, voice, audio,
video etc.
Diligence: With the time, it never get tired. It can work
for hours, days, month or years without any
break.
No feelings: It is emotionless. Effect of environment,
users feelings or biasness do not divert or
hamper its functioning.
Consistency: It is a very consistent machine. It will
provide same results for same set of data
whenever you instruct him for same job.
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Precision: The results given by computers are exact
and accurate.

Every machine has advantages at one part and
disadvantages on other part. Computers have certain
limitations also. They can be classified as below:

Limitations

Programmed by human: Being an idiot servant it is
the duty of machine that it performs
as per the instructions given by its
master/user.

No intelligence/: It has no intelligence, that is why it
cannot take any decision unless
No decision making power defined by its user.

Emotionless: Computer is purely mechanical as far
as its working is concerned. It is not
concerned with users physical or
mental condition.

Curtail human capabilities: It is biggest limitation of
computer. People are so dependent
on computer that now they need it
even for small problems.
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Now it is established that with the use of computer,
one can increase its efficiency and productivity. But it is
not as easy as it seems. Computers can
process/function only if it has following elements:

Elements of computing process

Hardwar
e
Software Data People Procedur
e

Hardware

Things which we can touch or feel physically come
under the category of hardware. That is, each
component of computer is hardware. Hardware of
computers can further be divided into following
groups:

Processing: Components responsible for
processing/calculation fall under processing
hardware category. E.g. Central Processing Unit
(CPU).
Memory: Storage area which is reserved for data
and communicated with processing hardware
comes under memory hardware category. E.g.
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Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only
Memory (ROM).
Input: The devices through which we can give
instructions to the computer fall under this
category. E.g. Keyboard, mouse
Output: The devices through which computer provide
us results after processing are known as output
hardware devices. E.g. Monitor, Printer.
Storage: The devices which have the capability of
storing data permanently lie on this
category. E.g. Floppy, Hard Disk, CD
Communication: The devices which enable our
computer for sending or receiving messages
fall under this category. E.g. Modem

Software

Computer software or software is a collection of
computer programs (set of instructions is known as
computer program) and related data that provide
instruction to the computer what to do and how to do.
More technically, software is a set of programs,
procedures, algorithms and its documentation
designed/developed for a specific purpose.

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Software may divide into three broad
categories:

System Software
General Software
Application Software

System Software

System software is computer software designed to
operate the computer hardware to provide basic
functionality and to provide a platform for running
application software.

It includes programming languages, program
translators, operating systems, device drivers and
utilities programs. System software is also responsible
for managing hardware components, so that they can
work together harmoniously.

Programming Languages

In broad sense language is a media to communicate
with others. It is necessary to have source and object
for communication and most importantly object must
understand what have been communicated by the
source. We may compare programming language with
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our day-to-day language for the purpose of
understanding.

Collection of sentences makes a paragraphs and
collection of paragraphs makes a document. Similarly,
collection of instructions makes a computer program.
These programs have to be written in a language
understandable to a computer because at this point
user is a source and computer is an object and
language is the media for communication between
user and computer. To make the communication
effective the language used by the user should be
completely understood by the computer.

Programming languages can be divided into two
groups: 1) Low Level Language and 2) High Level
Language.

1. Low Level Language
a. Machine Language
It uses only two digits 0s and 1s to write an
instruction
It is machine dependent, which means
programs written on one computer cannot be
used on other computer unless hardware
architecture is exactly same.
It is near to computer rather the user.
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b. Assembly Language
It uses mnemonics i.e. small codes which
comprises of ADD, SUB, MPY, DIV, LOAD etc.
for writing instructions.
It is also machine dependent
2. High Level Language

High-level programming languages uses math-like
and English-like expressions to write instructions.
They are less machine-dependent, easy to learn
and portable between machines.

High level languages may be broadly categorized in
two categories:
a. Procedural Language (e.g. BASIC, FORTRAN,
COBOL, PASCAL, C, etc.)
In procedural language, programmer specifies
an explicit sequences of steps to follow to
produce a result.
b. Object Oriented Language (Small Talk, Visual
Basic, C++, JAVA etc.)
Object-oriented programming language model
organized around "objects" rather than
"actions" and data rather than logic.
Historically, a program has been viewed as a
logical procedure that takes input data,
processes it, and produces output data
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Object-oriented programming takes the view
that what we really care about are the objects
we want to manipulate rather than the logic
required to manipulate them. Examples of
objects range from human beings (described by
name, address, and so forth) to buildings and
floors (whose properties can be described and
managed) down to the little widgets on your
computer desktop (such as buttons and scroll
bars).

Program Translators

In the present scenario also, computers recognize only
machine language. But now-a-days most of the
programmers use high level language to develop
computer programs. Two communicate between
programmer/user and computer translators are
necessary for translating programming language to
machine language.

Translators can be divided into following categories:

Assembler:

Translates Assembly language program to machine
language.
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Translating mnemonic operation codes to their
machine language equivalents.
Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels

Interpreter: High level instruction or language is
converted into machine language by an interpreter.
The advantage of using an interpreter is that the high
level instruction does not goes through compilation
stage which can be a time consuming method. So, by
using an interpreter, the high level program is executed
directly. That is the reason why some programmers use
interpreters while making small sections as this saves
time.

Compiler: A compiler is defined as a computer program
that is used to convert high level instructions or
language into a form that can be understood by the
computer. Since computer can understand only in
binary numbers so a compiler is used to fill the gap
otherwise it would have been difficult for a human to
find info in the 0 and 1 form.
Source Code
Mnemonic Opcode
Symbol

Object Code
Assembler
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There are specific compliers for certain specific
languages or tasks. Compliers can be multiple or
multistage pass. The first pass can convert the high
level language into a language that is closer to
computer language. Then the further passes can
convert it into final stage for the purpose of execution.

Difference between compiler and interpreter

A complier converts the high level instruction into
machine language while an interpreter converts the
high level instruction into an intermediate form.

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Before execution, entire program is executed by the
compiler whereas after translating the first line, an
interpreter then executes it and so on.
List of errors is created by the compiler after the
compilation process while an interpreter stops
translating after the first error.
An independent executable file is created by the
compiler whereas interpreter is required by an
interpreted program each time.

Operating System

An operating system manages and coordinates the
function performed by the computer hardware,
(including the CPU, input/output devices, secondary
storage devices, and communication) and network
equipment. It also tracks of each hardware resource
and determines that who gets what.

For large systems, the operating system has even
greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a traffic
cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users
running at the same time do not interfere with each
other. The operating system is also responsible for
security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not
access the system.

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Operating systems can be classified as follows:

Multiuser: Allows two or more users to run
programs at the same time. Some operating
systems permit hundreds or even thousands
of concurrent users.
Multiprocessing: Supports running a program on more
than one CPU.
Multitasking: Allows more than one program to
run concurrently.
Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single
program to run concurrently.
Real Time: Responds to input instantly. General-
purpose operating systems, such as DOS
and UNIX, are not real-time.

Operating systems is basically a interface between user
and computer.

Tasks of an Operating Systems

1. Processor Management: This involves ensuring
that all the system resources receive sufficient
processes time for expected functioning as well as
making sure that the processer is used to its
optimum capacity.
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2. Memory/Storage Management: Computer
systems have different types of memories such as
temporary (RAM, Cache, etc.) as well as permanent
memories (Hard Drives, USB Drives, etc.). It is the job
of an Operating System to allocate the relevant and
necessary memory space to the applications &
devices for efficient and optimum processing of
information.
3. Device Management: Managing the inputs and
outputs of various devices / peripherals is also one of
the critical functions of an Operating Systems. With
the help of device drivers, the OS controls flow of
information with the necessary allocation of system
resources to ensure correct input and output.
4. Application Management: As the OS manages the
devices using drivers, it also manages the various
applications running on a computer using different
Application Program Interfaces (APIs). Based on the
data received from the application through the APIs,
the OS performs actions to provide the expected
results.
5. User Interface: A user interface provides a
consistent way of interaction between the user and
the computer system. The OS acts as an engine to
provide means of interaction between user and
computer through the user interfaces.

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Device Drivers

A device driver is a component that Windows uses to
provide I/O services for and interact with an underlying
device, such as a modem or network adapter. Rather
than access the device directly, Windows loads device
drivers and calls functions in the drivers to carry out
actions on the device. Drivers are hardware-dependent
and operating-system-specific.

Utility Programs

Utility programs are designed to help analyze,
configure, optimize or maintain a computer. A single
piece of utility software is usually called a utility or
tool. Utility program usually focuses on how the
computer infrastructure (including the computer
hardware, operating system, application software and
data storage) operates.

Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
Backup utilities can make a copy of all information
stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk
(e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files
(e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive.
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Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to
computer operation, or take up considerable
amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to
decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
Disk compression utilities can transparently
compress/uncompress the contents of a disk,
increasing the capacity of the disk.
Disk defragmenters can detect computer files
whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the
fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into
multiple logical drives, each with its own file
system which can be mounted by the operating
system and treated as an individual drive.
File managers provide a convenient method of
performing routine data management tasks, such
as deleting, renaming, cataloging, un-cataloging,
moving, copying, merging, generating and
modifying data sets.
Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor
burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by
blanking the screen or filling it with moving images
or patterns when the computer is not in use.
Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for
entertainment or security.
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System monitors for monitoring resources and
performance in a computer system.

General Software

Word processor

A word processor, or word processing program, does
exactly what the name implies. It processes words. It
also processes paragraphs, pages, and entire
document. Word processing programs, however,
include features to customize the style of the text,
change the page formatting, and may be able to add
headers, footers, and page numbers to each page.
Some may also include a "Word Count" option, which
counts the words and characters within a document.

Some examples of word processing programs include
Microsoft Word, WordPerfect (Windows only),
AppleWorks (Mac only), and OpenOffice.org.

Spreadsheet

A table of values arranged in rows and columns. Each
value can have a predefined relationship to the other
values. If you change one value, other values changes
as well. Relationships between cells are called
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formulas. Once you have defined the cells and the
formulas for linking them together, you can enter your
data and have the desired results. They also support
graphics features. Most spreadsheet applications are
multidimensional, meaning that you can link one
spreadsheet to another. A three-dimensional
spreadsheet, for example, is like a stack of
spreadsheets all connected by formulas. A change
made in one spreadsheet automatically affects other
spreadsheets.
Lotus 1-2-3 and Excel are the most popular
spreadsheet programs.

Database management system (DBMS)

A DBMS is a software package with computer programs
that control the creation, maintenance, and use of a
database. It allows organizations to conveniently
develop databases for various applications by database
administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. A database
is an integrated collection of data records, files, and
other objects. A DBMS allows different user application
programs to concurrently access the same database.
DBMSs may use a variety of database models, such as
the relational model or object model, to conveniently
describe and support applications. It typically supports
query languages, which are in fact high-level
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programming languages, dedicated database languages
that considerably simplify writing database application
programs. Database languages also simplify the
database organization as well as retrieving and
presenting information from it. A DBMS provides
facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data
integrity, managing concurrency control, and
recovering the database after failures and restoring it
from backup files, as well as maintaining database
security.

For example: Access, Oracle, MySql

Browser

A web browser is a software application for retrieving,
presenting, and traversing information resources on
the World Wide Web. An information resource is
identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and
may be a web page, image, video, or other piece of
content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users
easily to navigate their browsers to related resources.
A web browser can also be defined as an application
software or program designed to enable users to
access, retrieve and view documents and other
resources on the Internet.

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Although browsers are primarily intended to access the
World Wide Web, they can also be used to access
information provided by web servers in private
networks or files in file systems. The major web
browsers are Firefox, Google Chrome, Internet
Explorer, Opera, and Safari.

Email

Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is
a method of exchanging digital messages from an
author to one or more recipients. Modern email
operates across the Internet or other computer
networks. Some early email systems required that the
author and the recipient both be online at the same
time, in common with instant messaging. Today's email
systems are based on a store-and-forward model.
Email servers accept, forward, deliver and store
messages. Neither the users nor their computers are
required to be online simultaneously; they need
connect only briefly, typically to an email server, for as
long as it takes to send or receive messages.

Application Software

Enterprise resource planning (ERP)

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ERP systems integrate internal and external
management information across an entire
organization, embracing finance/accounting,
manufacturing, sales and service, customer
relationship management, etc. ERP systems automate
this activity with an integrated software application.
Their purpose is to facilitate the flow of information
between all business functions inside the boundaries of
the organization and manage the connections to
outside stakeholders.

ERP systems can run on a variety of computer
hardware and network configurations, typically
employing a database as a repository for information.

Characteristics

ERP systems typically include the following
characteristics:

An integrated system that operates in real time (or
next to real time), without relying on periodic
updates.
A common database, which supports all applications.
A consistent look and feel throughout each module.
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Installation of the system without elaborate
application/data integration by the Information
Technology (IT) department.

Decision Support System (DSS)

A DSS is an interactive computer based system that
helps decision makers utilize data and models to solve
unstructured problems.

Model-driven DSS

It is primarily a stand-alone
systems isolated from major
organizational information
systems that used some of
model to perform what-if and
other kinds of analyses. Such systems were often
developed by the end-user divisions or groups not
under central IS control.

Data-driven DSS

These systems analyze large pool of data found in
major organizational systems. They support decision
making by allowing users to extract useful information
that was previously buried in large quantities of data.
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Often data from TPS are collected in data warehouses
for this purpose. On-line analytical processing (OLAP)
and datamining can then be used to analyze the data.

The datamining is more discovery driven. It provides
insights into corporate data that cannot be obtained
with OLAP, by finding hidden patterns and
relationships in large databases and inferring rules
from from them to predict future behaviour. The
patterns and rules then can be used to guide decision
making and forecast the effect of those decisions.

Data Warehouses and Data Mining

Decision makers need concise, reliable information
about current operations, trends, and changes. What
has been immediately available at most firms is current
data only (historical data were available through
special information system reports that took a long
time to produce). Data often are fragmented in
separate operational systems, such as sales or payroll,
so that different managers make decisions from
incomplete knowledge bases. Users and information
systems specialists may have to spend inordinate
amounts of time locating and gathering data.

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Data warehousing addresses this problem by
integrating key operational data from around the
company in a form that is consistent, reliable, and
easily available for reporting.

Data Warehouse

A data warehouse is a
database that stores
current and historical data
of potential interest to managers throughout the
company. The data originate in many core operational
systems and external sources, including Web site
transactions, each with different data models. They
may include legacy systems, relational or object-
oriented DBMS applications, and systems based on
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) or Extensible
Markup Language (XML) documents. The data from
these diverse applications are copied into the data
warehouse database as often as neededhourly, daily,
weekly, monthly. The data are standardized into a
common data model and consolidated so that they can
be used across the enterprise for management analysis
and decision making. The data are available for anyone
to access as needed but cannot be altered.

Data Mart

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Companies can build enterprise-wide data warehouses
where a central data warehouse serves the entire
organization, or they can create smaller, decentralized
warehouses called data marts. A data mart is a subset
of a data warehouse in which a summarized or highly
focused portion of the organizations data is placed in a
separate database for a specific population of users.

DATA MINING

A data warehouse system provides a range of ad hoc
and standardized query tools, analytical tools, and
graphical reporting facilities, including tools for OLAP
and data mining. Data mining uses a variety of
techniques to find hidden patterns and relationships in
large pools of data and infer rules from them that can
be used to predict future behavior and guide decision
making. Data mining uses statistical analysis tools as
well as neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms,
and rule-based and other intelligent techniques.

Data mining is often used to provide information for
targeted marketing in which personalized or
individualized messages can be created based on
individual preferences, and there are many other data-
mining applications in both business and scientific
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work. These systems can perform highlevel analyses of
patterns or trends, but they can also drill down to
provide more detail when needed.

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Classification of Computers

Classification on The Basis
of
Working Principals
Classification on The Basis
of
Size And Data Processing
Power

Classification on The Basis of Working Principals

Analog Computer

An analog computer is a form of computer that uses
the continuously-changeable aspects of physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. In
contrast, digital computers represent varying
quantities incrementally, as their numerical values
change.

For example: Thermometer, Speedometer, Petrol
Pump Meter, Multimeter, Slide Rule

Input signal: Analog
Output Signal: Analog

Digital Computer

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Digital computer, any of a class of devices capable of
solving problems by processing information in discrete
form. It operates on data, including magnitudes,
letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary
formi.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1.

For example: Electronic Calculator, Electronic
computer, Digital watch

Input Signal: Digital
Output Signal: Digital

Hybrid Computers

A combination of computers those are capable of
inputting and outputting in both digital and analog
signals. It accepts a continuously varying input, which is
then converted into discrete values in digital
processing.

For example: A hybrid computer is the computer used
in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient.
Hybrid Machines are generally used in scientific
applications or in controlling industrial processes.

Input Signal: Analog, Digital
Output Signal: Analog, Digital
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Classification on the basis of Size and Data Processing
Power

Personal Computer/Microcomputer

CPU: Microprocessor
Read only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
IBM and IBM Compatible
Apple Macintosh: Multimedia application
Multiuser
Notebook, Laptop, Palmtop, PDAs, Pocket
Computer

Mini Computer

Multiuser Computer with Intelligent and Dump
Terminals
Own hardware and Operating System
Data general Nova, DEC, PDP-11 and IBM Series/1
Primary memory: 640KB to few MB
Supports: BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, PASCAL, C

Mainframe Computer

Multiuser, can support 1000s of remote terminals
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IBM, Honey-well, Burroughs, NCR, CDC, Sperry
Application: huge data processing

Super Computer

Built by interconnecting 100s of microprocessors
Mainly used for Defense, whether forecasting,
biomedical research, remote sensing, aircraft
design etc.
CRAY, YMP, NEC, SX-3 and PARAM
Speed is measured in FLOPS (Floating point
operations per second), extended to TFLOPS
(10
12
), PFLOPS (10
15
)

Workstation

Based on different architecture of CPU called RISC
(Reduced Instruction Set Computing), which
results faster processing.
Runs mainly on DOS, Unix, OS/2, NT, UNIX
3D mechanical design, engineering simulation,
animation, rendering of images, mathematical
plots

Server

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Provides services to other computing systems
called clients over a network
Dedicated functionality
Web servers
File/Print servers
Database servers
Enterprise servers

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Basic Computer Architecture

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is the brain of the computer; it reads and executes
program instructions, perform calculations, and make
decisions. The CPU is responsible for storing and
retrieving information on disks and other media and

Input Unit

Output Unit

Secondary Memory
Arithmetic & Logic Unit
Control Unit
Memory Unit
Central Processing Unit
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also directs the flow of traffic throughout the computer
system.

Control Unit

Directs the entire
computer system to
carryout stored
program instructions.
Communicate with ALU
and Main Memory.
Uses the instruction
contained in the
Instruction register to decide which circuits need to
be activated
The process of reading an instruction, is often
referred to as the fetch execute process.

Arithmetic Logic Unit

Executes arithmetic and logic operations
Accumulator is used to accumulate results. It is the
place where the answers from many operations are
stored temporarily before being put out to the
computers memory
The general-purpose registers hold data on which
operations are to be performed by the ALU

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Memory

Types of Computer Memory
A typical computer has:
Level 1 and level 2 caches
Normal system RAM
Virtual memory
A hard disk

Fast, powerful CPUs need quick and easy access to
large amounts of data in order to maximize their
performance. If the CPU cannot get to the data it
needs, it literally stops and waits for it. Modern CPUs
running at speeds of about 1 gigahertz can consume
massive amounts of data -- potentially billions of bytes
per second. The problem that computer designers face
is that memory that can keep up with a 1-gigahertz
CPU is extremely expensive -- much more expensive
than anyone can afford in large quantities.
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Computer designers have solved the cost problem by
"tiering" memory -- using expensive memory in small
quantities and then backing it up with larger quantities
of less expensive memory.

The cheapest form of read/write memory in wide use
today is the hard disk. Hard disks provide large
quantities of inexpensive, permanent storage. You can
buy hard disk space for pennies per megabyte, but it
can take a good bit of time (approaching a second) to
read a megabyte off a hard disk. Because storage space
on a hard disk is so cheap and plentiful, it forms the
final stage of a CPUs memory hierarchy, called virtual
memory.

The next level of the hierarchy is RAM.

The bit size of a CPU tells you how many bytes of
information it can access from RAM at the same time.
For example, a 16-bit CPU can process 2 bytes at a time
(1 byte = 8 bits, so 16 bits = 2 bytes), and a 64-bit CPU
can process 8 bytes at a time.

Megahertz (MHz) is a measure of a CPU's processing
speed, or clock cycle, in millions per second. So, a 32-
bit 800-MHz Pentium III can potentially process 4 bytes
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simultaneously, 800 million times per second (possibly
more based on pipelining)! The goal of the memory
system is to meet those requirements.

A computer's system RAM alone is not fast enough to
match the speed of the CPU. That is why you need a
cache (discussed later). However, the faster RAM is,
the better. Most chips today operate with a cycle rate
of 50 to 70 nanoseconds. The read/write speed is
typically a function of the type of RAM used, such as
DRAM, SDRAM, RAMBUS.

Motherboard

The main circuit board of a microcomputer.
Contains the connectors for attaching additional
boards.
CPU, BIOS, memory, mass storage interfaces, serial
and parallel ports, expansion slots
all the controllers required to control standard
peripheral devices
display screen, keyboard, and disk drive.
Collectively, all these chips that reside on the
motherboard are known as the motherboard's
chipset.
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Expansion slots

ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)
SIMM/DIMM (Single/Dual Inline Memory Module)
PCI/PCI Express (Peripheral Component
Interconnect)
AGP (Advanced graphic port)
SCSI ( Small Computer System Interface)
Cards
Sound card, video card, colour card, network card

Ports & Connectors

Parallel port
Com/Serial Port
IDE Drive connector
Floppy drive connector
USB connector
PS/2 connector

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Input, Output, Storage Devices

Input Devices

Input devices allow you to get data into the computer.
There was a time when the only way to get data into a
computer was by typing. Early computers only
accepted numbers and text as input. As the types of
data users wanted to input changed, so did input
devices. Modern computer users have a number of
ways to input different types of data.

The input devices consist of one or more physical
devices through which data or program can be read in
to the computer. The term input is used to describe the
process of capturing or collecting raw data, at the
beginning of computer based information system, in to
a form that is usable by the computer for processing.
Some times the data is processed right away(online
processing), some times hours or days later or even
longer (batch processing), as a result the data is often
stored in a computer usable form, where it can be
quickly retrieved at the time of processing with little or
no longer intervention. Different types of input devices
normally found in the business environment can be
categorized as shown:

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Categories of input Hardware

Keyboard

1. Terminals
2. Dedicated data entry system.

Direct entry

1. Optical scanning
2. Magnetic ink character recognition
3. Light pen
4. Digitizers
5. Touch Screens etc.

Keyboard:

A computer key board is a sophisticated
electromechanical component designed to create
specialized electronic codes when a key is pressed. The
codes are transmitted along the cables that connect
the key board to the computer system unit or terminal,
where the incoming code is analyzed and converted in
to the appropriate computer usable code. Key boards
come in variety of sizes and shapes and have certain
number of features in common.
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1. Standard type writer keys.
2. Function keys.
3. Cursor movement keys.
4. Numeric keys.
5. Special purpose keys.

Type writer keys are used to type text and other data.
Functional keys are also called as programmable keys
and are used to issue commands. Function keys are
specific to software and their use is mentioned in the
manual that comes along with the software. Cursor
movement keys are used to move the cursor on the
screen. Special purpose keys include Ctrl (control), Del
(delete), INS (insert) and Alt (Alternate). Numeric keys
are used to enter numbers for mathematical
manipulations.

I. Terminals:

The terminal typically consists of a visual display
screen, a key board and a communication link to hook
the terminal up with the main computer system and is
used for inputting data to and retrieving data from a
remotely located main system.

The terminals are of three types:
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1. The low cost dumb terminal: This is entirely
dependent on main computer system to which is
connected. It cannot do any processing of its own
and is used only for data input (keyboard) and
retrieval (data is displayed on the monitor). An
airline reservation uses dumb terminal at a customer
check in station to check flight information stored in
the mainframe computer system.

2. A smart terminal: can input and retrieve data and
also do some limited processing on its own such as
editing and verifying data. A bank loan officer may
use a smart terminal to input the data, do some
calculations and retrieve the data before approving a
loan.

3. An intelligent terminal: can input and receive data
as well as do its own processing. In addition to the
key board, monitor and communication link, an
intelligent terminal also includes a processing unit,
storage capabilities, and software. This type of
terminal is actually a micro computer.

The popular types of computer terminals used to
enter data are:

1. Point of sale terminal.
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2. Financial transaction terminal.
3. Executive work stations.
4. Portable terminal.

II. Dedicated data entry system:

When an organization has high volume data input
requirements, it often uses a secondary computer
usually a minicomputer that stores previously keyed in
data for later processing by mainframe computer. This
processing usually takes place at night when the main
computers time is not taken by user requests. The
group of terminals connected to the minicomputers
that handle data entry and storage are called a
dedicated data entry system. They only input and store
data using key to tape or key to disk input systems.

Direct Entry:

Some input systems use direct entry or non key entry.
Non key board entry systems minimize amount of
human activity required to get data in to a computer
usable form. Some of the direct entry devices are:

1. Card readers: It is used to read the holes in punched
cards and transfer the appropriate electrical signals as
input to the computer. These devices are used mostly
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by the schools and small business, whose data input is
very small.

2. Scanning devices: These are developed to read hard
copy data from source documents in to computers
usable form. These devices use light sensitive
equipment to scan bar codes, optical marks, type
written characters, hand written and magnetic ink.

Bar code readers:

Bar codes are generally used on groceries, cosmetics,
paper back novels and so on. Bar codes are recorded
on the products by the manufacturer and use a coding
scheme called Universal Product Code. Two types of
bar code readers are used.

1. Hand held scanners the clerk passes over the tag
with bar code.
2. Counter top scanners to scan the
information on to the computer.

Bar code readers are used for two main purposes:

1. The prices and product inventory numbers do
not need to be keyed in eliminating the potential
for many keying errors.
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2. Sales data and inventory status stored on file
are kept on a current status.

Optical Mark Readers:

The device has a high intensity light inside that is
directed in the form of a beam at the sheets of papers
being fed through it. The beam scans the marked forms
and detectors the number and location of the pencil
marks.

The data is then converted into electrical signals for the
computer. The optical mark technology is used widely
for scoring examinations and inputting raw data
recorded on questionnaires.

Type written and type set character scanner:

Certain manufacturers have developed special type of
fonts, to be read by a scanning device. ASCII has
developed a standard font for use with special optical
character reading devices. The popular fax machine is a
type of scanner that reads text and graphics and
transmits them over telephonic lines to a computer
with a fax board or another fax machine.The
technology has avoided the duplication of work,
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increased speed and reduced the cost of converting
type written data to computers usable form.

Hand written character readers :

These devices convert the hand written data to
computer usable form.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

It is primarily used for processing cheques. This
technology involves reading numeric character and few
special symbols printed on cheque with magnetic ink.
The figure shows MICR encoding on a personal cheque.

Personal cheques are encoded with magnetic ink and it
is read by MICR equipment. The data is then stored for
processing.

The advantages of MICR system are :

Human involvement is minimal, thus the potential
for errors is less.
It is fast, automatic and reliable.

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Smart Cards:

It is used like a credit card. The card holder inserts the
card in to a special card reading point of the sale
terminal and then enters a password on the key board.
The cards have microchips that can keep permanent
records, which are updated each time the card is used.
The transaction data stored on the card is later used
via ATM to update the users bank records.

In certain countries smart cards are used to buy
merchandise, make phone calls, get exam results from
the university etc.,

III. Voice input devices:

These devices convert the spoken words in to electrical
signals and compare the electrical patterns produced
by the speakers voice with a set of pre recorded
patterns. If a matching pattern is found, the computer
accepts this pattern as a part of its standard
vocabulary.

IV. Pointing Devices:

Data input also involves entering commands and
selecting options. Certain devices allow the user to
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identify and select the necessary command or option
by moving the cursor to a certain location on the
screen and sending a signal to the computer.

Some of the pointing devices are:

Light pen: Uses a light sensitive photo electric cell to
signal screen position to the computer. When a light
pen is moved on the screen, it indicates x, y
coordinates to the computer. It is used by graphic
designer, drafting engineers etc.

Mouse: The mouse is a hand held device connected to
the computer by a small cable. As the mouse is rolled
across the desktop, the cursor moves across the
screen, when the cursor reaches the desired location
the user usually pushes a button on the mouse once or
twice to signal a menu selection or a command to the
computer. The keyboard must be still used to type in
characters and issue some commands, depending on
the software.

Touch screen: Limited amount of data can be entered
via a terminal using touch screen. The user simply
touches the screen at the desired locations, marked by
labeled boxes to point out choices to the computer.
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The software determines the kind of choices the user
has.

Digitizer: This tablet/device comes in different sizes,
has the working surface. Each is converted by a grid of
many tiny wires that is connected to the computer.
Drawings placed over this grid can be traced and
entered in to the computer by the use of special pen or
mouse like device with cross hairs that opens and
closes electrical circuits in the grid and thus identifies
x-y coordinates. Original drawing may also be entered.
As it progresses, the drawings are displayed on the
screen. It can later be stored or printed out. Digitizers
are used in design and engineering businesses such as
those that develop aircraft or computer chips.

Touch tone devices: Used to send data to a computer.
A computerized, voice requests checks data against its
files and reports back on the screen.

Output Devices

All computers and computer programs process
information in three different and sequential stages:
input, processing of input and output of the results. For
the computer user to receive the output results from
the computer, the computer needs to have
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components that can visually display those results.
There are a variety of devices that act as computer
output devices. These devices can be connected to the
computer through a wireless or wired connection.

Hard copy output devices :

The widely used hard copy output devices are printers
and plotters. A printer is capable of printing character,
symbol and sometimes graphics on paper. Printers are
categorized on the basis of whether or not the image
produced is formed by physical contact of the print
mechanism with the paper. Impact printers do have
contact, non impact printers do not. A plotter is used
for creating graphics because it can produce
specialized and free from drawings on paper. Plotters
are categorized according to whether or not they use
pens, how the paper is placed in them, which of their
part move. To suit different users, different types of
printers and plotters are available with different
characteristics and capabilities cost, quality and
speed.

1. Impact Printers: An impact printer makes contact
with the paper. It usually forms the print image by
pressing an inked rubber against the paper with a
hammer like mechanism in one type of (letter
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quality) impact printer the hammers presses
images of fully formed characters against the ribbon
just like a type writer. The printer mechanism in
another type of impact printer called dot matrix
printer is made of separate pin like hammers that
strike the ribbon against the paper in computer
determined pattern of dots. Both the printers are
used with micro computers systems.

a. Letter quality printers: Also called as
character printers or serial printers as they print
one character at a time, produce a very high
quality print images, because the entire character
is formed with a single impact.
The three principal letter quality printers are

The daisy wheel printer
The thimble printer
The ball printer

b. Dot matrix printers: Also called as serial
printers developed with two objectives greater
speed and more flexibility. It has a print head
composed of a series of little print hammers that
look like the heads of pins. This print hammers
strike the ribbon individually as the print
mechanism moves across the entire print line in
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both directions. The color printer uses black ribbon
with color strips. The speed of dot matrix printer
ranges from 240 to 4800 words per minute. They
make less noise and produces good quality print
out.

c. High speed printers: These are developed to
satisfy the high volume output requirements of
most large computer installations, which cannot
be satisfied by dot matrix or letter quality printers.
These line printers are so called because they print
a whole line of character practically at once, come
in several varieties including drum printers, belt
printers and chain printers. The speed of this
printer is measured in lines per minutes.
Advantage of this type of printer is it produces an
extremely large volume of hard copy output and
disadvantage is it is noisy and poor image quality.

2. Non impact printers: Printers that do not strike
characters against ribbon or paper when they print
on non impact printers.

The main categories are (1) Inkjet Printer (2) Thermal
Printer (3) Laser Printer.

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a. Inkjet Printer: The dots are formed by tiny
droplets of ink. These printers can almost match
the speed of dot matrix printer. Color Inkjet
Printers are also used to produce high quality color
prints.

b. Thermal Printer: It is designed to heat the
surface of the chemically treated paper so that a
dot is produced based on the reaction of the
chemical to the heat. No ribbon or ink is involved.
They require special and expensive paper.

c. Laser Printer: The process resembles the
operation of a photocopy machine. A laser beam is
directed across the surface of a light sensitive
drum and fired as needed to record an image in
the form of a pattern of tiny dots. The images are
then transferred to the paper, a page at a time in
the same fashion as a copy machine, using special
toner.

3. Plotters: A plotter is specialized output device
designed to produce high quality graphics in variety
of colors. There are two basic types of plotters,
which use pens and that do not. Drum plotters and
flat bed plotters both use pens. Electrostatic plotters
do not use pen.
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In a drum plotter, the paper is mounted on the
surface of a drum. The drum revolves and the plotter
pens are horizontally positioned over the target area.
When the paper has rotated to the correct point, the
pens are dropped to the surface and moved left and
right under program control, across the paper as the
drum revolves. When the image is complete, the
pens are raised from the surface. Flat bed plotters
are designed, so that the paper is flat and one or
more pens move horizontally and vertically across
the paper.

Electro static paper uses electro static charges to
create images out of very small dots on specially
treated paper. The paper is run through a developer
to allow the image to appear. Electrostatic papers
are faster than pen plotters and produce images of
very high resolution.

4. Computer output micro film/micro fiche systems

The principal advantages of this technology are:

Speed: They handle output at a rate of 30,000 lines per
minute. Much faster than even laser printers.
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Size: The output is considered in size by a factor
ranging from 20 to 100.
Cost: The cost per page of printed material is less than
that of a regular hard copy output method.

Soft copy output devices : Two main types of video
screens are

Cathode Ray Tube
Flat Panel

Cathode Ray Tube: It is the most popular soft copy
output device used with terminals connected to large
computer systems and as a monitor for micro
computer system. This type of video display screens
are used to view the data entry and computer output.

Flat Screen Technology: It is useful for laptop
computers. It has higher resolution, low power
consumption with same graphics capabilities of the
traditional CRT.

Voice Output Systems:

Voice output systems are relatively new and can be
used in some situations where traditional display
screen soft copy output is inappropriate. It is certainly
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more helpful to hear a warning that you are speeding
than to take your eyes off the road to check a display.
Two different approaches to voice output have evolved
speech coding and speech synthesis. Speech coding on
human speech, is reservoir of sound to draw from, the
building the words and phrases to be output. Sounds
are coded and stored on disk to be retrieved and
translated back as sounds. Speech coding is used in
automobiles, toys and games. Speech synthesis relies
on the use of set of basic speech sounds that are
created electronically without the use of human voice.
One of the major applications of speech synthesis is
providing reading machines for the blind.

Secondary Storage Devices

Magnetic media
Magnetic media stores data by assigning a magnetic
charge to metal. This metal is then processed by a read
head, which converts the charges into ones and zeros.
Historically, magnetic media has been very popular for
storing programs, data, and making backups. It looks
set to continue in this role for some time. However,
solid state technology to starting to be used more and
more, storing programs and data on new devices such
as mobile phones and cameras.

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Hard Disk
Hard disks are usually found inside computers to store
programs and data. They are increasingly cheap and
more and more companies are using them to back
things up. Hard disks can vary in physical size with
some disks getting as small as your thumb. The
capacity of a commercial disk is currently up to about 2
terabytes allowing users to read and write to them.

Tape drive
DDS tape drive. Above, from left right: DDS-4 tape (20
GB), 112m Data8 tape (2.5 GB), QIC DC-6250 tape (250
MB), and a 3.5" floppy disk (1.44 MB)
Increasingly obsolete, the tape has been a medium to
deliver software and back up data since the early days
of computing. Nowadays they are used mostly for
corporate backing up and archiving of data. Tapes are
sequential data stores, meaning that if you had
information stored at the end of the tape you would
have to wind your way through the entirety of the tape
before you could read it. There is no random access
like with a hard disk! Tapes can be several terabytes in
size and reading and writing can be very fast as long as
you read or write continuous sections of the tape at
once.

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Optical media
Optical media works by creating a disc with a pitted
metallic surface. There are several different types of
disk out there ranging from 650 MB to 128 GB, with
the pits and lands getting closer together for higher
volume disks. The principle behind how each of them
works is the same
Device Type Size
CD-ROM
CD-R
CD-RW
Read Only
Write once then Read only
re-Writable
650 -
900
MB
DVD-
ROM
DVD-R
DVD-RW
DVD-
RAM
Read Only
Write once then Read only
re-Writable
re-Writable
4.7 -
9.4
GB
Blu-ray
(BD) disc
HD DVD
Re-Writable and Read Only
versions available, using a Blue
laser, that is able to recognise
smaller pits and lands. Allowing for
the pits and lands to be more
closely packed
25 -
128
GB

USB Flash drive
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USB Flash drives are solid state, that means that there
are no moving parts. This is very useful for seek times
as we don't have to wait for mechanical movement,
meaning seek time is very low and it allows for fast
Random Access Memory. Flash drives can be set to
read only mode, but they will always allow for reading
and writing. The size of flash drives is not as great as a
Hard Disk and they are generally much more expensive
per megabyte

Memory Cards
Work in much the same way as a Flash drive and can
often be converted into Flash Drives. They have
different connectors and are generally smaller than
USB Flash drives allowing for them to be used in
cameras, mobile phones and game consoles.

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Computer network
A computer network, often simply referred to as a
network, is a collection of computers and other
hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of
resources and information. Where at least one process
in one device is able to send/receive data to/from at
least one process residing in a remote device, then the
two devices are said to be in a network. Simply, more
than one computer interconnected through a
communication medium for information interchange is
called a computer network.
Networks may be classified according to a wide variety
of characteristics, such as the medium used to
transport the data, communications protocol used,
scale, topology, and organizational scope.
Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate
efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging,
chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and
video conferencing.
Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of
information
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In a network environment, authorized users may
access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capability of
providing access to data and information on
shared storage devices is an important feature of
many networks.
Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a
network may access and use resources provided
by devices on the network, such as printing a
document on a shared network printer.
Distributed computing uses computing resources
across a network to accomplish tasks.
May be insecure
A computer network may be used by computer
hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer
worms on devices connected to the network, or to
prevent these devices from normally accessing the
network (denial of service).
May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs
certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile
access technologies such as ADSL and VDSL.
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May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to
set up. It may also be very costly to set up an
effective computer network in a large organization
or company.

Networks are often classified by their physical or
organizational extent or their purpose. Usage, trust
level, and access rights differ between these types of
networks.

Type Area
Personal Area
Network (PAN)
Up to 8 meters
Local Area
Network (LAN)
Up to 500
meters; an
office or floor of
a building
Campus Area
Network (CAN)
Up to 1,000
meters; a
college campus
or corporate
facility
Metropolitan A city or
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Area Network
(MAN)
metropolitan
area
Wide Area
Network (WAN)
Transcontinental
or global area
Personal area network
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network
used for communication among computer and
different information technological devices close to
one person. Some examples of devices that are used in
a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines,
telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game
consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless
devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10
meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB
and Firewire connections while technologies such as
Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a
wireless PAN.
Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects
computers and devices in a limited geographical area
such as home, school, computer laboratory, office
building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each
computer or device on the network is a node. Current
wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet
technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn
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also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing
home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power
lines).
Typical library network, in a branching tree topology
and controlled access to resources
Campus area network
A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network
made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited
geographical area. The networking equipment
(switches, routers) and transmission media (optical
fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling etc.) are almost
entirely owned (by the campus tenant / owner: an
enterprise, university, government etc.).
In the case of a university campus-based campus
network, the network is likely to link a variety of
campus buildings including, for example, academic
colleges or departments, the university library, and
student residence halls.
Metropolitan area network
A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large
computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus.

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Wide area network
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network
that covers a large geographic area such as a city,
country, or spans even intercontinental distances,
using a communications channel that combines many
types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air
waves. A WAN often uses transmission facilities
provided by common carriers, such as telephone
companies. WAN technologies generally function at
the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the
physical layer, the data link layer, and the network
layer.
Intranets
Intranets and extranets are parts or extensions of a
computer network, usually a LAN.
An intranet is a set of networks, using the Internet
Protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and
file transfer applications, that is under the control of a
single administrative entity. That administrative entity
closes the intranet to all but specific, authorized users.
Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of
an organization. A large intranet will typically have at
least one web server to provide users with
organizational information.
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Extranets
An extranet is a network that is limited in scope to a
single organization or entity and also has limited
connections to the networks of one or more other
usually, but not necessarily, trusted organizations or
entitiesa company's customers may be given access
to some part of its intranetwhile at the same time
the customers may not be considered trusted from a
security standpoint. Technically, an extranet may also
be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of
network, although an extranet cannot consist of a
single LAN; it must have at least one connection with
an external network.

Network topology
Common layouts
A network topology is the layout of the
interconnections of the nodes of a computer network.
Common layouts are:
Bus topology: all
nodes are connected
to a common medium
along this medium. A
linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable
with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file
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server, workstations, and peripherals) are
connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and
LocalTalk networks use a linear bus topology
Advantages: Easy to connect a computer or
peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable
length than a star topology.
Disadvantages: Entire network shuts down if there
is a break in the main cable. Terminators are
required at both ends of the backbone cable.
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a
stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star topology is designed
with each node (file server,
workstations, and
peripherals) connected
directly to a central network
hub or concentrator.
Data on a star network passes through the hub or
concentrator before continuing to its destination.
The hub or concentrator manages and controls all
functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater
for the data flow. This configuration is common
with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be
used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
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Advantages: Easy to install and wire. No
disruptions to the network then connecting or
removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to
remove parts.
Disadvantages: Requires more cable length than a
linear topology. If the hub or concentrator fails,
nodes attached are disabled. More expensive than
linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.
Ring topology is a computer
network configuration where
each network computer and
device are connected to each
other forming a large circle (or
similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring
until it reaches its final destination. Today, the ring
topology is seldom used.
Advantages: This type of network topology is very
organized. Each node gets to send the data when
it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces
chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the
traffic flows in only one direction at very high
speed. There is no need for network server to
control the connectivity between workstations.
Additional components do not affect the
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performance of network. Each computer has equal
access to resources.
Disadvantages: Each packet of data must pass
through all the computers between source and
destination. This makes it slower than Star
topology. If one workstation or port goes down,
the entire network gets affected. Network is highly
dependent on the wire which connects different
components. MAUs and network cards are
expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and
hubs.
A tree topology combines
characteristics of linear bus and
star topologies. It consists of
groups of star-configured
workstations connected to a
linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow
for the expansion of an existing network.

Advantages: Point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
Supported by several hardware and software
venders.

Disadvantages: Overall length of each segment is
limited by the type of cabling used. If the
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backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes
down. More difficult to configure and wire than
other topologies.
A mesh network: Each node,
computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another.
Every node not only sends its own
signals but also relays data from
other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the
one where every node is connected to every other
node in the network. This type of topology is very
expensive as there are many redundant
connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer
networks. It is commonly used in wireless
networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in
mesh topology.
Advantages: Data can be transmitted from
different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic. Even if one of the
components fails there is always an alternative
present. So data transfer doesnt get affected.
Expansion and modification in topology can be
done without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages: There are high chances of
redundancy in many of the network connections.
Overall cost of this network is way too high as
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compared to other network topologies. Set-up and
maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.
Network interface cards
A network card, network adapter, or NIC (network
interface card) is a piece of computer hardware
designed to allow computers to physically access a
networking medium. It provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC addresses.
Each Ethernet network interface has a unique MAC
address which is usually stored in a small memory
device on the card, allowing any device to connect to
the network without creating an address conflict.
Ethernet MAC addresses are composed of six octets.
Uniqueness is maintained by the IEEE, which manages
the Ethernet address space by assigning 3-octet
prefixes to equipment manufacturers. The list of
prefixes is publicly available. Each manufacturer is then
obliged to both use only their assigned prefix(es) and
to uniquely set the 3-octet suffix of every Ethernet
interface they produce.
Repeaters and hubs
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal,
cleans it of unnecessary noise, regenerates it, and
retransmits it at a higher power level, or to the other
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side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover
longer distances without degradation. In most twisted
pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for
cable that runs longer than 100 meters. A repeater
with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work
on the Physical Layer of the OSI model. Repeaters
require a small amount of time to regenerate the
signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can
affect network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit
the number of repeaters that can be used in a row (e.g.
Ethernet's 5-4-3 rule).
Today, repeaters and hubs have been made mostly
obsolete by switches (see below).
Bridges
A network bridge connects multiple network segments
at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges
broadcast to all ports except the port on which the
broadcast was received. However, bridges do not
promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but
learn which MAC addresses are reachable through
specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and an
address, it will send traffic for that address to that port
only.
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Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by
examining the source address of frames that it sees on
various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its
source address is stored and the bridge assumes that
MAC address is associated with that port. The first time
that a previously unknown destination address is seen,
the bridge will forward the frame to all ports other
than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
Local bridges: Directly connect LANs
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area
network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote
bridges, where the connecting link is slower than
the end networks, largely have been replaced with
routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or
connect remote stations to LANs.
Switches
A network switch is a device that forwards and filters
OSI layer 2 datagrams (chunks of data communication)
between ports (connected cables) based on the MAC
addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a
hub in that it only forwards the frames to the ports
involved in the communication rather than all ports
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connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but
represents itself as a broadcast domain. Switches make
forwarding decisions of frames on the basis of MAC
addresses. A switch normally has numerous ports,
facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading
additional switches. Some switches are capable of
routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional
logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The
term switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass
devices including routers and bridges, as well as
devices that may distribute traffic on load or by
application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier).
Routers
A router is an internetworking device that forwards
packets between networks by processing information
found in the datagram or packet (Internet protocol
information from Layer 3 of the OSI Model). In many
situations, this information is processed in conjunction
with the routing table (also known as forwarding
table). Routers use routing tables to determine what
interface to forward packets (this can include the "null"
also known as the "black hole" interface because data
can go into it, however, no further processing is done
for said data).

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75

Internet

A network of networks, joining
many government, university
and private computers together
and providing an infrastructure
for the use of E-mail, bulletin
boards, file archives, hypertext
documents, databases and other computational
resources.

The vast collection of computer networks which form
and act as a single huge network for transport of data
and messages across distances which can be anywhere
from the same office to anywhere in the world.

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (abbreviated as
WWW or W3, and commonly known
as the Web) is a system of interlinked hypertext
documents accessed via the Internet. With a web
browser, one can view web pages that may contain
text, images, videos, and other multimedia, and
navigate between them via hyperlinks.

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76

URL Uniform Resource
Locator

A URL is the unique address
for a file that is accessible on
the Internet. A common way
to get to a Web site is to
enter the URL of its home page file in your Web
browser's address line.
The first part of the URL is called a protocol identifier
and it indicates what protocol to use, and the second
part is called a resource name and it specifies the IP
address or the domain name where the resource is
located.
For example, the two URLs below point to two
different files at the domain pcwebopedia.com. The
first specifies an executable file that should be
fetched using the FTP protocol; the second specifies
a Web page that should be fetched using the HTTP
protocol:

ftp://www.pcwebopedia.com/stuff.exe
http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html

Types of Internet connections

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77

Dial-up (upto 56
kbps)
ISDN (64 128 kbps)
DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line)
ADSL (1.5 to 9 mbps)
SDSL (upto 3 mbps)
VDSL (128 kbps 8
mbps)
Cable Connection
(512 kbps to 20
mbps)
T1 Lines (1.544
mbps)
Bonded T1 (around 3
mbps)
T3 Lines (43 to 45
mbps)
Satelite (492 to 512
kbps)

Internet Protocol Suite

TCP/IP is the
communications
protocol used by the
Internet and all
Internet devices.
TCP/IP provides for breaking up digital messages
into packets, routing them to the proper
addresses, and then reassembling them into
coherent messages.
TCP/IP uses a suite of protocols: TCP and IP.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
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78

Handles the movement of data between
computers
Establishes a connection between the
computers, sequences the transfer of packets,
and acknowledges the packets sent

Internet Protocol (IP)

Responsible for the delivery of packets
Includes the disassembling and reassembling of
packets during transmission

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