10.06.

24 - 010
1
Theory
Electrical engineering
Basic concepts in electrical engineering
We cannot imagine our present society without electricity. We only have to look
around to list a number of applications such as: radio, television, vacuum
cleaner, coffee-maker etc. The number of applications in which electricity is
used is still growing; for a case in point, we only have to think of computers.
The development of 'electricity' has taken place mainly over the past 100 years.
A big advantage of electricity is that it can be generated in a central location and
conveyed with relatively small losses. To keep these losses low, electrical
energy must be conveyed at a high voltage. For large distances, voltages of up to
380 kV (380,000 Volts) are used nowadays.
On the consumers' side, these high voltages are not suitable for things such as to
power machines. These voltages will have to be reduced. This can be done
easily by means of transformers, but for this purpose only alternating current can
be used. Direct voltages cannot be converted to a lower or higher voltage by
means of a transformer.
Apart from the conveyance of energy, electricity can also be used for the transfer
of information: radio, television and the telephone are examples of this. Here,
the objective is to minimise any distortion of the data in transfer.
In contrast to the conveyance of electricity as a source of energy, in which only
one frequency is used (50 or 60 Hertz depending on the country), with electricity
as a data carrier, a wide range of frequencies is used. These versatile
applications of electricity are based on a number of laws. A number of these
laws and concepts from electrical engineering are examined in the following
lessons.
Contents of the lesson
1 Electrical quantities: current, resistance and voltage
2 Ohm's law
3 Specific resistance, line resistance
4 Voltage loss across line resistance
5 Electrical power, unit of power
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Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
2
Lesson
1. Electrical quantities: current, resistance and
voltage
1.1 Electric current, unit of current
An electric current in a conductor is a flow of electrons due to a potential
difference. This potential difference can be supplied by a battery, a generator or
the mains.
By the current I we mean the charge Q passing through a cross section per unit
of time.
The unit of current is the ampere. This is the current in the case of a charge of
1 coulomb per second passing a cross section, so 1 A = 1 C/s (1 coulomb is the
electric charge of 6.3 * 10
18
electrons).
Other indications of current are:
1 A (micro-ampere) = 0.000001 A or 1 * 10
-6
A
1 mA (milli-ampere) = 0.001 A or 1 * 10
-3
A
1 kA (kilo-ampere) = 1000 A or 1 * 10
3
A
Current can be measured with an ammeter.
The symbol of an ammeter in a circuit is a circle containing a capital A (see
figure 1).
5575-010-001
Figure 1
Symbol of ammeter
1.2 Resistance, unit of resistance
A good conductor conducts an electric current easily; in other words, a good
conductor offers little resistance.
The resistance of a certain conductor depends not only on the material of the
conductor but also on the dimensions of the conductor.
The unit of resistance is the ohm (). This is the resistance of a column of
mercury with a height of 106.3 cm and a cross section of 1 mm
2
at 0 C.
A column of mercury twice as long has a resistance of 2 . A column of
mercury with a height of 106.3 cm and a cross section of 3 mm
2
has a resistance
of 1/3 .
- current
- current
- ampere
- resistance
- ohm
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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In engineering, resistors are produced varying from very small values to very
large ones, for instance 0.1 to 10 M (mega-ohm). (M = mega = 1,000,000
= 10
6
).
The symbol of a resistor R (R = resistance) in a circuit is a rectangle containing a
capital R, if necessary with an index, for instance R
1
, R
2
, etc. (see figure 2).
5578-010-002
Figure 2
Symbol of resistance
1.3 Voltage, unit of voltage
An electric current is caused by a voltage. The higher the voltage, the bigger the
electric current through a conductor at a certain resistance.
This can be compared with the flow of a river. A river flows as a result of a
difference in altitude. This could be referred to as the 'potential difference' of the
river flow. The bigger the difference in altitude, the larger the flow of the river
through a certain river bed. A wide, deep river bed has a low flow resistance. A
narrow, shallow river bed has a high flow resistance.
The unit of voltage is the volt (V). This is the voltage that must be applied across
a resistance of 1 to obtain a current of 1 A in that wire.
Voltages can be measured with a voltmeter. The symbol of a voltmeter in a
circuit is a circle containing a capital V (see figure 3).
5578-010-003
Figure 3
Symbol of voltmeter
The symbol of a (direct) voltage supply in a circuit is a long line (+ pole) and a
short line (- pole) at right angles to the conductor (see figure 4).
5578-010-004
Figure 4
Symbol of direct voltage supply
- voltage
- volt
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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2. Ohm's law
From the above, it is clear that the current I depends on:
- the voltage V;
- the resistance R.
The current flows from a point with a high voltage (+) to a point with a lower
voltage (-). This can again be compared with the flow of a river, which
invariably flows from a point at a higher altitude to a point at a lower altitude
(see figure 5).
5578-010-005
Figure 5
Electrical circuit with one voltage supply and one resistor
Measurements show that the current I is directly proportional to the voltage V
and inversely proportional to the resistance R, i.e.:
- if V becomes twice as big, I also becomes twice as big;
- if R becomes twice as big, I becomes twice as small.
The equation is:
R
V
I =
Then:
V = I * R or
I
V
R =
In which:
I = current in ampere (A)
V = voltage in volt (V)
R = resistance in ohm ()
This is Ohm's law. Once two of the three quantities in the equation are know, the
third quantity can be calculated.
- Ohm's law
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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Example 1
The filament in a light bulb has a resistance of 6 . The light bulb is connected
to a 12 V battery.
Calculate the current through the light bulb.
Answer
5578-010-006
Figure 6
Circuit diagram for example 1
The current through the light bulb is
R
V
I = =
!
12V
= 2 A
Example 2
An electrical circuit contains a 3.8 k resistor. Through it flows a current of
2.5 mA.
Calculate the voltage across this resistor.
Answer
Figure 7
Circuit diagram for example 2
First we convert the units of the given quantities:
3.8 k becomes 3800 or 3.8 * 10
3

2.5 mA becomes 0.0025 A or 2.5 * 10
-3
A
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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The equation is:
V = I * R
consequently:
V = 3800 * 0.0025
V = 9.5 V
or:
V = 3.8 * 10
3
* 2.5 * 10
-3
V = 9.5 V
Question 1
The mains voltage is 220 V. Calculate the resistance of a light bulb if the current
flowing through it is 0.27 A.
3. Specific resistance, line resistance
If a voltage supply is connected between the ends of a conductor, a current will
flow through this wire. The magnitude of the current depends on the voltage
applied and the resistance (according to V = I * R).
When we measure the current and the voltage (see figure 8), the resistance of the
wire can be calculated.
5578-010-008
Figure 8
Circuit for the determination of a resistance
R = resistance of the conductor
V = voltmeter
A = ammeter
The resistance of a conductor is determined by:
- the material of the conductor;
- the length of the conductor;
- the area or cross section of the conductor.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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The specific resistance () of a material is the resistance of a 1 m wire of this
material with a cross section of 1 mm
2
. The of copper is 0.0175 mm
2
/m, i.e.
a copper wire 1 m in length and with a cross section of 1 mm
2
has a resistance of
0.0175 .
Table 1 gives the specific resistance of some materials.
Table 1
Specific resistances of different materials
material specific resistance ( mm
2
/m)
aluminium 0.03
gold 0.022
copper 0.0175
mercury 0.941
lead 0.21
brass 0.065
silver 0.016
tungsten 0.045
iron 0.12
carbon 100 - 1000
glass 10
13
- 10
16
rubber 10
10
- 10
15
If the length of a wire is doubled, the resistance is also doubled, as this comes
down to connecting two identical resistors in series.
Conclusion
The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire.
If the area of a cross section is doubled, the resistance is halved.
Conclusion
The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to the area of the cross section
of the wire.
In addition, the resistance of a wire depends on the specific resistance. This is a
material constant.
The equation is:
A
l
R * = or R * A = * l
In which:
R = resistance in
l = length in m
A = area (cross section) in mm
2
= specific resistance in mm
2
/m
- specific resistance
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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If 3 of the 4 quantities in this equation are known, the 4th quantity can be
calculated. Remember to use the right units.
Example
Calculate the resistance of a 2-core copper cable with a length of 1.14 km. Each
core has a cross section of 2.5 mm
2
.
Answer
The total length of the cores is 2 * 1140 = 2280 m (one supply core and one
return core).
R * A = * l R =
A
l
*
R =
5 . 2
2280
* 0175 . 0
R = 16
Question 2
If the resistance of a cable with a cross section of 1.2 mm
2
is 2.8 , calculate the
resistance of a cable of identical length with a cross section of 4 mm
2
.
Question 3
The resistance of a piece of wire with a diameter of 1.5 mm is 4.2 .
Calculate the resistance of a wire of identical length in the same material with a
diameter of 2.5 mm.
4. Voltage loss across line resistance
Let a device be connected to a voltage supply V with a resistance R
b
(load
resistance) via a long line with resistance R
1
(line resistance), divided into two
parts by the supply and return line (see figure 9).
5578-010-009
Figure 9
Line resistance in series with load resistance
The current now flows through both resistances R
1
and R
b
. A voltage loss is
consequently generated across R
1
, leaving a lower voltage for R
b
.
- load resistance
- line resistance
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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Example 1
Given V = 12 V, R
1
= 2 and R
b
= 18, calculate the voltage loss across the
wire resistance and the residual voltage across R
b
.
Answer
V = I * R
tot
V = I * (R
1
+R
b
)
20
12
18 2
12

b 1
=
+
=
+
=
R R
V
I = 0.6A
Voltage loss across R
1
is:
V
R1
= I * R
1
V
R1
= 0.6 * 2 = 1.2 V
Voltage across R
b
is:
V
Rb
= 12 - 1.2 = 10.8 V
Example 2
A 2-core supply cable 100 m in length with a core cross section of 4 mm
2
causes
a voltage loss of 7 V, with an absorbed current of 8 A.
Calculate the specific resistance.
Answer
The wire resistance:
V = I * R
1
R
1
= =
8
7
I
V
The total length of the core is 2 * 100 = 200 m
The specific resistance is then calculated as follows:
R * A = * l
200
4 *
8
7
=
Which can also be written as:
200
4
*
8
7
= = 0.0175 mm
2
/m (copper)
Question 4
A motor is located at a distance of 55 m of the supply point, where the voltage is
220 V. The copper connecting cable has a cross section of 2 * 2 mm
2
. The
motor absorbs a current of 9.4 A. Calculate:
a. the resistance of each core;
b. the voltage loss in both cores;
c. the voltage across the motor terminals.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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5. Electrical power, unit of power
In electrical engineering, the power depends both on the voltage and on the
current.
If in a circuit the current is doubled while keeping the voltage unchanged, the
power is also doubled (compare figures 10a and 10b). When the voltage is
doubled while keeping the current unchanged, the power will also be doubled
(compare figures 10a and 10c).
The power is calculated by multiplying voltage and current. It is indicated by the
letter P, while the power is expressed in Watt (W), for instance P = 100 W. For
larger powers, the prefixes k (= kilo) and M (= mega) are used. 1 MW = 10
6
W,
for instance.
The equation for the power P is:
P = V * I
In which:
P = power in W
V = voltage in V
I = current in A
Using Ohm's law, the equation for P can be transformed to:
P = V * I = (I * R) * I = I
2
* R
R
V
R
V
V I V P
2
* * =

= =
5578-010-010
Figure 10
Power = current * voltage
- power
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
11
In figure 10d, finally, as a result of increasing the voltage, the current has also
doubled. The power will now be 2 * 2 = 4 times as high (compare figures 10a
and 10d).
Question 5
What will the power be if in figure 10d, the battery voltage is increased to 4 V?
We can conclude that the power loss in for instance a cable increases
proportionally to the square of the increase in current. The heat will then not be
able to be removed fast enough, leading to a further increase in temperature and
the possibility of the insulation melting or burning.
Example
A two-core cable has a length of 25 meters. The cross section of the copper
cores is 10 mm
2
. The current flowing through the cores is 50 A. What is the
voltage loss and the power loss in the cable?
Answer
To be able to calculate this voltage loss, we first have to calculate the resistance
of the cable:
R * A = * l
= = = 0875 . 0
10
50
* 0175 . 0 *
A
l
R
The voltage loss now is:
V = I * R = 50 * 0.0875 = 4.375 V
The power lost in the cable is:
P = V * I = 4.375 * 50 = 218.75 W
From these equations and examples, a number of conclusions can be drawn,
which are of importance in for instance the use of welding cables:
- If a welding cable is made longer, the resistance increases proportionally.
For an identical welding current, the voltage loss in the cable will increase.
The voltage at the end of the cable (on the welding tongs) will therefore be
reduced.
- If the welding cable used for a particular welding current is too thin, its
resistance will be too high. The welding current will cause an excessive
voltage loss in the cable, which in turn will reduce the welding voltage. In
addition, due to the excessive current, the cable can overheat and burn.
Question 6
Through a welding cable a 100 A current flows. This current is increased to 200
A.
a. What can we say about the power loss in this cable?
b. What will happen to this power?
- rolled up
condition
- welding cables
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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Summary
Indicated by the letter Expressed in the following unit
Voltage V volt (V)
Current I ampere (A)
Resistance R ohm ()
Power P watt (W)
- Ohm's law:
V = I * R or
R
V
I = or
I
V
R =
- The power in an electrical circuit depends both on the voltage and on the
current:
P = V * I or P = I
2
* R or
R
V
P
2
=
- The specific resistance is the resistance of a wire with a length of 1 meter
and a cross section of 1 mm
2
. The letter used to indicate the specific
resistance is the Greek letter rho (). The unit of is mm
2
/m.
The resistance of a wire can be calculated using the following equation:
R * A = * l or
A
l
R * =
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1. The current through an electric shaver is 0.02 A if the appliance is connected
to the mains voltage of 220 V.
Calculate the resistance of the appliance.
2. The heating element of a soldering iron has a resistance of 550 .
Calculate the current through the element when the soldering iron is
connected to the mains voltage of 220 V.
3. A bicycle light marked as 8 V / 0.4 A is connected to a dynamo which at a
certain speed of rotation generates a voltage of only 4 V.
Calculate the current at this voltage.
4. The resistance of a 80 cm length of wire with a diameter of 0.8 mm is 0.6 .
Calculate the wire resistance of a 2-core cable in the same material with a
length of 6 km and a diameter of 2.5 mm.
5. Verify the definition of the ohm by means of a resistance calculation.
6. The total resistance of a 2-core copper cable is 15 ; the cross section of
each core is 4 mm
2
. Calculate the length of the cable.
7. A 12 V car light has a power of 48 Watt. What will be the current through
the light? Calculate the resistance of the light.
Answers to the questions in the lesson
1.
27 . 0
220
= =
I
V
R = 814.8
2. The resistance is inversely proportional to the cross section, so 8 . 2 *
4
2 . 1
= R
= 0.84 .
3. The cross section of a wire is
2
4
D A

= (D = core diameter). The resistance
is inversely proportional to the cross section, so
2 . 4 *
5 . 2 *
4
5 . 1 *
4
2
2

= R = 1.512
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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4.
5578-010-011
a. The resistance of one core: ( R
1
) is:
5 . 2
55
* 0175 . 0 * = =
A
l
R =0.385
b. The voltage loss in one core is:
V = I * R = 9.4 * 0.385 = 3.619 V
In the two cores the voltage loss therefore is 2 * 3.619 V = 7.238 V
c. The residual voltage across the terminals is therefore 220 - 7.238 =
212.762 V
5. P = V * I
If V = 4 V, according to Ohm's law, I = 4 A. The power P will then be:
P = V * I = 4 * 4 = 16 W
6. a. P = I
2
* R
If the current in the cable is doubled, the power loss is quadrupled.
b. The power loss is converted to heat.
Answers to the exercises
1.
02 . 0
220
= =
I
U
R = 11,000
2.
550
220
= =
R
U
I = 0.4 A
3. From the given 8 V / 0.4 A, the resistance of the light bulb can be
calculated:
4 . 0
8
= =
I
V
R = 20
At a voltage of 4 V, the current is:
20
4
= =
R
V
I = 0.2 A
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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4. From the given resistance, the specific resistance of the wire material can be
calculated:
R * A = * l =
l
D R
l
A R
2
4
*
*

= (l in meters!)
=
8 . 0
8 . 0
4
* 6 . 0
2

= 0.377 mm
2
/m
Now the wire resistance can be calculated, in which l = 12,000 m (2 wires!):
2
5 . 2 *
4
000 , 12
* 377 . 0 *

= =
A
l
R = 921.6
5
A
l
R * =
1 = column of mercury with a height of 106.3 cm and a cross section of
1 mm
2
.
1
063 . 1
* 941 . 0 = R = 1 (QED)
6. Resistance of 1 core is therefore
2
15
= 7.5
R * A = * l

A R
l
*
=
=
0175 . 0
4 * 5 . 7
= 1714 m
7. P = V * I
12
48
= =
V
P
I = 4 A
4
12
= =
I
V
R = 3
Problems and assignments
Answer and send in for correction
1. An immersion pump is earthed by means of a length of iron wire. The length
of the iron wire is 6 meters and the cross section is 4 mm
2
. What is the
resistance of the wire?
2. An electrical appliance has a power of 2200 Watt.
a. What is the current absorbed from the mains if the mains voltage is 220
V?
b. What is the resistance of this appliance?
Theory / 10.06.24 - 010
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3. An existing circuit includes a 6 V battery. The battery is replaced by a 12 V
type.
a. What can be said about the magnitude of the current?
b. What can be said about the magnitude of the power?
4. When an electrical appliance is connected directly to the mains (220 V), the
current consumed is 10 A. The appliance is connected by means of an 20 m
extension cord. The current is now found to be 9.8 A.
a. Calculate the wire resistance of the extension cord.
b. Calculate the voltage across the electrical appliance.
5. We want to connect an electric motor to the mains using a 60 m long 2-core
copper cable. The electric motor absorbs 15 A when it is connected to the
mains directly. Calculate the minimum cross section of a core of the copper
cable for the voltage across the terminals of the electric motor to be at least
215 V.