IE

E EE E- -- -Learning Learning Learning Learning Material Material Material Material
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DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF DEPATMENT OF E & E & E & E & C CC C
ENGINEERING ENGINEERING ENGINEERING ENGINEERING

SUB CODE: 14042
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
NATHAM NATHAM NATHAM NATHAM 624 401. 624 401. 624 401. 624 401.

E E E E LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL LEARNING MATERIAL

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION
ENGINEEIRNG
(IV - SEMESTER)

Reach the Stars
ISO 9001:2008
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SYLLABUS
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
SUB CODE : 14042

UNIT TOPIC
I
Power Devices and Phase Control Circuits
II
Converters and Choppers
III
Inverters, SMPS & UPS
IV
PLC and Programming
V
CNC
UNIT I

POWER DEVICES AND PHASE CONTROL CIRCUITS:

Working Principles of SCR, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT and GTO Switching
Characteristics Specification of above power devices. Gate Trigger Circuits
DC triggering, AC Triggering, Pulze gate triggering Pulse transformer in trigger
circuit Electrical isolation by opto isolator Resistance fixing circuit and
waveform Resistance capacitor fixing circuit and waveform, synchronized UJT
triggering (ramp triggering) Ramp and pedestal trigger circuit for ac load.

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UNIT II

CONVERTERS AND CHOPPERS (QUALITATIVE TREATMENT ONLY)

Single phase semi converters with R, RL and fly wheel diode Single phase full
converters with R, RL and fly wheel diode. Input and output characteristics of
bridge circuit Effect of source inductance Discontinuous current operation
Effect of overlap angles Line commutation.
(a) Self Commutation
(b) Forced commutation (mention of types only)
Polyphase converters with resistive load only
3 phase Half and full converters Control circuit and Power circuit Dual
converter.
DC Chopper and DC Drives Principles of chopper operation Types Typical
Chopper Circuit Diagram Working Principle Applications Rotor ON OFF
control Control of DC Motors AC Chopper Chopper using MOSFET PWM
control circuit for driving MOSFET in chopper.

UNIT III

INVERTERS, SMPS & UPS

Inverters Single phase inverters using thyristors with R, RL loads Output
voltage control in inverter Methods of obtaining sine wave output from an
inverter Typical inverter circuit Three phase inverter circuit Inverter
characteristics through pass inverter circuit Applications of inverters DC
transmission Block diagram Parallel inverter using MOSFET & IGBTs
Advantages.
SMPS Types Circuit description Working principles Control circuits for
SMPS Application UPS Types Comparison Circuit description of on line
& off line UPS Working principles.

UNIT IV

PLC AND PROGRAMMING

Introduction to PLC Relays Parts of PLC Processor Memory Input and
Output modules Digital and Analog I/Os Communication with PLC Logice
functions (OR, AND, NAND & EX-OR) Ladder programming Bit instruction
Timer / counter Program control instruction Data handling instruction math
instruction Simple ladder diagrams for DOL, Star-Delta starter.
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UNIT V

CNC

Basic concept of numerical control driving devices hydraulic systems DC
motors Stepping motors Data processing unit Photoelectric type
Programming Part programming General information Post processor
elements APT syntax only (no programming exercise) ADAPT/EXAPT, Auto
spot Characteristics of N/C system CNC / DNC CNC typical system Block
diagram Interfacing of CNC Machines Programming of CNC Adaptive
control systems ACC ACO Basic concepts of Robotics.

Reference Books:

1. Industrial and Power Electronics Harish C. Rai Umesh Publication
5
th
edition 1994
2. Power Electronics Dr. P.S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publications, 2
nd
edition
1998
3. Power Electronics M.H. Rashid, PHI Publication Pvt. Ltd., 3
rd
edition
New Delhi 2005.
4. Power Electronics M.D. Singh & K.B. Khan Cahndani, TMH, 1998.
5. Programmable Logic Controller Pradeep Kumar & Srivashtava BPB
Publications.
6. Programmable Contollers Richard A. Cox Vikas Publishing Houses
2001.
7. Numerical Control of Machines Yoram Korean and Joseph Ben,.

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Unit I
POWER DEVICES AND PHASE CONTROL

SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR):

SCR
These days, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier briefly written as (SCR)
is one of the most important semiconductor device in the industrial or
power electronics field. It is used as a controlled switch to perform a
variety of functions such as rectification, d.c. to a.c. inversion and power
control. It is an important element in the control of electrical motor
speed, electrical furnace heat, lighting and many other uses.

A Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) consists of four semiconductor
layers forming a PNPN structure as shown in the fig. It has three PN
junctions namely J
1
, J
2
and J
3.
There are three terminals called anode (A),
cathode (K) and the gate (G) taken out as shown. The anode (A) terminal
is taken out from the P
1
layer. The cathode (K) terminal is taken out from
the P
2
layer. The schematic symbol of SCR symbol is quite similar to
that of a diode. In fact, the SCR resembles the diode electrically, since it
conducts the current in one direction only, when forward biased. However
the SCRs different from a diode because it has an additional gate
terminal. This gate is used to turn ON the device.
__________________________________________________

SCR BIASING:

SCR biasing

The SCR can be biased in two modes depending upon the polarity of
the applied voltage across anode and cathode terminals. When the anode
is positive, with respect to the cathode, the SCR is said to be forward-
biased as shown in the fig
In this mode, the junctions J
1
and J
3
are forward biased and the
junction J
2
is reverse biased. There is no current (except leakage current)
through the SCR. Therefore the SCR is in OFF (non-conducting) state.
Under this condition, the device offers a very high resistance. The value of
this resistance is several mega ohms.

On the other hand, if the anode is negative, with respect to
cathode, the SCR is said to be reverse biased as shown. In this mode, the
junctions J
1
and J
3
are reverse biased and the junction J
2
is forward
biased. Again there is no flow of current (except leakage current) through
the SCR. Therefore the SCR is in OFF (non-conducting) state.

__________________________________________________

SCR OPERATION:

The SCR operation shown in the fig. We know that when SCR is
forward-biased with a small voltage, it is in OFF position and no current
flows through the device. However, if the applied forward voltage is
increased, a certain critical value called forward break over voltage (V
BO
)
is reached at which the junction J
2
breaks down. This causes the SCR to
quickly switch to its ON (i.e., conducting) position. Under this condition,
the SCR offers very small resistance (of about 0.1nto 1.0 ) and the
voltage very across it, drops to a low value. The value of this voltage is
about one volt. In the ON state, the current through the SCR is very large
and is controlled by the applied voltage is about one volt. In the ON state,
the current through the SCR is very large and is controlled by the applied
voltage and the external resistance.

Now, if the battery connections of the applied voltage and reversed,
the SCR is reverse biased. Under this condition, the junction J
1
and J
3
are
reversed, biased and junction J
1
only. When the applied reverse voltage is
small, the SCR due to which it may get damaged in the same way as the
reverse biased PN-junction diode.

It is evident from the above discussion that SCR can be used to
conduct in one forward direction only, like a rectifier diode. Therefore SCR
is unidirectional semiconductor device, which remains OFF so long the
applied anode voltage is below the break over voltage and turns ON when
it exceeds the break over voltage.

It will be interesting to know that SCR is never operated with the
anode to cathode voltage (i.e., supply voltage across SCR) equal to the
forward break over voltage. In fact, it is operated at a supply voltage
much smaller than the forward break over voltage. In that case, SCR is
turned ON by the gate voltage and gate current.

__________________________________________________

SCR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT USING TRANSISTOR:

SCR circuit

The basic structure of SCR can be divided into 3-layer structure. It
may noted that the upper 3 layer structure is a PNP transistor, whereas
the lower one is an NPN transistor. Thus SCR can be represented by two
transistors Q
1
(i.e., PNP) and Q
2
(i.e., NPN) interconnected as shown.
Sometimes, this circuit is also called as the two transistor analogy or an
ideal latch of a SCR.

It is evident from the figure that the collector of each transistor is
connected to the base of other transistor. Therefore the collector current
of transistor Q
1
, is the base current of transistor Q
2
, and the base current
__________________________________________________

of transistor Q
1
is the collector current of transistor Q
2
. For this circuit, we
have an action of positive feedback or regeneration. It means that if there
is a change in current, at any point in the loop (formed by transistors Q
1

and Q
2
), it is amplified and returned to the starting point with the same
phase. For example, if the base current of transistor Q
2
increases, the
collector current of transistor Q
2
will also increase. It causes more base
current through transistors Q
1
due to which the collector current of
transistor Q
1
increases. This action will continue till both the transistors
are driven into saturation. In this case, the SCR acts like a ON switch and
it will pass the current from anode to cathode.

On the other hand, if the base current of transistor Q
2
decreases,
the collector current of transistor Q
2
will also decrease. IT causes the
reduced base current through transistor Q
1
due to which the collector
current of transistor Q
1
decreases. This action will continue till both the
transistors are driven into cut-off. In this case, the SCR acts like a OFF
switch and hence it will block the current from anode to cathode.

TURNING ON (OR TRIGGERING) SCR:

The SCR can be turned ON, from its OFF position, by several methods as
discussed below:

Forward break over voltage. If the voltage across the SCR
exceeds the rated forward break over voltage, the SCR will
start conducting due to avalanche breakdown.
__________________________________________________

Gate triggering. This is the most commonly used method to
trigger the SCR. In this method, the SCR is operated with an
anode voltage slightly less than the rated forward break over
voltage and is triggered into conduction by a low-power gate
pulse. It may be noted that once the SCR is switched ON, the
gate has no further control on the device current. The gate
pulse signals can be supplied either from a d.c. source or an
a.c. source.
SCR connected to the d.c. source through a load. In this
case, the gate signal is generated by a push button switch
(S). When the switch (S) is pressed, momentarily, a positive
voltage is applied at the gate. As a result of this, the SCR is
turned ON, and the current flows through the load.
The SCR will remain in its ON position, until the supply
voltage is removed or reversed. It shows a SCR connected to
the a.c. source through a load. In this circuit, the gate signal
is provide by the timing pulses. Such pulses can be generated
by a number of devices called triggering devices. Such
devices are unijunction transistor, diac, silicon unilateral
switch etc.
1. Rate-effect or dV/dt triggering. In this method, the SCR is turned
ON by rapidly increasing the anode-to-cathode voltage. The rapidly
increasing anode-to-cathode voltage produces a charging current,
which triggers the SCR to conduction.
2. Light triggering. In this method, the SCR is triggered by irradiating
it with light. When the light falls on the middle junction (J
2
) of the
SCR, the device turns ON. Such a device is called Light-Activated
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (LASCR)

TURNING OFF SCR:

We have already discussed in the last article that once the SCR
turns ON (i.e., starts conducting), it continues to conduct even when the
gate signal is removed. This ability of the SCR to remain conducting, even
when the gate signal is removed, is known as latching. It means that SCR
__________________________________________________

cannot be turned OFF simply by removing the gate signal. A number of
methods are used for turning OFF the SCR as mentioned below:
1. Reversing polarity of anode-to-cathode voltage.
2. Interrupting anode current by means of momentarily series or
parallel switching arrangement. This method is known as anode
current interruption.
3. Reducing the current through SCR below the holding current. This
method is known as forced commutation.

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR:

SCR Circuit
It gives the relationship between the anode
current and anode-to-cathode voltage of SCR for different values of gate
current. The SCR has two types of V-I characteristics namely forward
characteristic and reverse characteristics.
The forward characteristic may be obtained
supplies V
AA
and V
GG
as shown in the fig The reverse characteristic may
be obtained by reversing the connections of both the d.c. supplies
An ammeter is used to measure the value of anode
current, while the voltmeter is used to measure the anode-to-cathode
voltage.

__________________________________________________

FORWARD CHARACTERISTIC:

FORWARD & REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR
The forward characteristic of SCR may be
obtained by using the circuit. First of all, adjust the gate current to zero
value by keeping the switch (S) open. The increase the applied voltage
across the SCR in small suitable steps. At each step, record the value of
anode current. Now, if we plot a graph with anode-to-cathode voltage
(V
AK
) along the horizontal axis and the anode current (I
A
) along the
vertical axis, we shall obtain a curve marked OABC as shown in the fig
A similar procedure may be used to obtain
curves marked I
G1
, I
G2
and I
G3
for different values of gate-current s
shown. The forward characteristics give us the information about the
following important points:

As the applied anode-to-cathode voltage (V
AK
) is increased above
zero, a very little anode current flows through the device. Under
this condition, the SCR is OFF it offers very high resistance (ideally
open). It continues till the voltage V
AK
reaches the forward break
over voltage marked by point A.
As the anode-to-cathode voltage decrease quickly to a value
marked by point B. The value of break over voltage is about one
__________________________________________________

volt. At this stage, the current through the SCR increases rapidly to
a large value, which is determined by the supply voltage and the
value of the load resistance in the circuit.
The current corresponding to the point B is called the holding
current and is designated by the symbol I
H
. It is the minimum value
of anode current to keep the SCR is ON. If the anode current falls
below the value of holding current, the SCR turns OFF as shown by
the broken line OB.
As a value of gate current (I
G
) is increased above zero, the SCR
turns ON at lower break-over voltages as indicated by the points
marked A and A respectively.
The region lying between the points O and A is called forward
blocking region. In this region, the SCR is OFF and blocks the
forward anode-to-cathode voltage.
The region lying between the points B and C is called forward
conduction region. In this region, the SCSR is ON and conducts
current.

REVERSE CHARACTERISTIC OF SCR:
Figure shows the forward and reverse characteristic of
SCR may be obtained by using the circuit and reversing the connections
of the d.c. supplies V
AA
and V
GG.
First of all, adjust the gate current to any
suitable value. Then increase the reverse applied voltage in suitable steps
and record the value of reverse anode current. Now, if we plot a graph
with applied reverse anode-to-cathode voltage (V
R
) along the horizontal
axis and reverse axis, we shall obtain a curve marked ODE as shown.
The reverse characteristic of SCR gives us the information about the
following important points:
As the applied reverse voltage (V
R
) is increased above zero, a very
little current (called leakage current) flows through the SCR. Under
this condition, the SCR is OFF and it offers a very high resistance. It
continues till the applied voltage reaches breakdown voltage (V
BR
)
As the applied reverse voltage is increased, above the breakdown
voltage, the reverse current increase more rapidly as shown by the
curve DE. This rapid increase is because of the breakdown of SCR
(due to avalanche effect) and may damage the device if the current
exceeds the rated value.
__________________________________________________

The region lying between the points O and D is called reverse
blocking region. In this region, the SCR is OFF. Therefore it blocks
the reverse anode-to-cathode voltage.
The region lying between the points D and E is called reverse
avalanche region. In this region, a large value of reverse current
flows through the device.

SCR RATINGS:
Following are some of the ratings of SCR, which are important from
the subject point of view:
Forward break over voltage. It is the value of anode current below
which the SCR is switched from its OFF position to ON position. Its
value is maximum for zero gate current. Commercially available
SCRs have a forward breakover voltage ranging from 50 to 1200 V.
Holding Current. It is the value of anode current below which the
SCR switches from its ON position to OFF position under the given
conditions. In other words, holding current is the minimum value of
current required to maintain conduction.
Gate triggers current. It is the value of anode current necessary to
switch SCR from its OFF position to ON position under specified
conditions.
Average forward currents. It is the maximum continuous value of
anode current, which the SCR can handle in its ON position under
specified conditions. It is also current rating. Commercially available
SCRs have a current rating ranging from 1 to 1800 A.
Reverse breakdown voltage. It is the value of reveres voltage from
cathode-to-anode at which the device breaks into avalanche region
and starts conducting heavily.
Other parameters, usually, included on the
specification sheet of an SCR are the turn-on-time, turn-off-time, junction
temperature and case temperature, circuit fusing (I
2
t)rating, gate non-
trigger voltage (V
GD
) rating and critical rise (dv/dt) rating.
The circuit fusing (I
2
t) rating indicates the maximum
forward surge current capability of the SCR device. For example, the I
2
t
rating of Motorolss 2N 682-92 series SCRs is 93 A
2
s. If the product of the
__________________________________________________

square of the surge current times the duration (time) of the surge
exceeds 93 A
2
s, the SCR is destroyed by excessive power dissipation.
When the circuit fusing rating of an SCR is known, we
can determine the maximum allowable duration of the surge with a known
current value as follows:
Where I
s
is the known value of surge current.
The circuit fusing rating becomes critical in applications where SCR is
used as a surge protection device.
The gate non trigger voltage (V
GD
) rating indicates the maximum gate
voltage that can be applied without triggering the SCR into conduction. If
V
G
exceeds this rating, the SCR will be trigged into the ON state. The V
GD

rating is important because it points out one of the potential reason of
false triggering of SCR. False triggering is a situation where the SCR is
accidentally triggered into conduction, usually by some type of electrical
noise. For example, Motorolas 2N 682-92 series of SCRs has a V
GD
rating
of 250 mV. This means that if a noise signal with a peak value greater
than 250 mV appears at the gate, the device may be triggered into
conduction.
Another common reason of false triggering is a rise in anode voltage
that exceeds the critical rise (dv/dt) rating of the SCR. This rating
indicates the maximum rate of increase in anode-to-cathode voltage that
the SCR can handle without false triggering occurring. The dv/dt rating of
Motorolas 2N 682-92 series SCRs is 30 V/s. This means that a noise
signal in V
AK
with a rate of rise equal to 30 V/s may cause false
triggering.
APPLICATIONS OF SCR:
The SCR has a number of applications, yet the
following industrial applications are important from the subject point of
view:
Motor speed control
Light dimming control
. 3. Heater control
Phase control
Battery charges
Inverters
__________________________________________________

Static switches
Rectifier power supplies
Relay control.
MOSFETS:

The MOSFET is an abbreviation for metal-oxide semiconductor field-
effect transistor. Like JFET, is has a source, gate and drain. However,
unlike JFET, the gate of a MOSFET is insulated from the channel.
Because of this, the MOSFET is sometimes known as an IGFET
which stands for insulated-gate field effect transistor,. Basically the
MOSFETs are of two types namely depletion type MOSFET and Enhance-
type MOSFET.
DEPLETION-TYPE MOSFET:
The basic structure of an N-channel depletion type
MOSFET as shown in the fig. It consists of a conducting bar of N-type
material with an insulated gate on the left and P-region on the right. Free
electrons and flow from source to drain through the N-type material. The
P-region is called substrate (or body). IT physically reduces the
conducting path to a narrow channel. A thin layer of silicon dioxide is
deposited on the left side of the channel. This layer insulates the gate
from the channel. Because of this, a negligible gate current flows even
when the gate voltage is positive. It will be interesting to know that a PN
junction, which exists in a JFET, has been eliminated in the MOSFET.

N channel depletion type MOSFET
__________________________________________________

The basic construction of a depletion-type P-
channel MOSFET is similar to that of N-channel except that the conducting
bar is of P-type material and the substrate is of N-type material.
CIRCUIT SYMBOL FOR DEPLETION-TYPE MOSFET:

The circuit symbols for the N-channel depletion-type MOSFET. A thin
vertical line (just right to the gate) represents the channel. The drain and
source terminals are connected to the top and bottom of the channel as
shown. The arrow, on the P-type substrate, points towards the channel.
This indicates that the channels in N-type. In some MOSFETs a
connection from the substrate is also taken out. Such MOSFETs have 4-
terminals as indicated. But in most of the MOSFETs the substrate is
internally connected to the source. This results in a three terminal device,
whose circuit symbol is as shown.

It shows the circuit symbol for a P-channel depletion type MOSFET. It
may be noted that the symbol is similar to that of N-channel, except the
direction of the arrow on the substrate. Its direction is away from the
channel, which indicates that the channel is of P-type material.

__________________________________________________

WORKING OF A DEPLETION-TYPE MOSFET:

working of a depletion type MOSFET
The depletion-type MOSFET can be operated in two different modes
as given below:
Depletion mode. The device operates in this mode, when the gate
voltage in negative
Enhancement node. The device operates in this mode, when the
gate voltage is positive.
Since the depletion-type MOSFET can be operated in
either depletion or enhancement mode, therefore this device is commonly
known as depletion-enhancement (DE) type MOSFET. The working of a
MOSFET may be explained easily, if we visualize the entire structure of
the device as a parallel plate capacitor. One of the plates is formed by the
gate and the other by the semiconductor channel. The plates are
separated by a dielectric (SiO
2
layer). We know that if one plate of a
capacitor is made negative, it induces a positive charge on the opposite
plate and vice versa. This principle is used below in explaining the
working of MOSFETs in the depletion and enhancement modes.
1. Depletion mode. It Fig (a)shows a MOSFET with a negative gate-to-
source voltage. The negative voltage, on the gate, induces a
positive charge in the channel. Because of this, free electrons in the
vicinity of positive charge are repelled away in the channel. As a
result of this, the channel is depleted of free electrons. This reduces
the number of free electrons (which constitute the drain current)
__________________________________________________

passing through the channel. Thus as the value of negative gate-to-
source voltage is increase, the value of drain voltage, called V
GS (off),

the channel is totally depleted of free electrons and therefore the
drain current reduces to zero. Thus with the negative gate voltage,
the operation of MOSFET is similar to that of a JFET.
It is evident from the above discussion that negative gate
voltage depletes the channel of free electrons. It is due to this fact
that the working of a MOSFET, with a negative gate voltage, is
called depletion mode.
2. Enhancement mode. Fig 5.5.2 (b) shows a MOSFET with a positive
gate-to-source voltage. The positive gate voltage increases the
number of free electrons passing though the channel. The greater
the gate voltage, greater is the number of free electrons passing
through the channel. This increases i.e., enhances the conducting of
the channel. Because of this fact, positive gate operation is called
enhancement mode.
It will be interesting to know that depletion-type MOSFET can conduct
even if the gate-to-source voltage (V
GS
) is zero. Because of this, it is
commonly known as Normally-ON MOSFET.

DRAIN CHARACTERISTIC OF DEPLETION-TYPE MOSFET:

__________________________________________________

Drain characteristics of N channel depletion type MOSFET
Fig shows the drain characteristic for the N-
channel depletion-type MOSFET in the common source configuration.
These curves are plotted for both negative and positive values of gate-
to-source configuration. These curves are plotted for both negative and
positive values of gate-to-source voltage (V
GS
). The curves shown
above the curve for V
GS
is zero and negative, the MOSFET operates in
the depletion-mode. On the other hand, if V
GS
is zero and positive, the
MOSFET operates in the enhancement-mode.
IT may be noted that the drain characteristics of
depletion-type MOSFETs are similar to that of JFET. The only
difference is that JFET does not operate for positive values of gate-to-
source voltage (V
GS
).
Transfer Characteristic of Depletion-Type MOSFET

Transfer characteristics of a N channel DE MOSFET

The transfer characteristic (also called transconductance curve) for
an N-channel depletion-type MOSFET. It may be noted from this curve
that the region AB of the characteristic is similar to that of JFET. But
here, this curve extends for the positive values of gate-to-source
voltage (V
GS
) also. The value I
DSS
represents the current from drain-to-
__________________________________________________

source with V
GS
= 0. The drain current at any point along the transfer
characteristic (i.e., the curve ABC) is given by the relation,
It may be noted that even if V
GS
= 0, the device has a drain current
equal to I
DSS.
Due to this fact, it is called normally ON MOSFET.

ENHANCEMENT-TYPE MOSFET

Fig : Symbol of Enhancement type MOSFET

Enhancement type MOSFET

__________________________________________________

The enhancement-type MOSFET has no depletion mode and it
operates only in enhancement mode. It differs in construction from the
depletion-type MOSFET in the sense that it has an physical channel.
Fig
shows the basic structure of the N-channel enhancement-type
MOSFET. IT may be noted, that the P-type substrate extends the
silicon dioxide layer completely.

It shows the normal biasing polarities for the N-channel
enhancement-type MOSFET. It must be remembered that this MOSFET
is always operated with the positive gate-to-storage voltage (V
GS
).
When the gate-to-source voltage is zero, the V
DD
supply tries to force
free electrons from source-to-drain. But the presence of P-region does
not permit the electrons to pass through it. Thus there is no drain
current for V
GS
= 0. Due to this fact, the enhancement type MOSFET is
also called normally-OFF MOSFET.

Now, if some positive voltage is applied at the gate, it induces a
negative charge in the P-type substrate just adjacent to the silicon
dioxide layer. The induced negative charge is produced by attracting
the free electrons from the source. When the gate is positive enough,
it can attract a number of free electrons from the source. When the
gate is positive enough, it can attract a number of free electrons. This
forms a thin layer of electrons, which stretches from sources to drain.
This effect is equivalent to producing a thin layer of N-type channel in
the P-type substrate. This layer of free electrons is called N-type
inversion layer.
The minimum gate-to-source voltage (V
GS
), which produces
inversion layer, is called threshold voltage and is designated by the
symbol V
GS(th)
, there is no drain current. However, in actual practice,
an extremely small value of drain current .

__________________________________________________

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF E-MOSFET:

N CHANNEL E- MOSFET
When the value of V
GS
is kept above V
GS(th)
, a significant drain current
flows.
The values of drain current increases with the increase in gate-to-
source voltage., It is because of the fact that the width of inversion
layer widens for increased values of V
GS
and therefore allows more
number of free electrons to pass through it. The drain current reaches
its saturation value above a certain value of drain-to-source voltage
(V
DS
)
Handling Precautions for MOSFETs

MOSFET with protection of electricity

It has been observed that the MOSFETs get damaged easily if they
are not properly handled. The damage occurs due to the static
electricity, which ruptures the silicon dioxide layer between the gate
__________________________________________________

and channel of a MOSFET. The static electricity may result from the
sliding of a device in the plastic bag. It may also result from the
person, who picks up the device by its case and touches the gate lead
against some grounded object.
In order to protect a MOSFET from damaging, it is kept with its
terminals shorted by a ring. The ring is removed at the time of
soldering MOSFET in a circuit. The MOSFETs can also be protected by
keeping them in a conducting foam. The MOSFETs should never be
inserted or removed from the circuits with power ON.
These days some of the MOSFETs have a built-in protection against
static electricity and high voltages.
This is done by connecting a pair of zener diodes back-to-back
between the gate and source of a MOSFET. These diodes are designed
in such a way that if the gate-to-source voltage exceeds say by + 10 V
(or 10 V) typically, one of the zener diodes will conduct and the other
will breakdown. This provides a path for the excessive charge from
gate-to-source. But this protection provides a minor disadvantage that
it lowers the input resistance of the MOSFET.

IGBT FUNDAMENTALS:
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a minority-carrier device
with high input impedance and large bipolar current-carrying capability.
Many designers view IGBT as a device with MOS input characteristics and
bipolar output characteristic that is a voltage-controlled bipolar device. To
make use of the advantages of both Power MOSFET and BJT, the IGBT
has been introduced. Its a functional integration of Power MOSFET and
BJT devices in monolithic form. It combines the best attributes of both to
achieve optimal device characteristics.
The IGBT is suitable for many applications in power electronics, especially
in Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) servo and three-phase drives requiring
high dynamic range control and low noise. It also can be used in
Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Switched-Mode Power Supplies
(SMPS), and other power circuits requiring high switch epetition rates.
IGBT improves dynamic performance and efficiency and reduced the level
of audible noise. It is equally suitable in resonant-mode converter circuits.
__________________________________________________

Optimized IGBT is available for both low conduction loss and low
switching loss.

MAIN ADVANTAGES OF IGBT OVER A POWER MOSFET AND A BJT
ARE:
1. It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation
and has superior on-state current density. So smaller chip size is possible
and the cost can be reduced.
2. Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS
gate structure. It canbe easily controlled as compared to current
controlled devices (thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current
applications.
3. Wide SOA. It has superior current conduction capability compared
with the bipolar transistor. It also has excellent forward and reverse
blocking capabilities.
MAIN DRAWBACKS
1. Switching speed is inferior to that of a Power MOSFET and superior to
that of a BJT. The collector current tailing due to the minority carrier
causes the turn-off speed to be slow.
2. There is a possibility of latchup due to the internal PNPN thyristor
structure.
__________________________________________________

STATIC INDUCTION THYRISTOR (SIT):

There are several special semiconductor devices dedicated to high-
power applications. The most popular is a thyristor known as the silicon
control rectifier (SCR). This device has a four-layer structure Fig and it
can be considered as two transistors npn and pnp connected as shown in
Fig.. In a normal mode of operation (the anode has positive potential)
only one junction is reverse biased and it can be represented by
capacitance C. A spike of anode voltage can therefore get through
capacitor C and it can trigger SRC. This behavior is not acceptable in
practical application and therefore as Fig. shows a different device
structure is being used. Note that shorting the gate to the cathode by
resistor R makes it much more difficult to trigger the npn transistor by
spike of anode voltage. This way, rapid anode voltage changes are not
able to trigger a thyristor. Therefore, this structure has a very large
dV=dt parameter. At the same time, much energy is required to trigger
the thyristor with the gate signal, which is an undesirable effect and
switching on time (described by the di=dt parameter) is lengthy. Most of
the SCRs sold on the market consist of an integrated structure composed
of two or more thyristors. This structure has both large dV=dt and di=dt
parameters. This structure consists of an internal thyristor, which
significantly amplifies the gate signal. One can notice that the classical
thyristor as shown in Fig7 can be turned off by the gate voltage while the
integrated SCR shown in Figcan only be turned off by reducing anode
current to zero. Most of the SCRs sold on the market have an integrated
structure composed of two or more thyristors.
This structure has both large dV=dt and di=dt parameters.

GATE TURN-OFF THYRISTOR (GTO)

For dc operation it is important to have a thyristor that can be turned
off by the gate voltage. Such a thyristor has a structure similar to that
shown in Fig. It is important, however, to have significantly different
current gains b for pnp and npn transistors. The current gain of an npn
transistor should be as large as possible and the current gain of a pnp
transistor should be small.
__________________________________________________

The product of bnpn and bpnp should be larger than unity. This can
be easily implemented using the SI structure.

GATE TRIGGERING:
There are two methods to turn ON SCR
Forward voltage > Breakdown voltage (V
bo
)
Gate Triggering.
This gate control method is more efficient, reliable and easy to control of
AC and DC power in loads. This is the most common method of triggering.

GATE TRIGGERING METHODS:
There are three methods in gate triggering. They are
DC gate triggering.
AC gate triggering.
Pulse gate triggering.

__________________________________________________

DC GATE TRIGGERING:
It is the easiest method. By varying resistance DC voltage is
given to the SCRs gate and cathode. So the SCR gets turn ON.
ADVANTAGES:
Simple design.
Low cost.
DISADVANTAGES:
No isolation between input gate circuit and gate circuit.
More gate power loss due to continuous DC signal applied to
the gate.
AC GATE RIGGERING:
The AC source is most commonly used for the gate signal in
all applications.AC voltage is given as the gate signal. By using this
method, phase angle () of the gate signal can be changed which helps to
control the firing angle.
ADVANTAGES:
No direct connection between input circuit and gate circuit.
DISADVANTAGES:

High cost.
TYPES:
o Resistances firing (Triggering) circuit.
o Resistance capacitance firing (Triggering) circuit.

OPTO-ISOLATOR
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler,
photocoupler, or optical isolator, is "an electronic device designed to
transfer electrical signals by utilizing light waves to provide coupling with
__________________________________________________

electrical isolation between its input and output". The main purpose of an
opto-isolator is "to prevent high voltages or rapidly changing voltages on
one side of the circuit from damaging components or distorting
transmissions on the other side." Commercially available opto-isolators
withstand input-to-output voltages up to 10 kV and voltage transients
with speeds up to 10 kV/s.
An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near
infrared light-emitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal
into light, a closed optical channel (also called dielectrical channel), and a
photosensor, which detects incoming light and either generates electric
energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing from an external
power supply. The sensor can be a photoresistor, a photodiode, a
phototransistor, a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because
LEDs can sense light in addition to emitting it, construction of
symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An optocoupled solid
state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power
switch, usually a complementary pair of MOSFET transistors. A slotted
optical switch contains a source of light and a sensor, but its optical
channel is open, allowing modulation of light by external objects
obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor.
Photoresistor-based opto-isolators were introduced in the 1960s. They are
the slowest, but also the most linear isolators and still retain a niche
market in audio and music industry. Commercialization of LED technology
in 19681970 caused a boom in optoelectronics, and by the end of the
1970s the industry developed all principal types of opto-isolators. The
majority of opto-isolators on the market use bipolar silicon
phototransistor sensors.
[6]
They attain medium data transfer speed,
sufficient for applications like electroencephalography.
[7]
The fastest opto-
isolators use PIN diodes in photoconductive mode and contain electronic
circuitry for amplification, shaping and interfacing of the signal detected
by the sensor, and can attain data transfer rates of 50 MBd. Their role in
computing and communications is being challenged by new integrated
isolation devices based on microminiature transformers, capacitive
coupling or spin valves. Photodiode opto-isolators are a fast photodiode
opto-isolator with an output-side amplifier circuit. Diode opto-isolators
employ LEDs as sources of light and silicon photodiodes as sensors. When
the photodiode is reverse-biased with an external voltage source,
incoming light increases the reverse current flowing through the diode.
__________________________________________________

The diode itself does not generate energy; it modulates the flow of energy
from an external source. This mode of operation is called photoconductive
mode. Alternatively, in the absence of external bias the diode converts
the energy of light into electric energy by charging its terminals to a
voltage of up to 0.7 V. The rate of charge is proportional to the intensity
of incoming light. The energy is harvested by draining the charge through
an external high-impedance path; the ratio of current transfer can reach
0.2%. This mode of operation is called photovoltaic mode.
The fastest opto-isolators employ PIN diodes in photoconductive mode.
The response times of PIN diodes lie in the subnanosecond range; overall
system speed is limited by delays in LED output and in biasing circuitry.
To minimize these delays, fast digital opto-isolators contain their own LED
drivers and output amplifiers optimized for speed. These devices are
called full logic opto-isolators: their LEDs and sensors are fully
encapsulated within a digital logic circuit. The Hewlett-Packard
6N137/HPCL2601 family of devices equipped with internal output
amplifiers was introduced in the late 1970s and attained 10 MBd data
transfer speeds. It remained an industry standard until the introduction of
the 50 MBd Agilent Technologies 7723/0723 family in 2002.The
7723/0723 series opto-isolators contain CMOS LED drivers and a CMOS
buffered amplifiers, which require two independent external power
supplies of 5 V each.
Photodiode opto-isolators can be used for interfacing analog signals,
although their non-linearity invariably distorts the signal. A special class
of analog opto-isolators introduced by Burr-Brown uses two photodiodes
and an input-side operational amplifier to compensate for diode non-
linearity. One of two identical diodes is wired into the feedback loop of the
amplifier, which maintains overall current transfer ratio at a constant level
regardless of the non-linearity in the second (output) diode.
Solid-state relays built around MOSFET switches usually employ a
photodiode opto-isolator to drive the switch. The gate of a MOSFET
requires relatively small total charge to turn on and its leakage current in
steady state is very low. A photodiode in photovoltaic mode can generate
turn-on charge in a reasonably short time but it's output voltage is many
times less than the MOSFET's threshold voltage. To reach the required
threshold, solid-state relays contain stacks of up to thirty photodiodes
wired in series.
__________________________________________________

PHOTOTRANSISTOR OPTO-ISOLATORS
Phototransistors are inherently slower than photodiodes. The earliest and
the slowest but still common 4N35 opto-isolator, for example, has rise
and fall times of 5 s into a 100 Ohm load
[40]
and its bandwidth is limited
at around 10 kiloHertz - sufficient for applications like
electroencephalography or pulse-width motor control. Devices like PC-900
or 6N138 recommended in the original 1983 Musical Instrument Digital
Interface specification allow digital data transfer speeds of tens of
kiloBauds. Phototransistors must be properly biased and loaded to
achieve their maximum speeds, for example, the 4N28 operates at up to
50 kHz with optimum bias and less than 4 kHz without it.
Design with transistor opto-isolators requires generous allowances for
wide fluctuations of parameters found in commercially available devices.
Such fluctuations may be destructive, for example, when an opto-isolator
in the feedback loop of a DC-to-DC converter changes its transfer function
and causes spurious oscillations, or when unexpected delays in opto-
isolators cause a short circuit through one side of an H-bridge.
Manufacturers' datasheets typically list only worst-case values for critical
parameters; actual devices surpass these worst-case estimates in an
unpredictable fashion. Bob Pease observed that current transfer ratio in a
batch of 4N28's can vary from 15% to more than 100%; the datasheet
specified only a minimum of 10%. Transistor beta in the same batch can
vary from 300 to 3000, resulting in 10:1 variance in bandwidth.
Opto-isolators using field-effect transistors (FETs) as sensors are rare
and, like vactrols, can be used as remote-controlled analog
potentiometers provided that the voltage across the FET's output terminal
does not exceed a few hundred mV. Opto-FETs turn on without injecting
switching charge in the output circuit, which is particularly useful in
sample and hold circuits

UNIJUNCION TRANSISTOR (UJT)
A unijunction transistor (abbreviated as UJT) is a
three terminal silicon semiconductor device. As the name indicates, the
UJT has only one PN junction like an ordinary diode. However, it is
different from the ordinary diode in the sense that it has three terminals.
It will be interesting to know that the behavior of unijunciton transistor is
__________________________________________________

quite different from the other transistors like bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) and the field-effect transistor (FET).

BASIC CONSTRUCTION OF UJT

Unijuntion Transistor

Fig shows the schematic symbol of UJT. The basic construction of a
unijunction (UJT) as shown. It consists of an N-type silicon semiconductor
bar and a P-type silicon region. The N-type bar is called a base and the P-
type region as the emitter. Thus a PN junction is formed between the
emitter and base regions. The emitter region is heavily doped, while the
base region is lightly doped. Due to this reason, is lightly doped. Due to
this reason, the resistively of the base material is very high. Three
terminals are taken out of the whole structure one from the emitter
region and two form the ends of the base region. These terminals are
labeled as emitter (E), base 1 (B
1
) and base 2 (B
2
). It may be noted that
the emitter region is shown closer to base 2 terminals than base 1.
It may be noted that the schematic symbol of UJT is different from
that of JFET (Junction field-effect transistor). The different is that the
arrow is at some angle in the schematic symbol of UJT.
__________________________________________________

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF UJT:

UJT Equalent circuit

The equivalent circuit of a unijunction transistor (UJT). It consists of
a diode and a resistance. The diode (D) represents the PN junction, while
the resistance (r
BB
) is the internal bulk resistance of the silicon bar from
one end to the other. In other words, the resistance r
BB
represents the
total resistance between the base terminals and is called the interbase
resistance. The resistance r
BB
is represented by the sum of two separate
resistance r
B1
and r
B2
in equivalent circuit of UJT. The resistances r
B1

represents the bulk resistance between the emitter (E) and base 1 (B
1
)
whereas resistance r
B2
is the bulk resistance between the emitter (E) and
base 1 (B
1
), whereas resistance r
B2
is the bulk resistance between the
emitter (E) and base 2 (B
2
). Mathematically, the resistance
r
BB
= r
B1
+ r
B2

When there is no voltage applied to the UJT, the value of resistance,
r
BB
is typically 5 to 10k. The resistance r
B1
is shown as a variable
resistance in the UJT equivalent circuit. It is because of the fact that the
value of resistance r
B1
varies inversely with the emitter current (I
E
).
Depending upon the value of emitter current, the value of resistance r
B1

can vary typically from 4k to 40.

__________________________________________________

INTRINSIC STAND-OFF RATIO
Consider the equivalent circuit of a unijuncion
transistor (UJT) with a battery voltage V
BB
applied across its base
terminals B
1
and B
2
as shown. As the emitter is open, the applied voltage
V
BB
divides itself across resistance r
B1
and r
B2
. The voltage across the
resistance r
B1
.

r
B1
r
B1
V
1 =
---------- x V
BB
= ----------- x V
BB

r
B1
+ r
B2
r
BB

The resistance ration r
B1
/ r
BB
is an important
characteristic of unijuncion transistor. It is known as intrinsic stand-off
ratio and is designated by n. Mathematically, the intrinsic stand-off ratio,
Generally, the value of intrinsic stand-off ratio is between
0.5 to 0.8. The voltage drop across the resistance r
B1
is called intrinsic
standoff voltage. It reverse biases the emitter diode.
UJT OPERATION

Eg : UJT Equalent circuit
Consider the equivalent current of a unijuncion
transistor (UJT) with the voltage source V
EE
(connected across the emitter
and base 1 terminal) and V
BB
(connected across the base terminals B
1
and
B
2
). Hence the emitter diode (D) is reverse biased by a voltage drop
__________________________________________________

across the resistance r
B1
(whose value is equal to n . V
BB
) and its own
barrier potential (V
D
). Thus the total reverse bias voltage across a diode is
equal to the sum of n . V
BB
and V
D.

As long as the applied emitter voltage is below the total reverse
bias voltage across the diode, it remains reverse biased. And there is no
emitter current. However, as the applied emitter voltage reaches the
value equal to the diode conducts and the emitter current flows. The
value of emitter voltage, which causes the diode to conduct is called
peak-point voltage. Mathematically, the peak-point voltage,
V
P
= . V
BB
+ V
D
It is evident from the above discussion that as the emitter voltage
reaches the peak-point voltage, the diode conducts and the emitter
current begins to flow. Under this condition, the uni junction transistor is
said to be fired, triggered or turned ON. At this instant, the holes from the
P-type emitter region are injected into the base region and are swept the
electric field towards the base terminals B
1
. The presence of excess holes,
slightly reduces the resistance r
B1
which in turn reduces the intrinsic
stand-off voltage (n . V
BB
). This action is called conductivity modulation
because the conductivity of the material between the emitter and base of
terminals increases as the holes are injected into it, obviously, a
regenerative process because a smaller value of intrinsic stand-off voltage
results in a stronger forward bias across diode. Due to this, more holes
are injected and the intrinsic stand-off voltage is further reduced. As a
result of this, the emitter current increases, while the voltage at the
emitter (V
E
equal to n . V
BB
) decreases. It produces a negative resistance
region in the V-I characteristic of UJT. And the UJT switches from its OFF
position to ON position.

__________________________________________________

V-I CHARACTERISTIC OF UJT:

V-I Characteristics of UJT
Fig shows the V-I characteristic of UJT. There are two
important points on the characteristic curve namely the peak point and
the valley-point. These points divide the curve into three important
regions, i.e., cut-off region, negative resistance region and saturation
region. These regions are explained below:
1. Cut-off region. The region, to the left of peak-point, is called cut-off
region. In the region, the emitter voltage is below the peak-point
voltage (V
P
) and the emitter current is approximately zero. The UJT
is in its OFF position in this region.
2. Negative resistance region. The region, between the peak-point and
the valley-point, is called negative resistance region. In this region,
the emitter voltage decreases form V
P
to V
V
and the emitter current
increases from I
P
to I
V
. The increase in emitter current is due to the
decrease in resistance r
B1
. It is because of this fact that this region
is called negative-resistance region. IT is the most important region
form the application point of view. For example, when the UJT is
operated as an oscillator, it works in the negative-resistance region.
3. Saturation region. The region, beyond the valley point, is called
saturation region. In this region, the device is in its ON position. The
emitter voltage (V
E
) remains almost constant with the increasing
emitter current.

__________________________________________________

UJT- RELAXATION OSCILLATOR :
The simplest application of a UJT is as a relaxation oscillator, which is
defined as one in which a capacitor is charged gradually and then
discharged rapidly. The basic circuit is shown in Fig.7; in the practical
circuit of Fig.8 R3 limits the emitter current and provides a voltage pulse,
while R2 provides a measure of temperature compensation. Fig. 9 shows
the waveforms occurring at the emitter and base 1; the first is an
approximation to a saw tooth and the second is a pulse of short duration.

The operation of the circuit is as follows: C1 charges
through R1 until the voltage across it reaches the peak point. The emitter
current then rises rapidly, discharging C1 through the base 1 region and
R3. The sudden rise of current through R3 produces the voltage pulse.
When the current falls to I
V
the UJT switches off and the cycle is repeated.
UJT APPLICATIONS:
The uni junction transistor (UJT) has a number of
applications these days. But the following are important from the subject
point of view:
1. Trigger device for SCRs and TRIACs
2. Non-sinusoidal oscillators
3. Saw-tooth generators
4. Timing circuits
5. Tuning circuits

__________________________________________________

UNIT - II

CONVERTER
The circuit which converts ac supply into controlled dc supply.

TYPES

Chopper DC controlled voltage AC supply voltage
__________________________________________________

SINGLE PHASE SEMI CONVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD

In positive half cycle SCR1 and diode D2 is in forward bias. SCR2 and
dioide D1 is in reverse bias. As soon as trigger is given SCR turns on. Now
current flows from terminal A via SCR1 load (top bottom) reaches
terminal B through diode D2.
In negative half cycle SCR1 and diode D2 are in reverse bias. SCR2 and
diode D1 are forward biased. After triggering the circuit SCR2 turns on.
Now current flows from terminal B via SCR2 load (top bottom) reaches
terminal A through diode D1.

Output voltage = 1/ (1 +cos)
SINGLE PHASE FULLY CONTROL BRIDGE CONTROLLER

__________________________________________________

Positive Half Cycle SCR 1 & 4 forward bias SCR 3 & 2 reverse bias To
turn on SCR- triggering given to SCR 1& 4. Now current flows from
terminal A via SCR1 load (top bottom) reaches terminal B through SCR
4. Negative half cycle SCR 2&3 forward bias SCR 1& 4 reverse bias
Triggering is given to SCR 2& 3 to turn on SCR. Now current flows from
terminal B via SCR2 load (top bottom) reaches terminal A through SCR3
By changing the firing angle (0-180) output voltage is controlled.
SINGLE PHASE SEMICONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER WITH RL

Positive Half Cycle SCR1 and D2 forward biased, SCR2 and D1 reverse
biased, Triggering is given to SCR1 so it turns on. Now current flows from
terminal A via SCR1 load (top bottom) reaches terminal B through SCR2
Load receives full inductance. Some electrical energy is fed back to
SCR1.Sometimes when inductance is high, during the positive and
negative half cycle, SCR1 turns on, and SCR 2 turns off. To avoid this, fly
wheel is connected parallel with diode. Negative half cycle SCR2 and D1
forward biased SCR1 and D2 reverse biased Triggering is given to SCR1
so it turns on. Now current flows from terminal B via SCR2 load (top
bottom) reaches terminal A through diode D1. Load receives full
inductance which leads to some phase difference between current and
voltage. By changing the firing angle (0-180) output voltage is
controlled.

__________________________________________________

SINGLE PHASE SEMICONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER WITH
INDUCTIVE RESISTANCE

Input half cycle, SCR1 andSCR4 forward biased, SCR2 and SCR3
reverse biased, to turn SCR triggering is given to SCR1&SCR4. Now
terminal B through SCR4.so SCR turns on. Sometimes when inductance is
high, during the positive and negative half cycle, SCR1& SCR4 turns on,
and SCR 2 &3turns off. To avoid this, fly wheel is connected parallel with
diode. Negative half cycle SCR2 and 3 forward biased SCR1 &4 reverse
biased Triggering is given to SCR2&3 so it turns on. Now current flows
from terminal B via SCR2load (top bottom) reaches terminal A through
SCR3.

__________________________________________________

THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD:

INPUT & OUTPUT CHARATERISTICS OF BRIDGE CONVERTER:

Positive half cycle, SCR1 andSCR4 forward biased, SCR2 and SCR3
reverse biased, to turn SCR triggering is given to SCR1&SCR4. Now
__________________________________________________

terminal B through SCR4. Input current flows from A to B.
Negative half cycle SCR2 and 3 forward biased SCR1 &4 reverse
biased Triggering is given to SCR2&3.So it turns on. Now current flows
from terminal B via SCR2load (top bottom) reaches terminal A through
SCR3. Input current flows from B to A.
CHOPPER:
Converts fixed dc voltage into variable dc voltage. It is similar to that of
ac transformer. It is also known as DC to DC converter.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF CHOPPER

SCR is used as a switch for fast transition.
SCR is connected between input source and load
Diode is used as a fly wheel diode.
WORKING
SCR switches on after giving trigger. Input voltage is obtained across
load. There is current flow in the load causing inductor to store electrical
energy. By giving the required forced communication circuit SCR is
switched off. Due to the energy that is stored in the load, the current
flows via current fly wheel diode. Within sometime the current and
voltage becomes zero. By giving trigger again to SCR gate, the process
can be repeated.
Average output voltage V
AV
=
__________________________________________________

V
AV
=
V
AV
=
V
AV
=
Where f is called chopper frequency and T on is called duty cycle.
Using these equations, by changing chopper frequency or SCR on time
output voltage can be controlled.
DUTY CYCLE:
Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of SCR ON time to chopper period.
DUTY CYCLE =
Chopping frequency is defined as the reciprocal of chopping period.
F =
F =
VARIOUS METHOD OF CONTROL IN CHOPPER OUTPUT
There are two methods to control the chopper frequency output:
1. Constant frequency control
2. Variable frequency control
CONSTANT FREQUENCY CONTROL
In this method, the chopper output can be controlled by keeping the
frequency as a constant and varying the on time, this is also known as
pulse width modulation technique.
VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL
In this method the on time is kept constant and the frequency is varied
for controlling the chopper frequency output. This is known as frequency
modulation technique.

__________________________________________________

TYPES:

Class B class

__________________________________________________

Class C class A

Class D

__________________________________________________

Class A
Output voltage and current will be positive.
Class B
Output current is negative while voltage is positive
Class C
Output current is positive and negative voltage will be positive
Class D
Output voltage is positive and negative current will be positive
Class E
Output current is positive and negative voltage will be positive and
negative
APPLICATIONS OF CHOPPER
1. Trolley cars
2. Subway cars
3. Marine hoist
4. Mine trucks
5. Fork lift trucks

__________________________________________________

UNIT III

INVERTERS, SMPS & UPS
INVERTER:
An inverter is an electrical device that converts
direct current (DC) to (AC); the converted AC can be at any required
voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers,
switching, and control circuits.
Static inverters have no moving parts and are used
in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in
computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications
that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC
power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic
oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters
was made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to
AC.
APPLICATIONS:
DC POWER SOURCE UTILIZATION

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC
source provided in an automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2
amperes of alternating current, or enough to power two sixty watt light
bulbs.
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such
as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can
be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment
__________________________________________________

designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired
voltage.
Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the
distribution network because they produce alternating current with the
same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system.
They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.
Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar
panels into alternating current for the electric grid.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES:
An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and
an inverter to supply AC power when main power is not available. When
main power is restored, a rectifier is used to supply DC power to recharge
the batteries.
INDUCTION HEATING:
Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher
frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first
rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to
high frequency AC power.
HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION:
With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high
voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving
location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to
AC.
VARIABLE-FREQUENCY DRIVES:
A variable-frequency drive controls the operating
speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the
power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power.
In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC
power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an
inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes
called inverter drives or just inverters.
ELECTRIC VEHICLE DRIVES:
Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently
used to power the traction motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail
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vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric
highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in
inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle
applications.
[2]
In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also
takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in
the batteries.
AIR CONDITIONING:
An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-
frequency drive to control the speed of the motor and thus the
compressor.

THE GENERAL CASE:
A transformer allows AC power to be converted to
any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers
for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any
other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power
can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a
small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

Simple inverter circuit shown with an electromechanical switch
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and automatic equivalent

auto-switching device implemented with two transistors and split winding
auto-transformer in place of the mechanical switch.

Square waveform with fundamental sine wave component, 3rd harmonic and
5th harmonic
BASIC DESIGNS:
In one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer
through the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly
switched back and forth to allow current to flow back to the DC source
following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and
then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary
winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the
secondary circuit.
The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two
stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring
holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an
electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary
contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of
the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth.
This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer,
was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism
has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns.
As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and
various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated
into inverter circuit designs.

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OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:
The switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an
output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its
simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is
the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis,
periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of
sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original
waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves,
called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are
integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
The quality of the inverter output waveform can be expressed by using
the Fourier analysis data to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD).
The total harmonic distortion is the square root of the sum of the squares
of the harmonic voltages divided by the fundamental voltage:

The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends
on the characteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly
perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads
may work quite well with a square wave voltage.
ADVANCED DESIGNS:

H-bridge inverter circuit with transistor switches and anti parallel diodes
There are many different power circuit topologies and control strategies
used in inverter designs. Different design approaches address various
issues that may be more or less important depending on the way that the
inverter is intended to be used.
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The issue of waveform quality can be addressed in many ways. Capacitors
and inductors can be used to filter the waveform. If the design includes a
transformer, filtering can be applied to the primary or the secondary side
of the transformer or to both sides. Low-pass filters are applied to allow
the fundamental component of the waveform to pass to the output while
limiting the passage of the harmonic components. If the inverter is
designed to provide power at a fixed frequency, a resonant filter can be
used. For an adjustable frequency inverter, the filter must be tuned to a
frequency that is above the maximum fundamental frequency.
Since most loads contain inductance, feedback rectifiers or antiparallel
diodes are often connected across each semiconductor switch to provide a
path for the peak inductive load current when the switch is turned off. The
antiparallel diodes are somewhat similar to the freewheeling diodes used
in AC/DC converter circuits.
Fourier analysis reveals that a waveform, like a square wave, that is
antisymmetrical about the 180 degree point contains only odd harmonics,
the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. Waveforms that have steps of certain widths and
heights eliminate or cancel additional harmonics. For example, by
inserting a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections
of the square-wave, all of the harmonics that are divisible by three can be
eliminated. That leaves only the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc. The required
width of the steps is one third of the period for each of the positive and
negative steps and one sixth of the period for each of the zero-voltage
steps.
Changing the square wave as described above is an example of pulse-
width modulation (PWM). Modulating, or regulating the width of a square-
wave pulse is often used as a method of regulating or adjusting an
inverter's output voltage. When voltage control is not required, a fixed
pulse width can be selected to reduce or eliminate selected harmonics.
Harmonic elimination techniques are generally applied to the lowest
harmonics because filtering is more effective at high frequencies than at
low frequencies. Multiple pulse-width or carrier based PWM control
schemes produce waveforms that are composed of many narrow pulses.
The frequency represented by the number of narrow pulses per second is
called the switching frequency or carrier frequency. These control
schemes are often used in variable-frequency motor control inverters
because they allow a wide range of output voltage and frequency
adjustment while also improving the quality of the waveform.
Multilevel inverters provide another approach to harmonic cancellation.
Multilevel inverters provide an output waveform that exhibits multiple
steps at several voltage levels. For example, it is possible to produce a
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more sinusoidal wave by having split-rail direct current inputs at two
voltages, or positive and negative inputs with a central ground. By
connecting the inverter output terminals in sequence between the positive
rail and ground, the positive rail and the negative rail, the ground rail and
the negative rail, then both to the ground rail, a stepped waveform is
generated at the inverter output. This is an example of a three level
inverter: the two voltages and ground.
[3]

THREE PHASE INVERTERS:

3-phase inverter with wye connected load
Three-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications
and for high power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A
basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches
each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most basic
control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that
one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output
waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps.
The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and
negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are
multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based
PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall
shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic
and its multiples are cancelled.

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3-phase inverter switching circuit showing 6-step switching sequence
and waveform of voltage between terminals A and C
To construct inverters with higher power ratings, two six-step three-
phase inverters can be connected in parallel for a higher current rating or
in series for a higher voltage rating. In either case, the output waveforms
are phase shifted to obtain a 12-step waveform. If additional inverters are
combined, an 18-step inverter is obtained with three inverters etc.
Although inverters are usually combined for the purpose of achieving
increased voltage or current ratings, the quality of the waveform is
improved as well.
HISTORY
EARLY INVERTERS:
From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth
century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary
converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth
century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches
in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron.
The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term
inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC
motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's
commutator reversed its connections at exactly the right moments to
produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which
the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with
slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only one field
frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC
can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a
synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be
"mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control
equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards",
converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.
[4][5]

CONTROLLED RECTIFIER INVERTERS:
Since early transistors were not available with sufficient
voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957
introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that
initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.
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12-pulse line-commutated inverter circuit
The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key
consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate
automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off
when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding
current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external
process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs
naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs
connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced
commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is
required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation
rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation
circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits described
above.
In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC
power source to an AC power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC
controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the
inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line
commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power
transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor
control systems.
Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input
(CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source
inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is
configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter
SCRs is switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-
phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation
methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation.
With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation.
__________________________________________________

With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a
leading power factor.
As they have become available in higher voltage and current
ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned
off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching
components for use in inverter circuits.
RECTIFIER AND INVERTER PULSE NUMBERS:
Rectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that
flow to the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-
phase half-wave rectifier is a one-pulse circuit and a single-phase full-
wave rectifier is a two-pulse circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a
three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse
circuit.
[6]

With three-phase rectifiers, two or more rectifiers are sometimes
connected in series or parallel to obtain higher voltage or current ratings.
The rectifier inputs are supplied from special transformers that provide
phase shifted outputs. This has the effect of phase multiplication. Six
phases are obtained from two transformers, twelve phases from three
transformers and so on. The associated rectifier circuits are 12-pulse
rectifiers, 18-pulse rectifiers and so on.
When controlled rectifier circuits are operated in the inversion mode, they
would be classified by pulse number also. Rectifier circuits that have a
higher pulse number have reduced harmonic content in the AC input
current and reduced ripple in the DC output voltage. In the inversion
mode, circuits that have a higher pulse number have lower harmonic
content in the AC output voltage waveform.
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY:
An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power
source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus
that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source,
typically the utility mains, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or
emergency power system or standby generator in that it will provide
instantaneous or near-instantaneous protection from input power
interruptions by means of one or more attached batteries and associated
electronic circuitry for low power users, and or by means of diesel
generators and flywheels for high power users. The on-battery runtime of
most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short515 minutes
being typical for smaller unitsbut sufficient to allow time to bring an
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auxiliary power source on line, or to properly shut down the protected
equipment.
While not limited to protecting any particular type of equipment, a
UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers,
telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an
unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious
business disruption and/or data loss. UPS units range in size from units
designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around
200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data centers, buildings, or
even cities.
COMMON POWER PROBLEMS:
The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the
input power source fails. However, most UPS units are also capable in
varying degrees of correcting common utility power problems:
1. Power failure: defined as a total loss of input voltage.
2. Surge: defined as a momentary or sustained increase in the mains
voltage.
3. Sag: defined as a momentary or sustained reduction in input
voltage.
4. Spikes, defined as a brief high voltage excursion.
5. Noise, defined as a high frequency transient or oscillation, usually
injected into the line by nearby equipment.
6. Frequency instability: defined as temporary changes in the mains
frequency.
7. Harmonic distortion: defined as a departure from the ideal
sinusoidal waveform expected on the line.
UPS units are divided into categories based on which of the above
problems they address, and some manufacturers categorize their
products in accordance with the number of power related problems they
address
TECHNOLOGIES:
The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-
interactive or standby. An on-line UPS uses a "double conversion" method
of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC for passing through the
rechargeable battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to
120V/240V AC for powering the protected equipment. A line-interactive
UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current
path from the normal charging mode to supplying current when power is
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lost. In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the
input power and the backup power circuitry is only invoked when the
utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the line-interactive or
standby variety which are usually less expensive.
For large power units, dynamic uninterruptible power
supplies are sometimes used. A synchronous motor/alternator is
connected on the mains via a choke. Energy is stored in a flywheel. When
the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation maintains the power on
the load. DUPS are sometimes combined or integrated with a diesel-
generator, forming a diesel rotary uninterruptible power supply, or
DRUPS.
A fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a
fuel cell as a power source, potentially providing long run times in a small
space.

OFFLINE / STANDBY:

Offline / standby UPS. Typical protection time: 020
minutes. Capacity expansion: Usually not available
The Offline / Standby UPS (SPS) offer only the most
basic features, providing surge protection and battery backup. With this
type of UPS, a user's equipment is normally connected directly to
incoming utility power with the same voltage transient clamping devices
used in a common surge protected plug strip connected across the power
line. When the incoming utility voltage falls below a predetermined level
the SPS turns on its internal DC-AC inverter circuitry, which is powered
from an internal storage battery. The SPS then mechanically switches the
connected equipment on to its DC-AC inverter output. The switchover
time can be as long as 25 milliseconds depending on the amount of time
__________________________________________________

it takes the Standby UPS to detect the lost utility voltage. Generally
speaking, dependent on the size of UPS connected load and the sensitivity
of the connected equipment to voltage variation, the UPS will be designed
and/or offered (specification wise) to cover certain ranges of equipment,
i.e. Personal Computer, without any obvious dip or brownout to that
device.
LINE-INTERACTIVE:

Line-Interactive UPS. This illustration shows an isolated transformer,
not an autotransformer, and does not show the way that the charger and
inverter are connected to the secondary side of the same transformer.
Typical protection time: 530 minutes. Capacity expansion: Several hours
The Line-Interactive UPS is similar in operation to a Standby UPS,
but with the addition of a multi-tap variable-voltage autotransformer. This
is a special type of electrical transformer that can add or subtract
powered coils of wire, thereby increasing or decreasing the magnetic field
and the output voltage of the transformer.
This type of UPS is able to tolerate continuous undervoltage
brownouts and overvoltage surges without consuming the limited reserve
battery power. It instead compensates by automatically selecting different
power taps on the autotransformer. Depending on the design, changing
the autotransformer tap can cause a very brief output power disruption,
which may cause UPSs equipped with a power-loss alarm to "chirp" for a
moment.
This has become popular even in the cheapest UPSs because it
takes advantage of components already included. The main 50/60 Hz
transformer used to convert between line voltage and battery voltage
needs to provide two slightly different turns ratios: one to convert the
battery output voltage (typically a multiple of 12 V) to line voltage, and a
__________________________________________________

second one to convert the line voltage to a slightly higher battery
charging voltage (such as a multiple of 14 V). Further, it is easier to do
the switching on the line-voltage side of the transformer because of the
lower currents on that side.
To gain the buck/boost feature, all that is required is two
separate switches so that the AC input can be connected to one of the two
primary taps, while the load is connected to the other, thus using the
main transformer's primary windings as an autotransformer. Note that the
battery can still be charged while "bucking" an overvoltage, but while
"boosting" an under voltage, the transformer output is too low to charge
the batteries.
Autotransformers can be engineered to cover a wide range
of varying input voltages, but this requires more taps and increases
complexity, and expense of the UPS. It is common for the
autotransformer to only cover a range from about 90 V to 140 V for 120 V
power, and then switch to battery if the voltage goes much higher or
lower than that range.
In low-voltage conditions the UPS will use more current
than normal so it may need a higher current circuit than a normal device.
For example to power a 1000 watt device at 120 volts, the UPS will draw
8.32 amps. If a brownout occurs and the voltage drops to 100 volts, the
UPS will draw 10 amps to compensate. This also works in reverse, so that
in an overvoltage condition, the UPS will need fewer amps of current.
DOUBLE-CONVERSION / ONLINE:
The online UPS is ideal for environments where
electrical isolation is necessary or for equipment that is very sensitive to
power fluctuations. Although once previously reserved for very large
installations of 10 kW or more, advances in technology have permitted it
to now be available as a common consumer device, supplying 500 watts
or less. The online UPS is generally more expensive but may be necessary
when the power environment is "noisy" such as in industrial settings, for
larger equipment loads like data centers, or when operation from an
extended-run backup generator is necessary.
The basic technology of the online UPS is the same as
in a standby or Line-Interactive UPS. However it typically costs much
more, due to it having a much greater current AC-to-DC battery-
charger/rectifier, and with the rectifier and inverter designed to run
continuously with improved cooling systems. It is called a Double-
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Conversion UPS due to the rectifier directly driving the inverter, even
when powered from normal AC current.
In an online UPS, the batteries are always connected
to the inverter, so that no power transfer switches are necessary. When
power loss occurs, the rectifier simply drops out of the circuit and the
batteries keep the power steady and unchanged. When power is restored,
the rectifier resumes carrying most of the load and begins charging the
batteries, though the charging current may be limited to prevent the
high-power rectifier from overheating the batteries and boiling off the
electrolyte.
The main advantage to the on-line UPS is its ability to
provide an electrical firewall between the incoming utility power and
sensitive electronic equipment. While the standby and Line-Interactive
UPS merely filter the input utility power, the Double-Conversion UPS
provides a layer of insulation from power quality problems. It allows
control of output voltage and frequency regardless of input voltage and
frequency.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY / DOUBLE CONVERSION ON DEMAND:
Recently there have been hybrid topology UPSs
hitting the marketplace. These hybrid designs do not have an official
designation, although one name used by HP and Eaton is Double
Conversion on Demand. This style of UPS is targeted towards high
efficiency applications while still maintaining the features and protection
level offered by double conversion.
A hybrid (double conversion on demand) UPS
operates as an off-line/standby UPS when power conditions are within a
certain preset window. This allows the UPS to achieve very high efficiency
ratings. When the power conditions fluctuate outside of the predefined
windows, the UPS switches to online/double conversion operation. In
double conversion mode the UPS can adjust for voltage variations without
having to use battery power, can filter out line noise and control
frequency. Examples of this hybrid/double conversion on demand UPS
design are the HP R8000, HP R12000, HP RP12000/3 and the Eaton Blade
UPS.
Ferro-resonant units operate in the same way as a
standby UPS unit however they are online with the exception that a ferro-
resonant transformer is used to filter the output. This transformer is
designed to hold energy long enough to cover the time between switching
from line power to battery power and effectively eliminates the transfer
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time. Many ferro-resonant UPSs are 8288% efficient (AC/DC-AC) and
offer excellent isolation.
The transformer has three windings, one for ordinary
mains power, the second for rectified battery power, and the third for
output AC power to the load.
This used to be the dominant type of UPS and is
limited to around the 150 kVA range. These units are still mainly used in
some industrial settings (Oil and Gas, Petrochemical, Chemical, Utility,
and Heavy Industry markets) due to the robust nature of the UPS. Many
ferro-resonant UPSs utilizing controlled ferro technology may not interact
with power-factor-correcting equipment.
DC POWER
A UPS designed for powering DC equipment is very
similar to an online UPS, except that it does not need an output inverter,
and often the powered device does not need a power supply. Rather than
converting AC to DC to charge batteries, then DC to AC to power the
external device, and then back to DC inside the powered device, some
equipment accepts DC power directly and allows one or more conversion
steps to be eliminated. This equipment is more commonly known as a
rectifier.
Many systems used in telecommunications use 48 V DC
power, because it is not considered a high-voltage by most electrical
codes and is exempt from many safety regulations, such as being
installed in conduit and junction boxes. DC has typically been the
dominant power source for telecommunications, and AC has typically
been the dominant source for computers and servers.
There has been much experimentation with 48 V DC power
for computer servers, in the hope of reducing the likelihood of failure and
the cost of equipment. However, to supply the same amount of power,
the current must be greater than an equivalent 120 V or 240 V circuit,
and greater current requires larger conductors and/or more energy to be
lost as heat.
High voltage DC (380 V) is finding use in some data
center applications, and allows for small power conductors, but is subject
to the more complex electrical code rules for safe containment of high
voltages.
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Most switched-mode power supply (SMPS) power supplies
for PCs can handle 325 V DC (230 V mains voltage 2) directly,
because the first thing they do to the AC input is rectify it. This does
cause unbalanced heating in the input rectifier stage as the full load
passes through only half of it, but that is not generally a significant
problem. (Power supplies with a 115/230 V switch operate as a voltage
doubler when in the 115 V position, which does require AC power, but the
voltage doubler configuration also uses only half the rectifier, so it is
certain to be able to handle the unbalance when operated from DC in the
230 V position.)
ROTARY:
A Rotary UPS uses the inertia of a high-mass spinning
flywheel (Flywheel energy storage) to provide short-term ride-through in
the event of power loss. The flywheel also acts as a buffer against power
spikes and sags, since such short-term power events are not able to
appreciably affect the rotational speed of the high-mass flywheel. It is
also one of the oldest designs, predating vacuum tubes and integrated
circuits.
It can be considered to be on line since it spins
continuously under normal conditions. However, unlike a battery-based
UPS, flywheel based UPS systems typically provide 10 to 20 seconds of
protection before the flywheel has slowed and power output stops. It is
traditionally used in conjunction with standby diesel generators, providing
backup power only for the brief period of time the engine needs to start
running and stabilize its output.
The Rotary UPS is generally reserved for applications
needing more than 10,000 watts of protection, to justify the expense and
benefit from the advantages rotary UPS systems bring. A larger flywheel
or multiple flywheels operating in parallel will increase the reserve
running time or capacity.
Because the flywheels are a mechanical power source, it is
not necessary to use an electric motor or generator as an intermediary
between it and a diesel engine designed to provide emergency power. By
using a transmission gearbox, the rotational inertia of the flywheel can be
used to directly start up a diesel engine, and once running, the diesel
engine can be used to directly spin the flywheel. Multiple flywheels can
likewise be connected in parallel through mechanical countershafts,
without the need for separate motors and generators for each flywheel.
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They are normally designed to provide very high current
output compared to a purely electronic UPS, and are better able to
provide inrush current for inductive loads such as motor startup or
compressor loads, as well as medical MRI and cath lab equipment. It is
also able to tolerate short-circuit conditions up to 17 times larger than an
electronic UPS, permitting one device to blow a fuse and fail while other
devices still continue to be powered from the Rotary UPS.
Its life cycle is usually far greater than a purely electronic
UPS, up to 30 years or more. But they do require periodic downtime for
mechanical maintenance, such as ball bearing replacement. In larger
systems redundancy of the system ensures the availability of processes
during this maintenance. Battery-based designs do not require downtime
if the batteries can be hot-swapped, which is usually the case for larger
units. Newer Rotary units use technologies such as Magnetic bearings and
air-evacuated enclosures to increase standby efficiency and reduce
maintenance to very low levels.
Typically, the high-mass flywheel is used in conjunction with a motor-
generator system. These units can be configured as:
1. A motor driving a mechanically connected generator,
2. A combined synchronous motor and generator wound in alternating
slots of a single rotor and stator,
3. A hybrid rotary UPS, designed similar to an online UPS, except that
it uses the flywheel in place of batteries. The rectifier drives a motor
to spin the flywheel, while a generator uses the flywheel to power
the inverter.
In case #3 the motor generator can be
synchronous/synchronous or induction/synchronous. The motor side of
the unit in case #2 and #3 can be driven directly by an AC power source
(typically when in inverter bypass), a 6-step double-conversion motor
drive, or a 6 pulse inverter. Case #1 uses an integrated flywheel as a
short-term energy source instead of batteries to allow time for external,
electrically coupled gensets to start and be brought online. Case #2 and
#3 can use batteries or a free-standing electrically coupled flywheel as
the short-term energy source.
APPLICATIONS:
N+1
In large business environments where reliability is of
great importance, a single huge UPS can also be a single point of failure
__________________________________________________

that can disrupt many other systems. To provide greater reliability,
multiple smaller UPS modules and batteries can be integrated together to
provide redundant power protection equivalent to one very large UPS.
"N+1" means that if the load can be supplied by N modules, the
installation will contain N+1 modules. In this way, failure of one module
will not impact system operation.
MULTIPLE REDUNDANCIES:
Many computer servers offer the option of redundant
power supplies, so that in the event of one power supply failing, one or
more other power supplies are able to power the load. This is a critical
point - each power supply must be able to power the entire server by
itself.
Redundancy is further enhanced by plugging each power
supply into a different circuit (i.e. to a different circuit breaker).
Redundant protection can be extended further yet by
connecting each power supply to its own UPS. This provides double
protection from both a power supply failure and a UPS failure, so that
continued operation is assured. This configuration is also referred to as 2N
redundancy. If the budget does not allow for two identical UPS units then
it is common practice to plug one power supply into mains power and the
other into the UPS.
Outdoor use
When a UPS system is placed outdoors, it should have
some specific features that guarantee that it can tolerate weather with a
'minimal to none' effect on performance. Factors such as temperature,
humidity, rain, and snow among others should be considered by the
manufacturer when designing an outdoor UPS system. Operating
temperature ranges for outdoor UPS systems could be around 40 C to
+55 C.
Outdoor UPS systems can be pole, ground (pedestal), or
host mounted. Outdoor environment could mean extreme cold, in which
case the outdoor UPS system should include a battery heater mat, or
extreme heat, in which case the outdoor UPS system should include a fan
system or an air conditioning system.

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INTERNAL SYSTEMS:
UPS systems can be designed to be placed inside a
computer chassis. There are two types of internal UPS. The first type is a
miniaturized regular UPS that is made small enough to fit into a 5.25-inch
CD-ROM slot bay of a regular computer chassis. The other type are re-
engineered switching power supplies that utilize dual power sources of AC
and/or DC as power inputs and have an AC/DC built-in switching
management control units.
MACHINE STANDARDS:
MEASURING EFFICIENCY:
The way efficiency is measured varies massively in
the UPS market, and there are a number of reasons for this. Many UPS
manufacturers claim to have the highest level of efficiency, often using
different sets of criteria in order to reach these figures. The industry norm
can be argued to be anything between 93%-96% when a UPS is in full
operational mode, and to reach these figures companies often put their
UPS in an ideal scenario. Efficiency figures on site are often much closer
to the 90% mark, due to varying power conditions. The perfect scenario
will never happen in reality, due to ongoing voltage sags from the mains
and the declining efficiency of UPS batteries.
WARRANTY:
Warranty on uninterruptible power supplies has varied
over the past couple of years, often depending if a machine is Single
Phase or Three Phase. Few companies compete on warranty, with the
focus mainly on efficiency and maintenance contracts. The standard
manufacturers warranty is anything between 12 years and can even be
limited to certain aspects of the machine, often excluding the more
expensive items such as battery replacement. Focusing on one market,
companies supplying Three Phase however now offer lengthier warranties,
with the norm closer to 2 years rather than the single year.
DIFFICULTIES FACED WITH GENERATOR USE:
FREQUENCY VARIATIONS:
The voltage and frequency of the power
produced by a generator depends on the engine speed. The speed is
controlled by a system called a governor. Some governors are
mechanical, and some are electronic. The job of the governor is to keep
the voltage and frequency constant, while the load on the generator
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changes. This may pose a problem where, for example, the startup surge
of an elevator can cause short "blips" in the frequency of the generator or
the output voltage, thus affecting all other devices powered by the
generator. Many radio transmission sites will have backup diesel
generators in the case of amplitude modulation (AM) radio transmitters,
the load presented by the transmitters changes in line with the signal
level. This leads to the scenario where the generator is constantly trying
to correct the output voltage and frequency as the load changes.
It is possible for a UPS unit to be incompatible with
a generator or a poor mains supply; in the event that its designers had
written the microprocessor code to require exactly a 50.0 Hz (or 60.0 Hz)
supply frequency in order to operate; with this condition not met the UPS
could remain on battery power, being unable to reconnect the unsuitable
supply voltage.
This problem of input frequency requirements should
not be an issue through the use of a Double Conversion / online UPS. A
UPS of this topology should be able to adapt to any input frequency, using
its own internal clock source to generate the required 50 or 60 Hz supply
frequency.
POWER FACTOR:
A problem in the combination of a "double conversion"
UPS and a generator is the voltage distortion created by the UPS. The
input of a double conversion UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current
drawn by the UPS is non-sinusoidal. This causes the voltage from the
generator also to become non-sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can
cause problems in all electrical equipment connected to the generator,
including the UPS itself. This level of "noise" is measured as a percentage
of "Total Harmonic Distortion of the current" (THD(i)). Classic UPS
rectifiers have a THD(i) level of around 2530%. To prevent voltage
distortion, this requires generators more than twice as big as the UPS.
There are several solutions to reduce the THD(i) in a double conversion
UPS:
PASSIVE POWER FACTOR CORRECTION:
(Passive PFC) Classic solutions such as passive filters
reduce THD(i) to 5-10% at full load. They are reliable, but big and only
work at full load, and present their own problems when used in tandem
with generators.
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An alternative solution is an active filter. Through
the use of such a device, THD(i) can drop to 5% over the full power
range. The newest technology in double conversion UPS units is a rectifier
that doesn't use classic rectifier components (Thyristors and Diodes) but
high frequency components (IGBTs). A double conversion UPS with an
IGBT rectifier can have a THD(i) as small as 2%. This completely
eliminates the need to oversize the generator (and transformers), without
additional filters, investment cost, losses, or space.

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UNIT IV

PLC AND PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION:
PRINCIPLESOFOPERATION:

A programmable controller, as illustrated in Figure consists of two basic
sections:

The central processing unit (CPU) governs all PLC activities. The following
three components, shown in Figure, form the CPU:
The Processor
The Memory System
The System Power Supply

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OPERATION:

The operation of a programmable controller is relatively
simple. The input/output (I/O) system is physically connected to the field
devices that are encountered in the machine or that are used in the
control of a process. These field devices may be discrete or analog
input/output devices, such as limit switches, pressure transducers, push
buttons, motor starters, solenoids, etc. The I/O interfaces provide the
connection between the CPU and the information providers (inputs) and
controllable devices (outputs).
During its operation, the CPU completes three processes:
(1) it reads, or accepts, the input data from the field devices via the input
interfaces, (2) it executes, or performs, the control program stored in the
memory system, and (3) it writes, or updates, the output devices via the
output interfaces. This process of sequentially reading the inputs,
executing the program in memory, and updating the outputs is known as
scanning.

INPUT / OUTPUT:
Incoming signals from sensors (e.g., push
buttons, limit switches, analog sensors, selector switches, and
thumbwheel switches) are wired to terminals on the input interfaces.
Devices that will be controlled, like motor starters, solenoid valves, pilot
lights, and position valves, are connected to the terminals of the output
interfaces.
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POWER SUPPLY:
The system power supply provides all the voltages
required for the proper operation of the various central processing unit
sections. The processor sequentially reads the inputs, execute the
program in memory, and update the outputs.
MEMORY:
The memory is used to store the user program.
PROGRAMMING DEVICES:
Although not generally considered a part of the controller,
the programming device, usually a personal computer or a manufacturers
mini programmer unit, is required to enter the control program into
memory. The programming device must be connected to the controller
when entering or monitoring the control program.

How the PLC Operates:
Application Environment
Panel
Inputs and Outputs to be Controlled
Logic
Ladder Program
Scan Cycle

The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors
Corporation specified the design criteria for the first programmable
controller in 1968. Their primary goal was to eliminate the high costs
associated with inflexible, relay-controlled systems. The specifications
required a solid-state system with computer flexibility able to
a. Survive in an industrial environment.
b. Be easily programmed and maintained by plant engineers and
technicians
c. Be reusable.

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THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF PLCl:
The first programmable controllers were more
or less just relay replacers. Their primary function was to perform the
sequential operations that were previously implemented with relays.
These operations included ON/OFF control of machines and processes that
required repetitive operations, such as transfer lines and grinding and
boring machines. However, these programmable controllers were a vast
improvement over relays. They were easily installed, used considerably
less space and energy, had diagnostic indicators that aided
troubleshooting, and unlike relays, were reusable if a project was
scrapped

Todays Programmable Controllers
Many technological advances in the programmable controller
industry continue today.
Faster scan times are being achieved using new, advanced micro-
processor and electronic technology.
High-density input/output (I/O) systems provide space-efficient
interfaces at low cost.
Intelligent, microprocessor-based I/O interfaces have expanded
distributed processing. Typical interfaces include PID (proportional-
integral derivative), Network, CAN bus, field bus, ASCII communication,
positioning, host computer, and language modules (e.g., BASIC, Pascal).
Mechanical design improvements have included rugged
input/output enclosures and input/output systems that have made the
terminal an integral unit. Special interfaces have allowed certain devices
to be connected directly to the controller. Typical interfaces include
thermocouples, strain gauges, and fast-response inputs.
The Power Supply
CPU
The Input System
The Output System
Memory
System Bus
Communication Components
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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC:

PARTS OF PLC:

INNER PARTS OF PLC:

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A programmable logic controller (PLC)
or programmable controller is a computer used
for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of
machinery on factory assembly lines, amusement rides, or lighting
fixtures. PLCs are used in many industries and machines. Unlike general-
purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple inputs and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical
noise, and resistance to vibration and impact. Programs to control
machine operation are typically stored in battery-backed or non-volatile
memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results
must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time,
otherwise unintended operation will result.The PLC was invented in
response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing
industry. Programmable logic controllers were initially adopted by the
automotive industry where software revision replaced the re-wiring of
hard-wired control panels when production models changed.
Before the PLC, control, sequencing, and safety interlock
logic for manufacturing automobiles was accomplished using hundreds or
thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum sequencers and dedicated
closed-loop controllers. The process for updating such facilities for the
yearly model change-over was very time consuming and expensive,
as electricians needed to individually rewire each and every relay.
DEVELOPMNT:
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic
systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic", which strongly
resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic. This program notation was
chosen to reduce training demands for the existing technicians. Other
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early PLCs used a form of instruction list programming, based on a stack-
based logic solver.
Modern PLCs can be programmed in a variety of
ways, from ladder logic to more traditional programming languages such
as BASIC and C. Another method is State Logic, a very high-level
programming language designed to program PLCs based on state
transition diagrams.
Many early PLCs did not have accompanying
programming terminals that were capable of graphical representation of
the logic, and so the logic was instead represented as a series of logic
expressions in some version of Boolean format, similar to Boolean
algebra. As programming terminals evolved, it became more common for
ladder logic to be used, for the aforementioned reasons. Newer formats
such as State Logic and Function Block (which is similar to the way logic is
depicted when using digital integrated logic circuits) exist, but they are
still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that PLCs
solve the logic in a predictable and repeating sequence, and ladder logic
allows the programmer (the person writing the logic) to see any issues
with the timing of the logic sequence more easily than would be possible
in other formats.
PROGRAMMING:
Early PLCs, up to the mid-1980s, were programmed using
proprietary programming panels or special-purpose
programming terminals, which often had dedicated function keys
representing the various logical elements of PLC programs. Programs
were stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and
documentation were very minimal due to lack of memory capacity. The
very oldest PLCs used non-volatile magnetic core memory.More recently;
PLCs are programmed using application software on personal computers.
The computer is connected to the PLC through Ethernet, RS-232, RS-
485 or RS-422 cabling. The programming software allows entry and
editing of the ladder-style logic. Generally the software provides functions
for debugging and troubleshooting the PLC software, for example, by
highlighting portions of the logic to show current status during operation
or via simulation. The software will upload and download the PLC
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program, for backup and restoration purposes. In some models of
programmable controller, the program is transferred from a personal
computer to the PLC though a programming which writes the program
into a removable chip such as an EEPROM or EPROM.
FUNCTIONALITY:
The functionality of the PLC has evolved over the
years to include sequential relay control, motion control, process
control, distributed control systems and networking. The data handling,
storage, processing power and communication capabilities of some
modern PLCs are approximately equivalent to desktop computers. PLC-
like programming combined with remote I/O hardware, allow a general-
purpose desktop computer to overlap some PLCs in certain applications.
Regarding the practicality of these desktop computer based logic
controllers, it is important to note that they have not been generally
accepted in heavy industry because the desktop computers run on less
stable operating systems than do PLCs, and because the desktop
computer hardware is typically not designed to the same levels of
tolerance to temperature, humidity, vibration, and longevity as the
processors used in PLCs. In addition to the hardware limitations of
desktop based logic, operating systems such as Windows do not lend
themselves to deterministic logic execution, with the result that the logic
may not always respond to changes in logic state or input status with the
extreme consistency in timing as is expected from PLCs. Still, such
desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as
laboratory automation and use in small facilities where the application is
less demanding and critical, because they are generally much less
expensive than PLCs.
In more recent years, small products called PLRs (programmable logic
relays), and also by similar names, have become more common and
accepted. These are very much like PLCs, and are used in light industry
where only a few points of I/O (i.e. a few signals coming in from the real
world and a few going out) are involved, and low cost is desired. These
small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by
several manufacturers, and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill
out their low end product range. Popular names include PICO Controller,
NANO PLC, and other names implying very small controllers. Most of
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these have between 8 and 12 digital inputs, 4 and 8 digital outputs, and
up to 2 analog inputs. Size is usually about 4" wide, 3" high, and 3" deep.
Most such devices include a tiny postage stamp sized LCD screen for
viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program
being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these
screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more
separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote
control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug
for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that
programmers can use simple Windows applications for programming
instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this
purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly
expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their
price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC and they still offer
robust design and deterministic execution of the logic.
USER INTERFACE:
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of
configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control.
A Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is employed for this
purpose. HMIs are also referred to as MMIs (Man Machine Interface) and
GUIs (Graphical User Interface).
A simple system may use buttons and lights to interact with
the user. Text displays are available as well as graphical touch screens.
More complex systems use a programming and monitoring software
installed on a computer, with the PLC connected via a communication
interface.
PROGRAMMING:
PLC programs are typically written in a special application
on a personal computer, then downloaded by a direct-connection cable or
over a network to the PLC. The program is stored in the PLC either in
battery-backed-up RAM or some other non-volatile flash memory. Often,
a single PLC can be programmed to replace thousands of relays.
Under the IEC 61131-3 standard, PLCs can be
programmed using standards-based programming languages. A graphical
programming notation called Sequential Function Charts is available on
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certain programmable controllers. Initially most PLCs utilized Ladder Logic
Diagram Programming, a model which emulated electromechanical control
panel devices (such as the contact and coils of relays) which PLCs
replaced. This model remains common today.
IEC 61131-3 currently defines five programming languages
for programmable control systems: FBD (Function block diagram), LD
(Ladder diagram), ST (Structured text, similar to the Pascal programming
language), IL (Instruction list, similar to assembly language) and SFC
(Sequential function chart). These techniques emphasize logical
organization of operations.
While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming are common to all
manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing, memory organization and
instruction sets mean that PLC programs are never perfectly
interchangeable between different makers. Even within the same product
line of a single manufacturer, different models may not be directly
compatible.
DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNALS:
Digital or discrete signals behave as binary
switches, yielding simply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or False,
respectively). Push buttons, limit switches, and photoelectric sensors are
examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discrete signals are sent
using voltage or current, where a specific range is designated as on and
another as off. For example, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values
above 22 V DC representing on, values below 2VDC representing off, and
intermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had only discrete I/O.
Analog signals are like volume controls, with a
range of values between zero and full-scale. These are typically
interpreted as integer values (counts) by the PLC, with various ranges of
accuracy depending on the device and the number of bits available to
store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signed binary processors, the
integer values are limited between -32,768 and +32,767. Pressure,
temperature, flow, and weight are often represented by analog signals.
Analog signals can use voltage or current with a magnitude proportional
to the value of the process signal. For example, an analog 0 - 10 V input
or 4-20 mA would be converted into an integer value of 0 - 32767.
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Current inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise
(i.e. from welders or electric motor starts) than voltage inputs.
EXAMPLE:
As an example, say a facility needs to store water
in a tank. The water is drawn from the tank by another system, as
needed, and our example system must manage the water level in the
tank.
Using only digital signals, the PLC has two digital
inputs from float switches (Low Level and High Level). When the water
level is above the switch it closes a contact and passes a signal to an
input. The PLC uses a digital output to open and close the inlet valve into
the tank.
When the water level drops enough so that the
Low Level float switch is off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let
more water in. Once the water level rises enough so that the High Level
switch is on (up), the PLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from
overflowing. This rung is an example of seal-in (latching) logic. The
output is sealed in until some condition breaks the circuit.
| |
| Low Level High Level Fill Valve |
|------[/]------|------[/]----------------------(OUT)---------|
| | |
| | |
| | |
| Fill Valve | |
|------[ ]------| |
| |
| |
An analog system might use a water pressure sensor or a load cell, and
an adjustable (throttling) dripping out of the tank, the valve adjusts to
slowly drip water back into the tank.
In this system, to avoid 'flutter' adjustments that can wear out the valve,
many PLCs incorporate "hysteresis" which essentially creates a dead
band of activity? A technician adjusts this dead band so the valve moves
__________________________________________________

only for a significant change in rate. This will in turn minimize the motion
of the valve, and reduce its wear.
A real system might combine approaches, using float switches and simple
valves to prevent spills, and a rate sensor and rate valve to optimize refill
rates and prevent water hammer. Backup and maintenance methods
can make a real system very complicated.

DIGITAL INPUTS:
Many types of digital input signals from switch closures relay contacts, or
TTL-compatible interfaces can be read directly by digital I/O cards (Figure 2-
1). Other types of inputs may require some signal conditioning, most likely
to reduce higher-level voltage changes to TTL levels. A variety of signal
conditioning modules are available to provide isolation and other digital
Condition

The most common type of digital input is the contact closure (Figure 2-2).
Essentially a sensor or switch of some type closes or opens a set of contacts
in accordance with some process change. An applied electrical signal then
determines whether the circuit is open or closed. Current flows if the circuit
is closed, registering a "1" in a transistor at the computer interface.
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Conversely, an open circuit retains a high voltage (and no current),
registering a "0" at the transistor. Another type of digital input useful in
data acquisition applications is the hardware trigger. This allows an external
event-a high reactor temperature, perhaps, or a low tank level-to control
data collection. If during routine operation data is only being acquired for
archival storage on a once-per-second basis, a hardware trigger can be used
to boost the data acquisition rate during an upset until normal conditions
are restored.

DIGITALOUTPUTS:
At its simplest, a digital output provides a means of turning
something on or off. Applications range from driving a relay to turning on an
indicator lamp to transmitting data to another computer. For latching
outputs, a "1" typically causes the associated switch or relay to latch, while
a "0" causes the switch to unlatch. Devices can be turned on or off,
depending on whether the external contacts are normally open or normally
closed.
Standard TTL level signals can be used to drive 5-V relay
coils; a protective diode is used to protect the digital output circuitry (Figure
2-3). Because data acquisition boards can typically supply only 24 mA of
driving current, they are intended primarily to drive other logic circuits, not
final control elements. Scaling may be needed so that logical voltage levels
are sufficient to cause switching in larger relays. Outputs intended to drive
larger solenoids, contactors, motors, or alarms also may require a boost.
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PULSEI/O:
A somewhat separate class of digital I/O is pulse
inputs and outputs, which typically is associated with frequency, counting,
or totalization applications. Pulse inputs might be used to count the
rotations of a turbine flow meter; pulse outputs might be used to drive a
stepping motor.
Pulse inputs are handled in much the same way as digital logic
inputs, but the output of the sensing circuit is normally connected to a
counter rather than a specific bit position in the input register. Successive
pulses increment or decrement the counter. Add an elapsed time measure
and a frequency or pulse rate can readily be determined. Similar to an
analog-to-digital converter, a counter is characterized by its number of bits-
an N-bit counter can accumulate up to 2N discrete events. Thus, a 16-bit
counter can count to 216 = 65,536.

APPLICATIONS:

Micro PLCs
Small PLCs
Medium PLCs
Large PLCs
Very large PLCs
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Micro PLCs are used in applications controlling up to 32 input and output
devices, 20 or less I/O being the norm. The micros are followed by the
small PLC category, which controls 32 to 128 I/O. The medium (64 to
1024 I/O), large (512 to 4096 I/O), and very large (2048 to 8192 I/O)
PLCs complete the segmentation. Figure 1-14 shows several PLCs that fall
into this category classification.

The A, B, and C overlapping areas in Figure 1-13 reflect enhancements,
by adding options, of the standard features of the PLCs within a particular
segment. These options allow a product to be closely matched to the
application without having to purchase the next larger unit. Differences
between PLCs in overlapping areas. These differences include I/O count,
memory size, programming language, software functions, and other
factors. An understanding of the PLC product ranges and their
characteristics will allow the user to properly identify the controller that
will satisfy a particular application.
A Very Simple Application
Controlling a Light Bulb
Water Tank Control Application
Chemical Mixer Application
A Packing Machine Application

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RELAY OUTPUTS:
Higher current carrying capacity. Can be used with
wide voltage levels and any polarity. For example, you can use DC 24V,
DC 180V, AC 230V etc. The relay's contacts are electrically isolated from
the PLC.
Relay outputs switch slowly - it will take some 50
to 100 milliseconds for a relay to change stage. This is due to the time
required to magnetize the relay's coil and pull the relay's poles. While
turning off, the relay coil has to demagnetize and the spring pushes /
pulls the poles open.
If the load being switched does not require high
speeds, as is the case with most industrial loads, relays are well suited for
the job. Example of such loads are motor contactors, lights, most
solenoids etc. For loads that need high frequency switching, relays
are not suitable.
Relays have limited electrical life -. This makes it
unsuitable for loads that have very high switching factor. For example,
certain solenoid coils may have to be switched 50 to 60 times per minute.
PROGRAMMING A PLC:
Ladder logic is the main programming method
used for PLC's. The first PLC was programmed with a technique that was
based on relay logic wiring schematics. This eliminated the need to teach
the electricians, technicians and engineers how to program - so this
programming method has stuck and it is the most common technique for
programming in today's PLC.
PART OF A LADDER DIAGRAM:
Ladder logic is a programming language that
represents a program by a graphical diagram based on the circuit
diagrams of relay-based logic hardware. It is primarily used to develop
software for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) used in industrial
control applications. The name is based on the observation.
For example:
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1. ----[ ]---------|--[ ]--|------( )
X | Y | S
| |
|--[ ]--|
Z
The above realizes the function: S = X AND (Y OR Z)
Typically, complex ladder logic is 'read' left to right and top to bottom. As
each of the lines (or rungs) are evaluated the output coil of a rung may
feed into the next stage of the ladder as an input. In a complex system
there will be many "rungs" on a ladder, which are numbered in order of
evaluation.
1. ----[ ]-----------|---[ ]---|----( )
X | Y | S
| |
|---[ ]---|
Z
2. ----[ ]----[ ]-------------------( )
S X T
2. T = S AND X where S is equivalent to #1. Above
This represents a slightly more complex system for rung 2. After the first
line has been evaluated, the output coil (S) is fed into rung 2, which is
then evaluated and the output coil T could be fed into an output device
(buzzer, light etc..) or into rung 3 on the ladder. (Note that the contact X
on the second rung serves no useful purpose, as X is already defined in
the 'AND' function of S from the 1st rung.)

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UNIT V

CNC
NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINES:
Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation. It is a
machine tool which is controlled by prepared program and of series of
number. The program contains coded alphanumeric data. These programs
are prepared by a part programmer.

BASIC COMPONENTS:

It posses three basic components:
A program instruction unit.
A machine control unit.
Processing equipment.
Three program of instruction is the step by step command. This gives the
actions to be carried out by the equipments to complete the process. The
persons who prepares the program is called part programmer. In its most
common form, the commands refer to position of machine tool spindle
with respect to the worktable.

Program machine control unit
Processing equipment
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The Machine Control Unit (MCU) consists of micro-computer and related
hardware. They store the program of instructions. They convert each
command into mechanical actions of the machine tool. They include
punched tape, magnetic tape reader floppy disk drive.
The MCU also includes control systems software, calculation algorithms
and translation software. The processing equipment performs the useful
work. It is performs the machine operations. Its operation is directed by
the MCU.

ADVANTAGES:
Production rate is large.
Production time is low.
Consistent accuracy and absence of human error.
Reduced inspection.
Possible to produce a complicated shape.
Scrap is less.
DISADVANTAGES:

High cost.
Maintenance is complicated.
Trained persons are required.
Preparation time is more.

CHARACTERISTICS OF NC MACHINE:

Less manual work.
More accuracy.
Medium flexible.
Medium production rate.
Less wastage.
Simulation is possible.

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APPLICATIONS:
It is used in drilling machines.
It is also used in turning, milling and metal working.
Used in press working, welding machines, tube working.
DRIVING DEVICE:
The tape reader reads the program. The instructions are
in the form of holes in the punched tape. These are converted into proper
control signals. These signals are in the digital form. There are 3 kinds of
drives.
Stepper motor.
D.C Motor.
Hydraulic systems.

HYDRAULIC DRIVE YSTEM
A hydraulic drive system is a drive or transmission
system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to drive hydraulic machinery.
The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow and
pressure, not from the kinetic energy of the flow.
A hydraulic drive system consists of three parts:
The generator (e.g. a hydraulic pump), driven by an electric
motor, a combustion engine or a windmill); valves, filters, piping
etc. (to guide and control the system); the motor (e.g. a hydraulic
motor or hydraulic cylinder) to drive the machinery

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PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Principle of hydraulic drive system
Pascal's law is the basis of hydraulic drive systems. As
the pressure in the system is the same, the force that the fluid gives to
the surroundings is therefore equal to pressure x area. In such a way, a
small piston feels a small force and a large piston feels a large force. The
same principle applies for a swept volume that asks for a small torque,
combined with a hydraulic motor with a large swept volume that gives a
large torque. In such a way a transmission with a certain ratio can be
built
Most hydraulic drive systems make use of hydraulic
cylinders. Here the same principle is used- a small torque can be
transmitted in to a large force.

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PNEUMATICS:
Pneumatics is a branch of technology, which
deals with the study and application of use of pressurized gas to affect
mechanical motion.Pneumatic systems are extensively used in industry,
where factories are commonly plumbed with compressed air or other
compressed inert gases. This is because a centrally-located and
electrically-powered compressor that powers cylinders and other
pneumatic devices through solenoid valves is often able to provide motive
power in a cheaper, safer, more flexible, and more reliable way than a
large number of electric motors and actuators.
APPLICATIONS:
Dentistry.
Construction.
Mining.
COMPARISON:
Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluid
power. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible gas such as air or a
suitable pure gas, while hydraulics uses relatively incompressible liquid
media such as oil. Most industrial pneumatic applications use pressures of
about 80 to 100 pounds per square inch (550 to 690 kPa). Hydraulics
applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi (6.9 to 34 MPa), but
specialized applications may exceed 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
STEPPER MOTOR:
As the name implies, stepper motors are different
from run-of-the-mill DC motors, in that you make them move by sending
them phased pulses of current, making the motor move in "steps." In
order to do this, you need to send pulse trains of varying polarity to
multiple windings, the speed of the motor being determined by the
frequency of the pulses, and the direction of motor motion being
determined by the phasing between the pulses being applied to the
various windings. As a result, you get more-precise control over motor
motion (vs. DC motors), but at the cost of some control circuitry
complexity.
A number of types of stepper motors are available.
As some are more common than others, I'll briefly discuss the ones you'll
be most likely to run across, and most likely to be used in BEAM bots.
__________________________________________________

UNIPOLAR OPERATION:

Unipolar stepper motors generally have six
leads, in two triplets, each triplet powering one coil with a center tap. On
occasion, you'll find a unipolar stepper with only five leads -- here the two
"common" leads (center taps) have been tied together internally. Note
that a unipolar motor's rotor is identical to a bipolar motor's rotor. Often
unipolar motors are controlled by using the center taps as a common
point (cathode or anode), and then just switching drive voltage from one
end of the given coil to the other (to reverse coil polarity). This avoids the
need for an H-bridge or similar motor driver. You can also drive unipolar
stepper motors in a bipolar fashion (i.e. by just ignoring the center taps).
If you have no data on a given unipolar motor, you will need to work a bit
to find which leads correspond to each winding. Using an ohmmeter, look
for pairs of leads with equal resistance between them -- the common of
each triplet will have equal resistance to two other leads and high
(essentially infinite) resistance to all the leads in the other triplet.
OPEN-LOOP VERSUS CLOSED-LOOP COMMUTATION
Steppers are generally commutated open loop,
i.e. the driver has no feedback on where the rotor actually is. Stepper
motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the
load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no
possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system
designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive
servomechanism system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position
feedback (e.g. an encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be
made optimal for torque generation according to actual rotor position.
This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo
motor, with exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An
__________________________________________________

advance on this technique is to normally run the motor in open loop
mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes
too large this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a
common servo problem.

Programmed I/P

Load
DATA PROCESSING:
In NC machine the program is punched on the tape. The tape
is feed to the DPU. There are four sections:
Data reader.
Memory.
Decoder.
Distributor.

The data reader senses the hole and convert into binary signals and then
it store it in memory unit. Then these binary signals are decoded as per
each block by decoder and distributed to the CLU through distributor
circuit. This all four sectors are consists of digital circuit. From CLU the
driving system is activated and it controls the machine tool.

Computer

Logic driver

Stepper
motor
__________________________________________________

PART PROGRAMMING:
NC machine is controlled by numeric program and this
program is called as part programming.

TYPES:
Manual part programming
Computer aided part programming

MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING:
Before writing a program, the program should collect the
details>
They are
Shape of the work piece.
Nature of the work piece.
Surface of the work piece.
Dimensions of the shape.
Selection of the tool.
Tool movement directions
Spindle speed
Feed rate and auxiliary functions.
From this data the programmer can prepare a manual script.

S.No

Preparatory
function

X

Y

Z

Radius

Spindle
speed

Feed
rate

Tool
No

Using this tabular column the programmer prepares a numerical coded
program.
__________________________________________________

COMPUTER AIDED PROGRAMMER:

If the complex parts to be machined, the part programmer
were unable it to do efficiently, then the computer has to done the
programming. Also it should eliminate the calculation errors. The
language of program must be very easy to write and understand it.

COMPUTER AIDED LANGUAGES:
APT:
Automatic programmed tools.
It is very easy and most popularly used language.
ADAPT:
It is automatically selected cutting tool speed and feed.

AUTOSPOT:
It is used for drilling position operation.

APT LANGUAGE:
It is the most popular language.APT means Automatic
programmed tools. In this language, 300 English words are used and the
instructions are classified into four types.

1. GEOMETRIC EXPRESSION:
This statements are used to define the shape of
the object. Shapes are represented by English words like POINT, CIRCLE,
CYCLINDER, LINE etc.

EX:
PTI = POINT / 20, 30.
CI = CIRCLE / PTI.
__________________________________________________

2. MOTION STATEMENT:
This statements are used to represent the
movement of the machine tools.
EX:
GOTO / PTI.
GOLFT, GORGT, GOFWD, GOBWD.

3. POST POCESSOR STATEMENT:
These statements are used to represent the speed
and feed rate of the tools.
EX:
SPINDLE / 1200, FEED / 10.

4. AUXILLARY STATEMENT:
These statements are used to represent
thesupporting functions.
EX:
COOLANT OFF
COOLANT ON
PART NO
FINI
TOOL DIMENSION / 2 INCH etc...,

__________________________________________________

POST PROCESSOR ELEMENTS:
Using APT language programmer writes a program.
Then this program is converted into numerical codes by means of post
processors element.

APT LANGUAGE

INPUT ELEMENT:
The APT is feed to the input element. This element read
the data and checks it. If any fault, then the data print out.

INPUT
OUTPUT
ELEMENT

CONTROL

AUXILLARY

MOTION
__________________________________________________

MOTION ELEMENT:
This element is very important. This section motion
statement is verified and gives to the output element.
AUXILLARY ELEMENT:
In this element the auxiliary statements are read and
verified it and it is send to the output.
OUTPUT ELEMENT:
In this element all the instructions are converted into
numerical code and then the codes are punched in tape. If we want to
take the printed form then it can be list to the numerical codes.
CONTROL ELEMENT:
This element controls all the sections properly and with
equal timings.

DIRECT NUMERICAL CONTROL (DNC)

Direct numerical control (DNC), also known as
distributed numerical control (also DNC), is a common manufacturing
term for networking CNC machine tools. On some CNC machine
controllers, the available memory is too small to contain the machining
program (for example machining complex surfaces), so in this case the
program is stored in a separate computer and sent directly to the
machine, one block at a time. If the computer is connected to a number
of machines it can distribute programs to different machines as required.
Usually, the manufacturer of the control provides suitable DNC software.
However, if this provision is not possible, some software companies
provide DNC applications that fulfill the purpose. DNC networking or DNC
communication is always required when CAM programs are to run on
some CNC machine control

Bulk memory
__________________________________________________

Telecommunication
Lines

Machine tools

ADVANTAGES:
Timing sharing.
Remote computer location
Elimination of tape and tape reader for improved
reliability.

__________________________________________________

INTERFACING OF CNC MACHINES:
An interface is usually an electronic device that is
designed to communicate with the computer of the CNC unit.
Typical interfaces and storages media are:
Tape reader and tape puncher
Data cassettes.
Data cards
Bubble cassettes.
Floppy disks.
Hard (fixed) disks.
Removable devices.
ROM devices and so on.

PROGRAMMONG OF CNC:
Code Description
Milling
( M )
Turning
( T )
Corollary info
G00
Rapid
positioning
M T
On 2- or 3-axis moves, G00 (unlike G01)
does not necessarily move in a single
straight line between start point and end
point. It moves each axis at its max
speed until its vector is achieved.
Shorter vector usually finishes first
(given similar axis speeds).
G01
Linear
interpolation
M T
The most common workhorse code for
feeding during a cut. The program specs
the start and end points, and the control
automatically calculates (interpolates)
the intermediate points to pass through
that will yield a straight line (hence
"linear"). The control then calculates the
angular velocities at which to turn the
axis leads crews. The computer performs
thousands of calculations per second.

__________________________________________________

G12
Full-circle
interpolation,
clockwise
M
Fixed cycle for ease of programming 360
circular interpolation with blend-radius
lead-in and lead-out. Not standard on
Fanuc controls.
G13
Full-circle
interpolation,
counterclockwise
M
Fixed cycle for ease of programming 360
circular interpolation with blend-radius
lead-in and lead-out. Not standard on
Fanuc controls.
G17 XY plane selection M
G81 Simple drilling cycle M
No dwell built in

G98
Feed rate per minute
(group type A)

T
(A)
Feed rate per minute is G94 on group type
B.
G99
Return to R level in
canned cycle
M
G99
Feed rate per
revolution (group
type A)

T
(A)
Feed rate per revolution is G95 on group
type B.

M CODES:
Code Description
Milling
( M )
Turning
( T )
Corollary info
M00 Compulsory stop M T
Non-optionalmachine will
always stop upon reaching M00
in the program execution.
M01 Optional stop M T
Machine will only stop at M01 if
operator has pushed the
optional stop button.
__________________________________________________

M02 End of program M T
No return to program top; may
or may not reset register
values.
M03
Spindle on
(clockwise
rotation)
M T
M04
Spindle on
(counterclockwise
rotation)
M T
M60
Automatic pallet
change (APC)
M
For machining centers with
pallet changers
M98 Subprogram call M T
Takes an address P to specify
which subprogram to call, for
example, "M98 P8979" calls
subprogram O8979.
M99 Subprogram end M T
Usually placed at end of
subprogram, where it returns
execution control to the main
program. The default is that
control returns to the block
following the M98 call in the
main program. Return to a
different block number can be
specified by a P address. M99
can also be used in main
program with block skip for
endless loop of main program
on bar work on lathes (until
operator toggles block skip).

__________________________________________________

Example program

Tool Path for program
This is a generic program that demonstrates the use of G-Code to turn a
1" diameter X 1" long part. Assume that a bar of material is in the
machine and that the bar is slightly oversized in length and diameter and
that the bar protrudes by more than 1" from the face of the chuck.
(Caution: This is generic, it might not work on any real machine! Pay
particular attention to point 5 below.)
Sample
Line Code Description
O4968 (Sample face and turn program)
N01 M216 (Turn on load monitor)
N02
G20 G90
G54 G40
(Inch units. Absolute mode. Call work offset values.
Cancel any existing tool radius offset.)
N03
G50
S2000
(Set maximum spindle speed rev/min - preparing for
G96 CSS coming soon)
N04 M01 (Optional stop)
N05 T0300 (Index turret to tool 3. Clear wear offset (00).)
N06
G96 S854
M42 M03
M08
(Constant surface speed [automatically varies the
spindle speed], 854 sfm, select spindle gear, start
spindle CW rotation, turn on the coolant flood)
__________________________________________________

N07
G41 G00
X1.1 Z1.1
T0303
(Call tool radius offset. Call tool wear offset. Rapid feed
to a point about 0.100" from the end of the bar [not
counting 0.005" or 0.006" that the bar-pull-and-stop
sequence is set up to leave as a stock allowance for
facing off] and 0.050" from the side)

N08
G01 Z1.0
F.05
(Feed in horizontally until the tool is standing 1" from the
datum i.e. program Z-zero)
N09 X-0.002
(Feed down until the tool is slightly past center, thus
facing the end of the bar)
N10 G00 Z1.1
(Rapid feed 0.1" away from the end of the bar - clear the
part)
N11 X1.0
(Rapid feed up until the tool is standing at the finished
OD)
N12
G01 Z0.0
F.05
(Feed in horizontally cutting the bar to 1" diameter all
the way to the datum, feeding at 0.050" per revolution)
N13
G00 X1.1
M05 M09
(Clear the part, stop the spindle, turn off the coolant)
N14
G91 G28
X0
(Home X axis - return to machine X-zero passing through
no intermediate X point [incremental X0])
N15
G91 G28
Z0
(Home Z axis - return to machine Z-zero passing through
no intermediate Z point [incremental Z0])
N16 G90 M215 (Return to absolute mode. Turn off load monitor)
N17 M30 (Program stop, rewind to beginning of program)

__________________________________________________

ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM:
The adaptive control A/C system is a logical extension of
the numerical control and computer.
In NC machine, the program consists of speed rate;
feed rate and x y, z co-ordinates points and the NC machine operate
automatically. The datas are not changed in program. But due to some
reasons some error occurs in work pieces

They are
a. Tool wear.
b. Air gap.
c. Non-homogenous material.
d. Hardness of work piece.

So in this situation the speed and feed rate are
changed automatically by adaptive control system and eliminate the
error.
The variation of the machine tools are sensed by sensor
and it is converted into digital by ADC and then feed to the adaptive
control system. The A/C system changes the speed rate, feed rate and x,
y, a co-ordinates according to the variation of machine tools.

TYPES:
Adaptive control with optimization (ACO)
Adaptive control with constrains (ACC)

__________________________________________________

ADAPTIVE CONTROL WITH OPTIMIZATION (ACO)
Using this method we get maximum tool
force and production rate is very large.

ADAPTIVE CONTROL WITH CONSTRAINS (ACC)
Based on the performance index and the cost of
the tool the program is changed. In this method production rate is very
small.

ROBITICS:
A robot is a programmable multi-functional manipulator. It
means forced worker. They are designed to move material, parts, and
tools using programmed motions.

NC SYSTEM

A/C SYSTEM

ADC

SERVO DRIVE

MACHINE
TOOL

__________________________________________________

THREE LAWS:
Robots should obey three laws:
They should harm a human being.
They should obey the instructions given by humans.
They should protect themselves from harm.

IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS:
They can be substituted for human.
They can work in uncomfortable environments.
They can work continuously which human cannot.
They can be reprogrammed to do different works
They can be controlled by computers.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS:

PARTS OF ROBOT:

(a) MANIPULATOR:
According to
level
Types of
control
Capability
Mobility
1
st
generation
2
nd
generation
Point to point
Continuous point
Adaptive robot
Sequence controlled
Mobile robots
Fixed robots
__________________________________________________

This part is just like human base. It consists of base,
arm, wrist, link, joint and internal sensor. Using joints the body gets
movement.
(b) END EFFECTOR:
It is the finger part of the robot. Using these end
effectors, the robot picks the object.
(c) SENSOR:
According to the circumstance the work nature of the
robot is changed automatically by means of sensor devices.
(d) CONTROLLER:
The action of the robot is controlled by micro controller
and the program is stored in memory.

(e)ENERGY SOURCE:
Robot is worked with help of driving system. The energy
of driving system gets energy sources. Depending upon the application
and load range the energy may be electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
APPLICATIONS:
Material handling, machine loading and unloading.
Modern electric sheep wool clipper.
Used in spot welding, arc welding and spray painting.
Handling of textiles in textiles mills.
Fruit harvesting machines mounted on tractors.
Walking robots are useful in terrain areas.

ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST ALL THE BEST

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