4.

4 Indeterminism and Libertarianism

At least some human actions are independent and that freedom of choice is a genuine
possibility, at least in certain circumstances
whichever option you choose, there is the conviction that you could have chosen
otherwise
indeterminists leave open the possibility that undetermined actions are simply random,
while libertarians are convinced that people are able to make genuinely free choices by
exercising their free wills
We Live in a World of Possibilities: James
William James
the testimony of our direct, lived experience provides the most compelling grounds for
free will, providing there are no sufficiently persuasive intellectual arguments to convince
us otherwise
the fact that most humans live their lives based on the assumption that personal freedom
and responsibility are valid concepts is a compelling reason for believing in the reality of
these concepts
example: religion: most religions require that individuals have the ability to choose freely
in determining their spiritual destiny. In the absence of freedom, religion becomes
irrelevant.
James' philosophical point: if free will genuinely exists, then the exercise of it is the
strongest evidence for its existence. "I believe that I am able to make free choices." This
primal affirmation is itself the ground for believing that your statement is true. The
testimony of your direct, lived experience confirms its validity.
Two ways of viewing the universe:
1. Determinist view: a universe in which no other possibilities exist other than those
that occur. If the events of the universe were a story, there is one way and one
way only that this story could ever be told.
2. Indeterminist view: a universe of possibilities in which no matter what events
have occurred in the past, there are still multiple possibilities in the future. If the
events of the universe were a story, the past has been written, but we will not be
able to write the future until it occurs because we need to see which of the
multitude of possibilities become actualities.
How can we tell which is the real one? Facts won't help because facts can't tell us
anything about possibilities.
James wants us to fully appreciate the implications of a deterministic world, and he does
this by analyzing our "judgments of regret." The desire that events might have occurred
differently or might have had other, more desirable, outcomes.
Determinism, James concludes, fails miserably in explaining the beliefs and convictions
of our lived experience, and it is also a perspective that is ultimately self-contradictory
and not rational in any meaningful human sense.
We Create Ourselves Through Our Choices: Sartre
considered as chief exponent of modern existentialism, a philosophical movement that
emphasizes the challenge and responsibility of all people to create a meaningful existence
through the free choices they make
in seeking meaning, we cannot look outward to a supernatural creator or an intelligible
universe: We must look inward, to our own resources and possibilities
Sartre's view of freedom is extreme: We are "condemned" to be totally free, a radical
view of freedom that makes us completely responsible for who we are.
Humans are very different from "paper-cutter" (see example, page 172). When humans
imagine existence as being the product of God's creation, Sartre believes they are
mistakenly using the letter-opener metaphysics to understand human creation.
All of these "essence precedes existence" views of human existence are, according to
Sartre, irretrievably flawed and confused.
For Sartre, an accurate view of human experience is based on the principle "existence
preceded essence."













8.1 Your Moral Compass
Ethics and Values
Ethics is the study of values that govern our moral character and our relationships with
other people. Ethical concepts include right and wrong, good and bad, just and unjust, fair
and unfair, responsible and irresponsible.
Value is the general term we use to characterize anything that possess intrinsic worth,
that we prize, esteem, and regard highly, based on clearly defined standards.
Axiology: refers to the study of value or quality.

9.1 Expanding Your Knowledge of Moral Philosophy
Character: Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics: the ethical theory that focuses on the moral quality of individuals rather than their
actions
Aristotle: virtue ethics is the cultivation of a virtuous character that is the goal of ethics,
to become a virtuous person. The assumption is that genuinely virtuous people will act in
morally principled ways as natural expression of their moral goodness. And these moral
actions will in turn strengthen their virtuous nature.
Your moral character refers to the integrated totality of your moral traits and dispositions,
the ways in which you habitually respond when confronted with moral choices. Your
character typically displays consistency and coherence because it has been created
gradually, inscribed over the totality of your life. This doesn't mean that you can't change.
Aristotle believes we need to understand the true nature of human "happiness."
Happiness for Aristotle, is expressed in the Greek word eudaemonia, which means
"Actively exercising your soul's powers." It means that achieving happiness necessarily
involves fulfilling your distinctive function as a human being, living your life in
accordance with reason and virtue.
"Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with complete or perfect virtue."
Two categories of virtue:
1. Intellectual: developed via teaching and practice over time. For example, that is
the express purpose of your education, to stimulate and guide you to develop a
basic framework of knowledge, as well as the sophisticated thinking and language
abilities needed to communicate and use this knowledge in productive ways.
2. Moral: include qualities such as being temperate, just, courageous, compassionate
etc. Also develop over time, but mainly developed through consistent and
ongoing practice.
For Aristotle, a virtuous life -- the way we ought to live -- involves a balanced and
harmonious integration of the various behaviors, values, emotions and attitudes, in
accordance with the Golden Mean (the desirable middle between two extremes, one of
excess and the other of deficiency). But all virtues are not equal, according to Aristotle.
The most virtuous life is one devoted to intellectual reflection and contemplation and it is
this life that leads to the greatest possible human happiness.