Comics

For other uses, see Comic (disambiguation).

Comics is a visual medium used to express ideas via
images, often combined with text or visual informa-
tion. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed
sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices
such as speech balloons, captions, and sound eects
("onomatopoeia") indicate dialogue, narration, or other
information. Elements such as size and arrangement of
panels control narrative pacing. Cartooning and similar
forms of illustration are the most common image-making
means in comics; fumetti is a form which uses photo-
graphic images. Common forms of comics include comic
strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since
the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic nov-
els, comics albums, and tankbon have become increas-
ingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated.
The history of comics has followed divergent paths in dif-
ferent cultures. Some scholars have posited a pre-history
as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-
20th century, comics ourished particularly in the US,
western Europe (particularly France and Belgium), and
Japan. European comics traces its history to Rodolphe
Tper's cartoon strips of the 1830s, and became pop-
ular following the 1920s success of strips such as The
Adventures of Tintin. American comics emerged as a
mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent
of newspaper comic strips; magazine-style comic books
followed in the 1930s. Japanese comics and cartooning
(manga) traces its history to the 13th century. Modern
comic strips emerged in Japan in the early 20th-century
in imitation of Western strips, and by the 1930s comics
magazines and book collections became common. The
post-World War II era saw the popularity of cartoonists
such as Osamu Tezuka lead to rapid expansion of the pop-
ularity of comics in Japan.
Comics has had a lowbrow reputation for much of its
history, but towards the end of the 20th century began
to nd greater acceptance with the public and within
academia. The English term comics derives from the
humorous (or comic) work which predominated in early
American newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has
become standard also for non-humorous works. It is com-
mon in English to refer to the comics of dierent cul-
tures by the terms used in their original languages, such
as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes dessines for
French-language comics. There is no consensus amongst
theorists and historians on a denition of comics; some
emphasize the combination of images and text, some se-
quentiality or other image relations, and others historical
aspects such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring
characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts
from dierent comics cultures and eras has further made
dening the medium dicult.
1 Origins and traditions
Main articles: History of comics and List of comics by
country
Early examples of comics
Manga
Hokusai, early 19th century
Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame
Rodolphe Tper, 1830

Der Virtuos
Wilhelm Busch, 1865
Ally Sloper
Charles H. Ross, 1867
The Yellow Kid
R. F. Outcault, 1898
The European, American and Japanese comics tradi-
tions have followed dierent paths.
*
[1] Europeans have
seen their tradition as beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe
Tper
*
[2] (from 1827 on) and the German Wilhelm
Busch (from 1858 on), while Americans have seen the
origin of their tradition in Richard F. Outcault's 1890s
newspaper strip The Yellow Kid, though many Ameri-
cans have come to recognize Tper's precedence.
*
[3]
Japanese comics had a long prehistory of satirical car-
toons and comics leading up to the World War II era.
Manga, the Japanese termfor comics and cartooning, was
rst popularized by the artist Hokusai in the early 19th
century.
*
[4]
It is in the post-war era modern Japanese comics be-
gan to ourish, when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolic
body of work.
*
[5] Towards the close of the 20th century,
these three traditions have converged in a trend towards
book-length comics: the comics album in Europe, the
tankbon
*
[lower-alpha 1] in Japan, and the graphic novel
in the English-speaking countries.
*
[1]
1
2 1 ORIGINS AND TRADITIONS
Outside of these direct genealogies, comics theorists
and historians have seen precedents for comics in the
Lascaux cave paintings in France (some of which ap-
pear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian
hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,
*
[6] the 11th-
century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,
*
[7] the 1370 bois Pro-
tat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block
books, Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine
Chapel,
*
[6] and William Hogarth's 17th-century sequen-
tial engravings,
*
[8] amongst others.
*
[6]
*
[lower-alpha 2]
Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a
precursor to comics.
1.1 English-language comics
Main articles: History of American comics and
American comic book
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-
century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived
The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825. The most popu-
lar was Punch,
*
[10] which popularized the term car-
toonfor its humorous caricatures.
*
[11] On occasion the
cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences;
*
[10]
Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized comic strip
when the popular character was granted a weekly maga-
zine in 1884.
*
[12]
Bud Fisher's Mutt and Je (19071982) was the rst
successful daily comic strip (1907).
American comics developed out of such magazines as
Puck, Life, and Judge. The success of illustrated hu-
mour supplements in the New York World and later the
New York American particularly Outcault's The Yellow
Kid led to the development of newspaper comic strips
*
[13] Early Sunday strips were full-page
*
[14] and often
in color. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experi-
mented with sequentiality, movement, and speech bal-
loons.
*
[15] Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to
appear early in the 20th century, and became established
in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's
Mutt and Je. Humour strips predominated at rst, and
in the 1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in
genres such as adventure and drama also became popu-
lar.
*
[16] Thin periodicals called comic books appeared
in the 1930s, at rst reprinting newspaper comic strips;
by the end of the decade, original content began to dom-
inate.
*
[17] The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its
lead hero Superman marked the beginning of the Golden
Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was
prominent.
*
[18]
Superheroes have been a staple of American comic books
(Wonderworld Comics #3, 1939; cover: The Flame by Will Eis-
ner).
The popularity of superhero comic books declined fol-
lowing World War II,
*
[19] while comic book sales con-
tinued to increase as genres such as romance, westerns,
crime, horror, and humour proliferated.
*
[20] Following a
sales peak in the early 1950s, the content of comic books
(particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny
from parent groups and government agencies, which cul-
minated in Senate hearings that led to the establishment
of the Comics Code Authority self-censorship body. The
Code has been blamed for stunting the growth of Amer-
ican comics and maintaining its low status in American
1.3 Japanese comics 3
society for much of the remainder of the century. Su-
perheroes reestablished themselves as the primary comic
book genre by the early 1960s. Underground comix chal-
lenged the Code and readers with adult, countercultural
content in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
*
[21] The un-
derground gave birth to the alternative comics movement
in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content
in non-superhero genres.
*
[22]
Comics in the US has had a lowbrowreputation stemming
from its roots in mass culture; cultural elites sometimes
saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In
the latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won
greater acceptance, and the lines between highand
lowculture began to blur. Comics, however, continued
to be stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertain-
ment for children and illiterates.
*
[23]
The graphic novelbook-length comicsbegan to gain
attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his
book AContract with God (1978).
*
[24] The termbecame
widely known with the public after the commercial suc-
cess of Maus, Watchmen, and The Dark Knight Returns in
the mid-1980s.
*
[25] The 21st century saw graphic novels
become established in mainstream bookstores
*
[26] and
libraries,
*
[27] and webcomics became common.
*
[28]
1.2 Franco-Belgian and European comics
Main articles: European comics and Franco-Belgian
comics
The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Tper produced
French writer Ren Goscinny (left) and Belgian artist Morris
(right), reading albums of their best known works: Asterix and
Lucky Luke
comic strips beginning in 1827,
*
[6] and published the-
ories behind the form.
*
[29] The German Wilhelm Busch
created comics from 1858 on, and was a source for fu-
ture generations of comic artists. The Katzenjammer
Kids was inspired by Busch's Max und Moritz. Car-
toons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from
the 19th century.
*
[30] The success of Zig et Puce in
1925 popularized the use of speech balloons in Euro-
pean comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began
to dominate.
*
[31] The Adventures of Tintin, with its sig-
nature clear line style,
*
[32] was rst serialized in news-
paper comics supplements
*
[33] beginning in 1929, and
became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.
*
[34]
Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (1934
44),
*
[35] dedicated comics magazines
*
[36] and full-
colour comics albums became the primary outlet for
comics in the mid-20th century.
*
[37] As in the US, at the
time comics were seen as infantile and a threat to culture
and literacy; commentators stated that none bear up to
the slightest serious analysis,
*
[lower-alpha 3] and that
comics were the sabotage of all art and all literature
.
*
[39]
*
[lower-alpha 4]
In the 1960s, the termbandes dessines (drawn strips)
came into wide use in French to denote the medium.
*
[40]
Cartoonists began creating comics for mature audi-
ences,
*
[41] and the term Ninth Art
*
[lower-alpha 5]
was coined, as comics began to attract public and aca-
demic attention as an artform.
*
[42] Creators such as Ren
Goscinny and Jean Giraud (a.k.a. Mbius) pub-
lished their work in magazines such as Pilote (1959
89) and Mtal Hurlant (197487). Towards the end of
the 20th century, serialization became less common as
the number of comics magazines decreased, and many
comics began to be published directly as comics albums.
Smaller publishers such as L'Association
*
[43] that pub-
lished longer works
*
[44] in non-traditional formats
*
[45]
by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the
1990s, mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while
smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued
to grow despite the trend towards a shrinking print mar-
ket.
*
[46]
1.3 Japanese comics
Main article: History of manga
Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),
*
[lower-alpha
7] have a history that has been seen as far back
as the anthropomorphic characters in the 13th-century
Template:Tranl, 17th-century toba-e and kibyshi picture
books,
*
[50] and woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which
were popular between the 17th and 20th centuries. The
kibyshi contained examples of sequential images, move-
ment lines,
*
[51] and sound eects.
*
[52]
Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced
Western-style satirical cartoons to Japan in the late 19th
century. New publications in both the Western and
Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the
1890s, American-style newspaper comics supplements
began to appear,
*
[53] as well as some American comic
strips.
*
[50] 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in
the Jiji Shinp newspaper the rst use of the word
mangain its modern sense,
*
[49] and where, in 1902,
Rakuten Kitazawa began the rst modern Japanese comic
strip.
*
[54] By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in
large-circulation monthly girls' and boys' magazine, and
4 2 FORMS AND FORMATS
Rakuten Kitazawa's created the rst modern Japanese comic
strip. (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tky Kenbutsu,
*
[lower-alpha
6] 1902)
collected into hardback volumes.
*
[55]
The modern era of comics in Japan began after World
War II, propelled by the success of the serialized comics
of the prolic Osamu Tezuka,
*
[56] and the comic strip
Sazae-san.
*
[57] Genres and audiences diversied over the
following decades,
*
[58] with comics aimed at shnen (
boys) and shjo ( girls) audiences making up the most
signicant markets. Comics are usually rst serialized in
magazines which are often hundreds of pages thick and
may over a dozen stories;
*
[59] they are later compiled
in tankbon-format books.
*
[60] At the turn of the 20th
and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed material
in Japan was comics.
*
[61] translations became extremely
popular in foreign marketsin some cases equalling or
surpassing the sales of domestic comics.
*
[62]
2 Forms and formats
Comic strips are generally short, multi-panel comics that
traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In
American comic strips, daily strips have normally occu-
pied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given
multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily strips were
typically in black-and-white, while Sundays were usually
in colour and often occupied a full page.
Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in
dierent cultures. Comic books, primarily an Ameri-
can format, are thin periodicals
*
[63] usually published
in colour.
*
[64] European and Japanese comics are fre-
quently serialized in magazinesmonthly or weekly in
Europe,
*
[49] and usually black-and-white and weekly in
Japan.
*
[65] Japanese comics magazine typically run to
hundreds of pages.
*
[66]
A comparison of book formats for comics around the
world. The left group is from Japan, and shows the
tankbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in
the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics are in the
standard A4-size comic album format. The right group
of graphic novels is from English-speaking countries,
where there is no standard format.
Book-length comics take dierent forms in dierent cul-
tures. European comics albums are most commonly
printed in A4-size
*
[67] colour volumes.
*
[37] In English-
speaking countries, bound volumes of comics are called
graphic novels, and are available in various formats. De-
spite incorporating the term novela term normally
associated with ction"graphic novelalso refers to
non-ction and collections of short works.
*
[68] Japanese
comics are collected in volumes called tankbon follow-
ing magazine serialization.
*
[69]
Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single
panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon.
Denitions of comics which emphasize sequence usually
exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel cartoons;
they can be included in denitions that emphasize the
combination of word and image.
*
[70] Gag cartoons rst
began to proliferate in broadsheets published in Europe
in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the term cartoon
*
[lower-alpha 8] was rst used to describe them in 1843
in the British humour magazine Punch.
*
[11]
Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet.
They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers
usually can access archived instalments.
*
[71] Webcomics
can make use of an innite canvasmeaning they are not
constrained by size or dimensions of a page.
*
[72]
5
Some consider storyboards
*
[73] and wordless novels to
be comics.
*
[74] Filmstudios, especially in animation, of-
ten use sequences of images as guides for lm sequences.
These storyboards are not intended as an end product,
and are rarely seen by the public.
*
[73] Wordless novels
are books which use sequences of captionless images to
deliver a narrative, normally one image to a page.
3 Comics studies
Main article: Comics studies
Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes
two-legged and sometimes y and sometimes don't ...
to employ a metaphor as mixed as the medium itself,
dening comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted enigma
wrapped in a mystery ...
R. C. Harvey, 2001
*
[70]
Similar to the problems of dening literature and
lm,
*
[75] no consensus has been reached on a denition
of the comics medium,
*
[76] and attempted denitions
and descriptions have fallen prey to numerous excep-
tions.
*
[77] Theorists such as Tper,
*
[78] R. C. Harvey,
Will Eisner,
*
[79] David Carrier,
*
[80] Alain Rey,
*
[76]
and Lawrence Grove emphasize the combination of text
and images,
*
[81] though there are prominent examples
of pantomime comics throughout its history.
*
[77] Other
critics, such as Thierry Groensteen
*
[81] and Scott Mc-
Cloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of im-
ages.
*
[82] Towards the close of the 20th century, dier-
ent cultures' discoveries of each other's comics traditions,
the rediscovery of forgotten early comics forms, and the
rise of new forms made dening comics a more compli-
cated task.
*
[83]
European comics studies began with Tper's theories
of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel
transitions and the visualverbal combination. No further
progress was made until the 1970s.
*
[84] Pierre Fresnault-
Deruelle then took a semiotics approach to the study of
comics, analyzing textimage relations, page-level image
relations, and image discontinuities, or what Scott Mc-
Cloud later dubbedclosure.
*
[85] In 1987, Henri Van-
lier introduced the term multicadre, or multiframe,
to refer to the comics a page as a semantic unit.
*
[86] By
the 1990s, theorists such as Benot Peeters and Thierry
Goensteen turned attention to artists' poetic creative
choices.
*
[85] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have
held relativistic views of the denition of comics, a
medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over
its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littra-
tures dessines" (or drawn literatures).
*
[83] French
theory has come to give special attention to the page, in
distinction from American theories such as McCloud's
which focus on panel-to-panel transitions.
*
[86] Since the
mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing how comics
are understood using tools from cognitive science, ex-
tending beyond theory by using actual psychological and
neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that se-
quential images and page layouts both use separate rule-
boundgrammarsto be understood that extend beyond
panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of
types of layouts, and that the brain's comprehension of
comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such
as language and music.
*
[87]
The rst historical overview of Japanese comics was
Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi
*
[lower-alpha 9] in
1924.
*
[88] Early post-war Japanese criticism was mostly
of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publica-
tion for Tomofusa Kure's Modern Manga: The Com-
plete Picture,
*
[lower-alpha 10] which de-emphasized pol-
itics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and
a grammarof comics. The eld of manga studies
increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject
appearing in the 1990s.
*
[89] Formal theories of manga
have focused on developing a manga expression the-
ory,
*
[lower-alpha 11] with emphasis on spatial rela-
tionships in the structure of images on the page, distin-
guishing the medium from lm or literature, in which the
owof time is the basic organizing element.
*
[90] Comics
studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities,
and Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics
(ja)
*
[lower-alpha 12] was established in 2001 to promote
comics scholarship.
*
[91]
Will Eisner (left) and Scott McCloud have proposed
inuential and controversial denitions of comics.
Coulton Waugh attempted the rst comprehensive his-
tory of American comics with The Comics (1947).
*
[92]
Will Eisner's Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott
McCloud's Understanding Comics (1993) were early at-
tempts in English to formalize the study of comics. David
Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the rst
full-length treatment of comics from a philosophical per-
6 4 VOCABULARY AND IDIOMS
spective.
*
[93] Prominent American attempts at deni-
tions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and Har-
vey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as
the arrangement of pictures or images and words to nar-
rate a story or dramatize an idea";
*
[94] Scott McCloud
dened comics juxtaposed pictorial and other images
in deliberate sequence, intended to convey information
and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer
,
*
[95] a strictly formal denition which detached comics
from its historical and cultural trappings.
*
[96] R. C. Har-
vey dened comics aspictorial narratives or expositions
in which words (often lettered into the picture area within
speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the
pictures and vice versa.
*
[97] Each denition has had
its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's denition as ex-
cluding single-panel cartoons,
*
[98] and objected to Mc-
Cloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting the
essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of
verbal content.
*
[86] Aaron Meskin sawMcCloud's the-
ories as an articial attempt to legitimize the place of
comics in art history.
*
[79]
Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the
great dierence in meaning and scope of the words
for comicsin dierent languages.
*
[99] The French
term for comics, bandes dessines (drawn strip) em-
phasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a den-
ing factor,
*
[100] which can imply the exclusion of even
photographic comics.
*
[101] The term manga is used
in Japanese to indicate all forms of comics, cartoon-
ing,
*
[102] and caricature.
*
[99]
4 Vocabulary and idioms
Main article: Glossary of comics terminology
Panels are individual images containing a segment of ac-
tion,
*
[103] often surrounded by a border.
*
[104] Prime
moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via
a process called encapsulation.
*
[105] The reader puts the
pieces together by using background knowledge and an
understanding of panel relations to combine panels men-
tally into events, in a process called closure.
*
[106]
The size, shape, a placement of panels aect the timing
and pacing of the narrative.
*
[107] The contents of a panel
may by asynchronous, with events depicted in the same
image not necessarily occurring at the same time.
*
[108]
Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech
balloons, captions, and sound eects. Speech balloons
indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of thought
balloons), with tails pointing at their respective speak-
ers.
*
[109] Captions can give voice to a narrator, convey
characters' dialogue or thoughts,
*
[110] or indicate place
or time.
*
[111] Speech balloons themselves are strongly
associated with comics, such that the addition of one to
an image is sucient to turn the image into comics.
*
[112]
A caption (the yellow box) gives the narrator a voice. The char-
acters' dialogue appears in speech balloons. The tail of the bal-
loon indicates the speaker.
Sound eects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using
onomatopoeia sound-words.
*
[113]
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics,
traditionally using ink (especially India ink) with dip pens
or ink brushes;
*
[114] mixed media and digital technol-
ogy have become common. Cartooning techniques such
as caricature, motion lines,
*
[115] and abstract symbols
are often employed.
*
[116]
While comics are often the work of a single creator, the
labour of making them is frequently divided between a
number of specialists. There may be a separate writer
and artist, or there may be separate artists for the charac-
ters and backgrounds (as is common in Japan). Particu-
larly in American comic books, the art may be divided
between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pen-
cil;
*
[117] an inker, who nishes the artwork in ink;
*
[118]
a colourist;
*
[119] and a letterer, who adds the captions
and speech balloons.
*
[120]
4.1 Etymology
The English term comics derives from the humorous (or
"comic") work which predominated in early American
newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become
standard for non-humorous works as well. The term
comic bookhas a similarly confusing history: they are
most often not humorous; nor are they regular books, but
rather periodicals.
*
[121] It is common in English to re-
fer to the comics of dierent cultures by the terms used
in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese
comics, or bandes dessines for French-language Franco-
Belgian comics.
*
[122]
Many cultures have taken their words for comics
from English, including Russian (Russian: ,
komiks)
*
[123] and German (comic).
*
[124] Similarly,
the Chinese term manhua
*
[125] and the Korean
manhwa
*
[126] derive from the Chinese characters with
which the Japanese term manga is written.
*
[127]
7
5 See also
Animation
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum
Picture book
5.1 See also lists
List of comic books
List of comics creators
List of comics publishing companies
List of comic strip syndicates
List of Franco-Belgian comics series
List of newspaper comic strips
Lists of manga
List of manga artists
List of manga magazines
List of manga publishers
List of years in comics
6 Notes
[1] tankbon (, translation close to independently
appearing book)
[2] David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these
and other proto-comics in his The Early Comic Strip
(1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).
*
[9]
[3] French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu se-
rieuse. Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in La Presse en-
fantine franaise (Midol, 1957)
*
[38]
[4] French:C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littrature.
Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la littrature enfantine de
ma Mre l'Oye au Roi Babar (Hachette, 1950)
*
[38]
[5] French: neuvime art
[6] Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo (Japanese: l
/f`|]v9Z|| Hepburn: Tagosaku to
Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
[7]Manga(Japanese: ) can be glossed in many ways,
among them whimsical pictures, disreputable pic-
tures,
*
[47] irresponsible pictures,
*
[48] derisory
pictures, and sketches made for or out of a sudden
inspiration.
*
[49]
[8] "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning card,
which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons
were typically drawn.
*
[11]
[9] Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). ,[Japanese Comics
History]. Yuzankaku.
[10] Kure, Tomofusa (1986). fvv] [Modern
Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center Publishing.
ISBN 4-575-71090-3.
*
[89]
[11]Manga expression theory(Japanese:
Hepburn: manga hygenron)
*
[90]
[12] Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics
(Japanese: Hepburn: Nihon Manga
Gakkai)
7 References
[1] Couch 2000.
[2] Grove 2005, p. 43.
[3] Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beerbohm 2003; Sabin 2005, p.
186; Rowland 1990, p. 13.
[4] Petersen 2010; Power 2009, p. 24; Gravett 2004, p. 9.
[5] Couch 2000; Petersen 2010, p. 175.
[6] Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv.
[7] Gabilliet 2010, p. xiv; Beaty 2012, p. 61; Grove 2010,
pp. 16, 21, 59.
[8] Grove 2010, p. 79.
[9] Beaty 2012, p. 62.
[10] Clark & Clark 1991, p. 17.
[11] Harvey 2001, p. 77.
[12] Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxii.
[13] Gordon 1998, pp. 24-36.
[14] Nordling 1995, p. 123.
[15] Gordon 1998, p. 35.
[16] Harvey 1994, p. 11.
[17] Rhoades 2008, p. 2.
[18] Rhoades 2008, p. x.
[19] Gabilliet 2010, p. 51.
[20] Gabilliet 2010, p. 49.
[21] Gabilliet 2010, p. 66.
[22] Hateld 2005, pp. 20, 26; Lopes 2009, p. 123; Rhoades
2008, p. 140.
[23] Lopes 2009, pp. xxxxi.
[24] Petersen 2010, p. 222.
[25] Kaplan 2008, p. 172; Sabin 1993, p. 246; Stringer 1996,
p. 262; Ahrens & Meteling 2010, p. 1; Williams & Lyons
2010, p. 7.
8 7 REFERENCES
[26] Gabilliet 2010, pp. 210211.
[27] Lopes 2009, p. 151152.
[28] Thorne 2010, p. 209.
[29] Harvey 2010.
[30] Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
[31] Vessels 2010, p. 45; Miller 2007, p. 17.
[32] Screech 2005, p. 27; Miller 2007, p. 18.
[33] Miller 2007, p. 17.
[34] Theobald 2004, p. 82; Screech 2005, p. 48; McKinney
2011, p. 3.
[35] Grove 2005, pp. 7678.
[36] Petersen 2010, pp. 214215; Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
[37] Petersen 2010, pp. 214215.
[38] Grove 2005, p. 46.
[39] Grove 2005, pp. 4546.
[40] Grove 2005, p. 51.
[41] Miller 1998, p. 116; Lefvre 2010, p. 186.
[42] Miller 2007, p. 23.
[43] Beaty 2007, p. 9.
[44] Lefvre 2010, pp. 189190.
[45] Grove 2005, p. 153.
[46] Miller 2007, pp. 4953.
[47] Karp & Kress 2011, p. 19.
[48] Gravett 2004, p. 9.
[49] Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 22.
[50] Schodt 1996, p. 22.
[51] Manseld 2009, p. 253.
[52] Petersen 2010, p. 42.
[53] Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 2122.
[54] Petersen 2010, p. 128; Gravett 2004, p. 21.
[55] Schodt 1996, p. 22; Johnson-Woods 2010, pp. 2324.
[56] Gravett 2004, p. 24.
[57] MacWilliams 2008, p. 3; Hashimoto & Traphagan 2008,
p. 21; Sugimoto 2010, p. 255; Gravett 2004, p. 8.
[58] Schodt 1996, p. 28.
[59] Schodt 1996, p. 23; Gravett 2004, pp. 1314.
[60] Gravett 2004, p. 14.
[61] Brenner 2007, p. 13; Lopes 2009, p. 152; Raz 1999, p.
162; Jenkins 2004, p. 121.
[62] Lee 2010, p. 158.
[63] Orr 2008, p. 11; Collins 2010, p. 227.
[64] Orr 2008, p. 10.
[65] Schodt 1996, p. 23; Orr 2008, p. 10.
[66] Schodt 1996, p. 23.
[67] Grove 2010, p. 24; McKinney 2011.
[68] Goldsmith 2005, p. 16; Karp & Kress 2011, pp. 46.
[69] Poitras 2001, p. 6667.
[70] Harvey 2001, p. 76.
[71] Petersen 2010, pp. 234236.
[72] Petersen 2010, p. 234; McCloud 2000, p. 222.
[73] Rhoades 2008, p. 38.
[74] Beron 2008, p. 225.
[75] Groensteen 2012, pp. 128129.
[76] Groensteen 2012, p. 124.
[77] Groensteen 2012, p. 126.
[78] Thomas 2010, p. 158.
[79] Beaty 2012, p. 65.
[80] Groensteen 2012, pp. 126, 131.
[81] Grove 2010, pp. 1719.
[82] Thomas 2010, pp. 157, 170.
[83] Groensteen 2012, p. 112113.
[84] Miller 2007, p. 101.
[85] Groensteen 2012, p. 112.
[86] Groensteen 2012, p. 113.
[87] Cohn 2013.
[88] Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 23.
[89] Kinsella 2000, pp. 9697.
[90] Kinsella 2000, p. 100.
[91] Morita 2010, pp. 3738.
[92] Inge 1989, p. 214.
[93] Meskin & Cook 2012, p. xxix.
[94] Yuan 2011; Eisner 1985, p. 5.
[95] Kovacs & Marshall 2011, p. 10; Holbo 2012, p. 13;
Harvey 2010, p. 1; Beaty 2012, p. 6; McCloud 1993,
p. 9.
[96] Beaty 2012, p. 67.
[97] Chute 2010, p. 7; Harvey 2001, p. 76.
7.1 Works cited 9
[98] Harvey 2010, p. 1.
[99] Morita 2010, p. 33.
[100] Groensteen 2012, p. 130; Morita 2010, p. 33.
[101] Groensteen 2012, p. 130.
[102] Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 336.
[103] Lee 1978, p. 15.
[104] Eisner 1985, pp. 28, 45.
[105] Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 10.
[106] Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 316.
[107] Eisner 1985, p. 30.
[108] Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315; Karp & Kress 2011, p.
1213.
[109] Lee 1978, p. 15; Markstein 2010; Eisner 1985, p. 157;
Dawson 2010, p. 112; Saraceni 2003, p. 9.
[110] Lee 1978, p. 15; Lyga & Lyga 2004.
[111] Saraceni 2003, p. 9; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 18.
[112] Forceville, Veale & Feyaerts 2010, p. 56.
[113] Duncan & Smith 2009, pp. 156, 318.
[114] Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978,
p. 145; Rhoades 2008, p. 139.
[115] Bramlett 2012, p. 25; Guigar 2010, p. 126; Cates 2010,
p. 98.
[116] Goldsmith 2005, p. 21; Karp & Kress 2011, p. 1314.
[117] Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161.
[118] Markstein 2010; Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 161; Lee 1978,
p. 145.
[119] Duncan & Smith 2009, p. 315.
[120] Lyga & Lyga 2004, p. 163.
[121] Groensteen 2012, p. 131 (translator's note).
[122] McKinney 2011, p. xiii.
[123] Alaniz 2010, p. 7.
[124] Frahm 2003.
[125] Wong 2002, p. 11; Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
[126] Johnson-Woods 2010, p. 301.
[127] Cooper-Chen 2010, p. 177.
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lated from French by Bart Beaty and Nick Nguyen.
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60473-267-2.
Goldsmith, Francisca (2005). Graphic Novels Now:
Building, Managing, And Marketing a Dynamic Col-
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0-8389-0904-1.
Gordon, Ian (1998). Comic Strips and Consumer
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Gravett, Paul (2004). Manga: 60 Years of Japanese
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85669-391-2.
Groensteen, Thierry (2012) [Originally published in
French in 1999]. The Impossible Denition.
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109-5.
Grove, Laurence (2005). Text/Image Mosaics in
French Culture: Emblems and Comic Strips. Ashgate
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Grove, Laurence (2010). Comics in French: The Eu-
ropean Bande Dessine in Context. Berghahn Books.
ISBN 978-1-84545-588-0.
Guigar, Brad J. (2010). The Everything Cartoon-
ing Book: Create Unique And Inspired Cartoons For
Fun And Prot. Adams Media. ISBN 978-1-4405-
2306-9.
Harvey, R. C. (1994). The Art of the Funnies: An
Aesthetic History. University Press of Mississippi.
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Harvey, R. C. (2001). Comedy at the Juncture of
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Hashimoto, Akiko; Traphagan, John W. (2008).
Imagined Families, Lived Families: Culture and Kin-
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978-0-7914-7577-5.
Hateld, Charles (2005). Alternative Comics: An
Emerging Literature. University Press of Missis-
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Holbo, John (2012). Redening Comics. In
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12 8 FURTHER READING
Thorne, Amy (2010). Weiner, Robert G., ed.
Graphic Novels and Comics in Libraries and
Archives: Essays on Readers, Research, History and
Cataloging. McFarland & Company. pp. 209212.
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Vessels, Joel E. (2010). Drawing France: French
Comics and the Republic. University Press of Mis-
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Bullet: The Rise of the Graphic Novel. NBM Pub-
lishing. ISBN 978-1-56163-368-5.
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60473-792-9.
Wong, Wendy Siuyi (2002). Hong Kong Comics.
Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-
269-4.
7.1.2 Academic journals
Couch, Chris (December 2000). The Publica-
tion and Formats of Comics, Graphic Novels, and
Tankobon. Image [&] Narrative (1). ISSN 1780-
678X. Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Frahm, Ole (October 2003). Too much is too
much. The never innocent laughter of the Comics.
. Image [&] Narrative (7). ISSN 1780-678X. Re-
trieved 2012-02-05.
Groensteen, Thierry (Spring 2012). The Current
State of French Comics Theory. Scandinavian
Journal of Comic Art 1 (1): 111122.
Yuan, Ting (2011). From Ponyo to 'My Gareld
Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Path-
way to Literary Composition. Childhood Educa-
tion 87 (4).
7.1.3 Web
Beerbohm, Robert (2003). The Adventures of
Obadiah Oldbuck Part III. The Search For Tper
In America. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
Harvey, R. C. (2010-12-20). Dening Comics
Again: Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily
Complicated Denitions. The Comics Journal.
Fantagraphics Books. Archived fromthe original on
2011-09-14. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
Markstein, Don (2010). Glossary Of Special-
ized Cartoon-related Words and Phrases Used in
Don Markstein's Toonopedia". Don Markstein's
Toonopedia. Archived from the original on 2013-
02-05. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
8 Further reading
Carrier, David (2002). The Aesthetics of Comics.
Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02188-1.
Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics:
Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Se-
quential Images. London, UK: Bloomsbury. ISBN
9781441181459.
Dowd, Douglas Bevan; Hignite, Todd (2006). Strips,
Toons, And Bluesies: Essays in Comics And Culture.
Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-
621-0.
Eisner, Will (1995). Graphic Storytelling. Poor-
house Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-3-2.
Estren, Mark James (1993). A History of Under-
ground Comics. Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-
914171-64-5. M!-- Estren 1993 -->
Fielder, Leslie (2004) [1955].The Middle Against
Both Ends. In Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent. Argu-
ing Comics: Literary Masters on a Popular Medium.
University Press of Mississippi. p. 132. ISBN 1-
57806-687-5.
Gombrich, E.H. (1972). Art and illusion: A study in
the psychology of pictorial representation. Phaidon
Press. ISBN 0-691-01750-6.
Groensteen, Thierry (2000). Why are Comics
Still in Search of Cultural Legitimization?". In
Magnussen, Anne; Christiansen, Hans-Christian.
Comics & Culture: Analytical and Theoretical Ap-
proaches to Comics. Museum Tusculanum Press.
ISBN 87-7289-580-2.
Groensteen, Thierry (2007) [originally published in
French in 1999]. The System of Comics. University
Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-925-5.
Groth, Gary; Fiore, R., eds. (1988). The New
Comics. Berkley Books. ISBN 0-425-11366-3.
Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent, eds. (2012). A Comics
Studies Reader. University Press of Mississippi.
ISBN 978-1-60473-109-5.
Howes, Franny (2010).Imagining a Multiplicity of
Visual Rhetorical Traditions: Comics Lessons from
Rhetoric Histories. ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary
Comics Studies (Department of English, University
of Florida) 5 (3). Retrieved 2013-02-05.
Horn, Maurice, ed. (1977). The World Encyclope-
dia of Comics. Avon. ISBN 978-0-87754-323-7.
Kunzle, David (1973). The Early Comic Strip: Nar-
rative Strips and Picture Stories in the European
Broadsheet from c.1450 to 1825. University of
California Press. ISBN 9780520057753. OCLC
470776042.
13
Kunzle, David (1990). History of the Comic Strip:
The Nineteenth Century. University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01865-5.
Perry, George; Aldridge, Alan (1989). The Pen-
guin Book Of Comics (Revised ed.). Penguin Books.
ISBN 0-14-002802-1.
Sabin, Roger (1996). Comics, Comix and Graphic
Novels: A History of Comic Art. Phaidon. ISBN
978-0-7148-3993-6.
Smolderen, Thierry (Summer 2006). Of Labels,
Loops, and Bubbles: Solving the Historical Puzzle
of the Speech Balloon. Comic Art (8): 90112.
Varnedoe, Kirk; Gopnik, Adam (1990). Modern
Art and Popular Culture: Readings in High & Low.
Abrams Books. ISBN 978-0-87070-356-0.
Waugh, Coulton (1947). The Comics. University
Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-499-2.
9 External links
Comics at DMOZ
Academic journals
The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship
ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies
Image [&] Narrative
International Journal of Comic Art
Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics
Archives
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum
Michigan State University Comic Art Collection
Comic Art Collection at the University of Missouri
Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco
Time Archives' Collection of Comics
Comics in the National Art Library. Prints &
Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved
2011-03-15.
Databases
Comic Book Database
Grand Comics Database
Inducks - The Disney comics database
14 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
10.1 Text
Comics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comics?oldid=624652097 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Bryan Derksen, Danny, Shii, Olivier,
Dante Alighieri, Tregoweth, Mac, Angela, Emperor, RadRafe, Andres, Ike9898, The Rizz, AC, Jay, Tpbradbury, Fibonacci, Samsara,
Bjarki S, Michael Rawdon, Jamesday, Skeetch, Robbot, AlainV, Moondyne, Calmypal, Markewilliams, Blainster, Phthoggos, Wayland,
BTfromLA, Vincivinci, Philwiki, Gtrmp, Fennec, Luis Dantas, Bkonrad, Emuzesto, Leonard G., Guanaco, Attig, Lakefall, Qwantz, Kir-
byMeister, Hob, Lvr, Piotrus, Phil Sandifer, Aknorals, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Moxfyre, Canterbury Tail, CALR, Lifefeed, SoM,
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