Taylor Wallace

Theory of Knowledge
June 2014 Essay
1599 Words

Memory is the sentinel of all knowledge we cannot truly know if we cannot remember.
Explore the knowledge questions raised in this statement.

This title suggests that knowledge is obtained and retained though memory, and we
therefore are aware of and understand only information or ideas which we can recall. We can
therefore conclude that everything we know is because of prior experience and the ability to
remember it, without which there would neither be recollection of old information nor basis on
which to form and apply new ideas. While this theory may be true to some extent, it raises some
questions. If memory is based on experience, can we know things without personal experience?
Additionally, there are a number of factors involved in the way we process and store that make
knowing more than a mere feat of memory. Much of what we know is influenced not only by
what we remember, but by the way the information is perceived and applied. Other ways of
knowing, such as sense perception, emotion, and imagination, have a significant effect on
memory; without these, one could argue that no memory could be formed. Does knowledge
come simply with remembering? What role does personal interpretation or understanding play in
the creation or recollection of knowledge? Finally, memory can be contaminated in several ways,
whether thorough diseases like Alzheimers or merely through the unique pressures of a
situation. With this in mind, how reliable is our knowledge from memory? While these are
factors to be considered, there is significant evidence to support the claim that memory is key to
knowledge.
In order to weigh the validity of this claim, one of the first questions that must be
answered is as follows: what is memory and how does it work? Memory is defined as the process
by which we encode, store, retain and subsequently recall information and past experiences in
the human brain (Mastin). Encoding is receiving, processing, and combining information, and it
begins with sensory perception. A memorable event garners attention, regulated by the thalamus
and frontal lobe, causing neurons to fire more frequently, while the emotions associated with
the event are processed in the amygdale (Mastin). Perceived sensations are decoded in various
areas of the brain and combined into one experience in the hippocampus. The memory is then
stored either as long-term (LTM) or short-term memory (STM). LTM usually has particular
meaning or context rather than just being sensory, and is stored throughout the brain as groups of
neuron that fire in the same pattern that created the original experience (Mastin). STM can
only store a few items at a time for a brief duration. Retrieval is when we access the information
stored by memory. The pattern of neural activity originally generated when the memory was
formed is replayed by the brain, as triggered by a cue. This is done either through recognition,
where an event is associated and compared with information stored in memory, or through recall,
where something not currently present is recalled through intentional uncovering of information
from memory (Mastin). Based on this definition we see that unlike perception, memory refers to
things that arent currently happening, but instead relies on the ability to remember past
experiences. This leads some to say that memory isnt a source of knowledge, but rather the
process by which we recall knowledge gained in the past. In line with this, new knowledge is
dependent on and influenced by memory. Aside from being a storage unit for old knowledge,
retrieval allows us to use this old information to process new situations, supporting the idea that
knowledge is obtained and retained through memory.
That most of our knowledge is stored in our memory is a widely accepted fact. It is often
said that we learn from experience- that our recollections of past occurrences provide us with
information key in making decisions and inferences about current happenings. This is seen
throughout many areas of knowledge. Philosopher George Santayana, for example, wrote once
that those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it, emphasizing his belief
that everyone should study history (Santayana 284). History relies almost entirely on memory, as
it is recorded based on the reports of firsthand witnesses. These accounts are passed down until
historians record them, making history the collective memory of human society. Because we
know, based on the study of history, the mistakes made in the past, we are able to take steps to
avoid them in the future. Although the experiences were not personal, we learn from them
through recorded memory and form our own secondhand memory and knowledge of the event.
We also see the importance of memory to knowledge through other means. For instance, when I
have a test, I study in order to fully process and store the information that I need to know. When
taking the test, I rely on my understanding of the subject as stored in my memory to answer
questions. Memory retrieval allows me to access my knowledge and put it to use, as I recall
knowledge gained when studying or doing homework.
A counterclaim to this would be that we act or know based on intuition or reason. There
are problems that we may solve without having any direct previous experience. In mathematics,
for example, we encounter problems that we have never seen before and therefore have no
memory of, but that we are able to complete using logical reasoning. While this may seem like
knowledge separate from memory, we are simply drawing on memory of equations and rules that
we can combine to solve the problem. Intuition is also referenced as a way of knowing that
doesnt rely on memory. People have been known to do things theyve never done before in
extreme situations, such as a man in India who saved a bus full of people after the driver suffered
a heart attack. I dont know how to drive, the man said, but he not only took control of the bus
to bring it to a halt but also averted a collision with a tanker (Man saves 45 lives).
Because he had no experience driving, he obviously had no memory of it, making this
knowledge intuitive, showing that not all knowledge is guarded by memory- sometimes we can
know without it.
As mentioned in the description of memory, it can be affected by many different ways of
knowing. The original memory is based on what we perceive through our senses- if we couldnt
sense the information some way, it couldnt be encoded. As sensory information is processed, it
combines with imagination and emotion to create the memory that holds the knowledge. Joshua
Foer, a memory champion, describes the importance of imagination to the creation and
recollection of memory. People who perform seemingly incredible feats of memory imagine
stories or images to give the memory significance and meaning, making it easier to recall- the
crazier, weirder, more bizarre, funnier, raunchier, stinkier the image is, the more unforgettable
it's likely to be (Foer). Emotion also adds meaning to a memory- were more likely to remember
something that made us very happy than something to which we were indifferent. It can even
affect memory retrieval; children who get very anxious and stressed while testing dont do as
well because their emotions trigger temporary memory loss. I, for one, often forget key
information during a test due to my nervousness. The hormone cortisol (also a toxin to the brain),
released when the body is scared or stressed, contributes to memory loss, showing that emotion
also has a strong influence on memory ("Anxiety and Memory Loss"). While one may be able to
recite information from memory without understanding, the influence of other ways of knowing
demonstrates that the personal significance and interpretation of information in a memory is vital
to recollection and understanding of knowledge.
Memories can, however, be contaminated by these factors, resulting in much of our
knowledge being inaccurate, patchy, incomplete, or false (Howard 83). Leading memory
expert Elizabeth Loftus is known for her research on false memory, such as the infamous lost in
a mall study, where she suggested to the subject that as a child, they got lost in a shopping mall.
Over a quarter of subjects believed her. This has been repeated in other studies, where memories
ranging from animal attacks to witnessing demonic possession were successfully planted in the
minds of as many as half of the subjects (Loftus). There have been eyewitness accounts against
innocents, going from that one's the closest to I'm absolutely positive that's the guy as the
imagination mutates the memory (Loftus). This puts the reliability of memory as a way of
knowing into question. Misinformation and pressure can cause the perception, emotion, and
imaginative elements surrounding a memory to distort. In a recent study, researchers staged a
fatal stabbing and robbery in a pub full of unsuspecting people. When interviewed, the
malleability of memory was revealed. Even those who saw it all unfold still got the murderer
wrong (Winterman). The emotions present in loaded situations can cause witnesses to remember
incorrectly. Even if we think we know something based on memory, it may not be true. Diseases
such as Alzheimers also contaminate memory; as the brain deteriorates, long term memory is
lost. Thus, despite being useful in storage and application of knowledge, memory isnt always
reliable.
Although there are many factors influencing our formation of memory, including
imagination, emotion, and perception, its usefulness in the processing and recollection of
information is crucial to knowledge. By allowing us to reflect on past experiences and apply old
knowledge to new situations, memory enables us to gain even more knowledge. Despite its
occasional unreliability due to extenuating circumstances, like disease, or personal interpretation,
we ultimately rely on memory to provide us with knowledge. Without it, we cannot truly know.


Works Cited

"Anxiety and Memory Loss." Calm Clinic. Infopress Ltd., 2014. Web. 21 June 2014.
Howard, Robert W. Learning and Memory: Major Ideas, Principles, Issues and Applications.
Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995. Print.
Mastin, Luke. "What Is Memory?" The Human Memory. Luke Mastin, 2010. Web. 19 June
2014.
Santayana, George. The Life of Reason: The Phases of Human Progress. Vol. Reason in
Common Sense. New York: Scribner, 1936. Print.
Sen, Somit. "Man Saves 45 Lives after Bus Driver Collapses, Felicitated - The Times of
India." The Times of India. Bennett, Coleman & Co., 1 June 2014. Web. 21 June 2014.
TEDTalks: Elizabeth Loftus-- the Fiction of Memory. Perf. Elizabeth Loftus. TED, 2013.
TEDTalks: Joshua Foer--Feats of Memory Anyone Can Do. Perf. Joshua Foer. TED, 2012.
Winterman, Denise. "Why Can't We Trust What We See?" BBC News. BBC, 15 Apr. 2010.
Web. 22 June 2014.