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Introduction:
Matter and Measurement
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Introduction: Matter
and Measurement
The Study of Chemistry
Classification of Matter
Properties of Matter
Units of Measurement
Uncertainty in Measurement
Dimensional Analysis
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The Study of
Chemistry
Chemistry is the study of matter and the
changes that matter undergoes.
Matter is made up of almost infinitesimally
small building blocks called atoms.
Atoms can combine together to form
molecules.
Molecules of a few familiar substances are
represented here.
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The Study of
Chemistry
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The Study of
Chemistry
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The Study of
Chemistry
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The Study of
Chemistry
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The Study of
Chemistry
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Classification of Matter
Matter can exist in one of three states of
matter: a gas, a liquid, or a solid.
A gas is highly compressible and will assume both
the shape and the volume of its container.
A liquid is not compressible and will assume the
shape but not the volume of its container.
A solid also is not compressible, and it has a fixed
volume and shape of its own.
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Classification of Matter
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Classification of Matter
Matter can also be classified according to its
composition.
Most of the matter that we encounter exists in
mixtures, which are combinations of two or
more substances.
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Classification of Matter
Mixtures can be homogeneous or
heterogeneous.
Mixtures can be separated into
pure substances, and pure substances can be
either
compounds or
elements.
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Classification of Matter
A familiar example of a mixture is salt water.
A sample of salt water has the same
composition throughout.
It can be separated into pure substances
water and ordinary table saltby a physical
process, such as distillation.
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Classification of Matter
Pure water is collected in the flask on the right.
When all of the water has been distilled from the
mixture, pure saltNaClwill remain in the flask
on the left.
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Classification of Matter
Both water and salt are pure substances.
They cannot be further separated into simpler substances
by any physical process.
Each, however, can be decomposed into other substances
by a chemical process, namely electrolysis.
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Classification of Matter
Electrolysis
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Classification of Matter
The substances produced by the electrolysis of
water cannot be further separated by any
physical or chemical means.
Oxygen and hydrogen are elements.
When water is separated into its constituent
elements, the relative amounts of those
elements are always the same.
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Classification of Matter
Water is 11 percent hydrogen and 89 percent
oxygen by mass.
This is an example of the law of constant
composition, also known as the law of
definite proportions.
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Classification of Matter
Salt can also be separated into its constituent
elements, sodium and chlorine, by
electrolysis.
Sodium chloride also has a constant
composition, as do all pure substances. It is 39
percent sodium and 61 percent chlorine by
mass.
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Properties of Matter
Different types of matter have different
distinguishing characteristics that we can use
to tell them apart.
These characteristics are called physical
properties and chemical properties.
Physical and chemical properties may be
intensive or extensive.
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Properties of Matter
Intensive properties such as density, color, and
boiling point do not depend on the size of the
sample of matter and can be used to identify
substances.
Extensive properties such as mass and volume
do depend on the quantity of the sample.
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Properties of Matter
Physical properties are those that we can
determine without changing the identity of the
substance we are studying.
For instance, we can observe or measure the
physical properties of sodium metal.
It is a soft, lustrous, silver-colored metal with a
relatively low melting point and low density.
Hardness, color, melting point and density are all
physical properties.
Figure 7.15 shows a chunk of metallic sodium, which is
soft enough to be cut with a knife.
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Properties of Matter
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Properties of Matter
Chemical properties describe the way a
substance can change or react to form other
substances.
These properties, then, must be determined
using a process that changes the identity of
the substance of interest.
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Properties of Matter
One of the chemical properties of alkali metals
such as sodium and potassium is that they
react with water.
To determine this, though, we would have to
combine an alkali metal with water and
observe what happens.
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Properties of Matter
Section 1.3
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Properties of Matter
Sodium metal (Na) reacts rather vigorously
with water to produce sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H
2
).
After the reaction has occurred, although we
now have evidence of one of sodium metal's
chemical properties, we no longer have
sodium metal.
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Properties of Matter
Potassium reacts even more vigorously with
water to produce potassium hydroxide (KOH)
and hydrogen gas.
As with sodium, once we have determined a
chemical property of potassium metal, we no
longer have potassium metal.
To determine the chemical properties of a
substance, it is necessary to change the
substance's chemical identity.
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Properties of Matter
The changes undergone by sodium and
potassium when they react with water are
chemical changes, also known as chemical
reactions.
Matter can also undergo physical changes in
which the chemical identity of the matter
does not change.
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Properties of Matter
One example of a physical change is the
melting of a solid.
When ice melts, it changes from a solid state
to a liquid state, but its chemical identity
(H
2
O) is unchanged.
All changes of state are physical changes.
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Units of Measurement
The scientific community uses SI units for
measurement of such properties as mass,
length, and temperature.
There are seven SI base units from which all
other necessary units are derived.
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
Although the meter is the base SI unit used for
length, it may not be convenient to report the
length of an extremely small object or an
extremely large object in units of meters.
Decimal prefixes allow us to choose a unit that is
appropriate to the quantity being measured.
Thus, a very small object might best be measured
in millimeters (1 millimeter = 0.001 meters),
while a large distance might best be measured in
kilometers (1 kilometer = 1000 meters).
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin,
although the Celsius scale is also commonly
used.
The Kelvin scale is known as the absolute
temperature scale, with 0 K being the lowest
theoretically attainable temperature.
K =
o
C + 273.15
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
Note that there are no units of volume in
Table 1.4.
For measurements of volume, density, and
other properties, we must derive the desired
units from SI base units.
In the case of volume, which has units of
length cubed, (length)
3
, the basic SI unit for
volume is the cubic meter (m
3
).
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Units of Measurement
This is an extremely large volume, though, and
more often you will see volumes reported in
liters, L (1 cubic decimeter, or 1 dm
3
), or
milliliters, mL (which are the same as cubic
centimeters: 1 mL = 1 cm
3
).
Density has units of mass per unit volume and is
often reported as grams per cubic centimeter,
g/cm
3
.
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
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Units of Measurement
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Even the most carefully taken measurements
are always inexact.
This can be a consequence of inaccurately
calibrated instruments, human error, or any
number of other factors.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Two terms are used to describe the quality of
measurements: precision and accuracy.
Precision is a measure of how closely individual
measurements agree with one another.
Accuracy refers to how closely individually
measured numbers agree with the correct or
"true" value.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Whatever the source, all measurements
contain error.
Thus, all measured numbers contain
uncertainty.
It is important that these numbers be
reported in such a way as to convey the
magnitude of this uncertainty.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Consider a fourth-grade student who, when
asked by his teacher how old the Earth is,
replies "Four billion and three years old."
(The student had been told by a first-grade
teacher three years earlier that the Earth was four
billion years old.)
Obviously, we don't know the age of Earth to
the year, so it is not appropriate to report a
number that suggests we do.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
In order to convey the appropriate uncertainty
in a reported number, we must report it to the
correct number of significant figures.
The number 83.4 has three digits.
All three digits are significant.
The 8 and the 3 are "certain digits" while the 4 is
the "uncertain digit.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
As written, this number implies uncertainty of
plus or minus 0.1, or error of 1 part in 834.
Thus, measured quantities are generally
reported in such a way that only the last digit
is uncertain.
All digits, including the uncertain one, are
called significant figures.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Guidelines
Nonzero digits are always significant457 cm (3
significant figures); 2.5 g (2 significant figures).
Zeros between nonzero digits are always
significant1005 kg (4 significant figures); 1.03 cm
(3 significant figures).
Zeros at the beginning of a number are never
significant; they merely indicate the position of
the decimal point0.02 g (one significant figure);
0.0026 cm (2 significant figures).
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Guidelines
Zeros that fall at the end of a number or after the
decimal point are always significant0.0200 g (3
significant figures); 3.0 cm (2 significant figures).
When a number ends in zeros but contains no
decimal point, the zeros may or may not be
significant130 cm (2 or 3 significant figures);
10,300 g (3, 4, or 5 significant figures).
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
To avoid ambiguity with regard to the number of
significant figures in a number with tailing zeros
but no decimal point, such as 700, we use
scientific (or exponential) notation to express the
number.
If we are reporting the number 700 to three
significant figures, we can leave it written as it is,
or we can express it as 7.00 10
2
.
There is no ambiguity in the latter regarding the
number of significant figures, because zeros after
a decimal point are always significant.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
However, if there really should be only two significant
figures, we can express this number as 7.0 x10
2
.
Likewise, if there should be only one significant figure,
we can write 7 x10
2
.
Scientific notation is convenient for expressing the
appropriate number of significant figures.
It is also useful to report extremely large and extremely
small numbers.
It would be most inconvenient for us to have to write
all of the zeros in the number 1.91 10
-24
(0.00000000000000000000000191).
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
When measured numbers are used in a calculation, the
final answer cannot have any greater certainty than the
measured numbers that went into the calculation.
In other words, the precision of the result is limited by
the precision of the measurements used to obtain that
result.
For example: If we measure the length of one side of a
cube and find it to be 1.35 cm; and we then calculate
the volume of the cube using this measured length, we
get an answer of 2.460375 cm
3
.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Our original measurement had three significant
figures.
The implied uncertainty in 1.35 is 1 part in 135.
If we report the volume of the cube to seven
significant figures, we are implying an uncertainty
of 1 part in over two million!
We can't do that.
In order to report results of calculations so as to
imply a realistic degree of uncertainty, we must
follow the following rules.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
When multiplying or dividing measured
numbers, the answer must have the same
number of significant figures as the measured
number with the fewest significant figures.
When adding or subtracting, the answer can
have only as many places to the right of the
decimal point as the measured number with
the smallest number of places to the right of
the decimal point.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
Using these rules, we would report the
volume of the cube in the example above as
2.46 cm
3
.
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
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Uncertainty in
Measurement
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Dimensional Analysis
Solving problems in chemistry requires careful
manipulation of numbers and their associated
units, a method known as dimensional
analysis.
For example: What is the volume of a 5.25-
gram sample of a liquid with density 1.23
g/mL?
The density of the liquid can be used as a
conversion factor.
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Dimensional Analysis
For the liquid in the example, 1.23 grams are
equal to 1 milliliter (1 mL).
When the numerator and denominator of a
fraction are equal, the fraction has a value of
1, meaning that we can multiply by it for the
purpose of changing units.
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Dimensional Analysis
The density conversion factor can be
expressed in either of the following two ways.
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