WHAT IS DATA? WHAT IS DATA?

Generally and in science,

data is a gathered body of
facts.
A type of information that is obtained
directly from first-hand sources that has
not been previously published and is
derived from a new or original research
study.
PRIMARY DATA
study.
Primary data is the data
collected by the researcher
themselves. The Qualitative
form includes:
INTERVIEW
ACTION
RESEARCH
CASE
STUDIES
LIFE
HISTORIES
ETHNOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH
And the
Quantitative
form includes:
SURVEYS
Quantitative
OBSERVATION EXPERIMENTS
What is Qualitative and
Quantitative Research?
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
It attempts precise measurement of
something. In business research it usually
measures consumer behavior, knowledge,
opinions or attitudes. Such methodologies
answer questions related to how much,
how often, how many, when and who.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
It includes an array of interpretive
techniques which seek to describe, decode,
translate and otherwise come to terms with translate and otherwise come to terms with
the meanings, not the frequency of certain
more or less naturally occurring
phenomena in the social world.
INTERVIEW:
It is primary data collection
technique for gathering data in
qualitative methodologies.
no. of people involved during the interview
level of structure
Interviews in research
varies depending upon the:-
level of structure
proximity of interviewer with participant
no. of interviews conducted during the
research
The person
conducting the
interview is called
moderator. A moderator. A
moderator must
possess the following
skills:
Following participants
train of thoughts
Extracting insights
from detailed
descriptive dialogues
Making
respondent
comfortable
Probing for detail
without making descriptive dialogues
Remaining neutral
while encouraging
respondent to talk
freely
without making
the respondent feel
harassed
Listening carefully
UNSTRUCTURED
STRUCTURED
SEMI-
STRUCTURED
Formats
Of
Interviews
Structured interview:
Typically, each candidate is asked the same
set of questions and their answers are
compared to a scoring guide and rated. The
goal goal
of this approach is to reduce interviewer bias
and to
help make an objective decision about the best
candidate.
Unstructured interview:
Without structured guidelines, the
conversation can be free-flowing, thus
making
this method of interviewing the most prone this method of interviewing the most prone
to bias,
but allowing the interviewer to get a more
natural
and perhaps more realistic sense of who you
are.
Semi structured interview:
Generally starts with a few specific
questions questions
and then follow the individuals tangent of
thought with interviewer probes
Interviews can be conducted:
Face to face: The benefit of being
able to observe and record
nonverbal as well as verbal
behavior. behavior.
Via phone or online:
The opportunity of conducting many
interviews at a time and gathering
participants from wider geographic participants from wider geographic
range, reducing the travel expenses
by bringing participants and
interviewer on single neutral sites.
Recommendation of the topics and questions.
Control of interview as well as the plans and Control of interview as well as the plans and
management of facilities and location for
study.
* Making proposal of the criteria for the
selection of sample participants.
* Writing of the recruitment screener and
recruitment of participants.
* Development of various pre-tasking
exercises.
* Preparation of any research tools (e.g.
picture sorts or written exercises to be used
during the interview.
Broader questions are asked first in
order to put the participant at ease,
which are followed by more specific which are followed by more specific
questions to draw out detail.
This makes question
hierarchy, illustrated below:
broad issue
The type of food you like most?
narrow to one topic
Your favorite cuisine?
narrow the topic
The most preferred
in Italian cuisine?
narrow the client
specific topic
your
most
Favorite
pizza
flavor
An IDI is an interaction between an individual
interviewer and a single participant.
Individual depth interview (IDI)
It generally takes 20 minutes (telephone
interviews) and 2 hours (face-to-face interviews)
to complete, depending on the issues or topics of
interest and contact method used.
* Participants are usually paid
to share their insights and
ideas.
* Interviews are usually * Interviews are usually
recorded in audio/visual or
written form by the
researcher.
Types of In Depth Interviews
Oral History
Relating personal experiences to
historical events or past behavior like
story telling.
Cultural interviews
Relating past experience with a culture or
sub culture, includes knowledge passed by
previous generation and knowledge that is
to be passed to future generation.
EXAMPLE
Cultural similarities and differences that are found
between people and are passed down their
generations.
Life Histories
Extraction of
memories from
childhood to childhood to
present day
regarding a
product, service,
brand or firm
Critical incident technique
The participant describes the
cause, action and outcome of
the incident.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
The business is suffering losses and to find a
possible solution, the HR manager conducts
interviews from all strategic managers to
find out where actual problem lies and how
to solve it.
Convergent interviewing
Refined questions are asked from experts
to converge on central issues in a topic
area.
EXAMPLE:
When the board of directors of a business
are deciding which place to open their
another branch.
Sequential interviewing
To make the participant recall his or
her own experience through series of
questions.
EXAMPLE:
Customer Feedback taken at the end of the
dinner/lunch makes people remind how good
or bad their experience was at the particular
restaurant.
Ethnography:
Interviewer and participant collaborate
in a field-setting participant observation
and unstructured interview.
EXAMPE: EXAMPE:
When buying land, the entrepreneurs
investigate about the advantages and
disadvantages of opening at this potential
location from other people who live in its
surroundings.
Grounded Theory
structured interviews with findings and
interpretation from previous interviews
are used to develop general concepts to
analyze the data.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
If the product of any business is going in
losses and the company wants to redesign
their product then they will review their
previous customer interviews to see what
lacked in their product and try fill this gap
now.
It is a data collection method using a
single interviewer with more than one
participant.
Such interviews vary widely in size and
compositions. compositions.
By size:
Dyads: Two people
Triads: Three people
Mini groups: Two to six people Mini groups: Two to six people
Small groups: focus group- six to ten
people
Super group: up to twenty people
Heterogeneous: consisting of different
individuals, variety of opinions, actions and
backgrounds. backgrounds.
Homogeneous:
Consisting of similar individuals,
commonality of opinions, actions and
background.
With experts:
Individuals exceptionally knowledgeable
about the issues to be discussed.
Non-Experts:
Those who have at least some desired
information but at an unknown level.
More time required to extract details from each
participant.
Increased difficulty in recruiting, arranging and
coordinating group discussions.
Meaningful contribution from all participants may
not be ensured as extroverts dominate and
introverts or private thinkers are not able to
participate that actively.
The scope of the issue
The number of group
interviews to be conducted for
a research depends upon:
The number of distinct market
segments of interest
* The number of new ideas or
insights desired
The level of detail of information
* The level of geographic or ethnic
distinctions in attitudes or behavior
* The homogeneity of the group
General rule is: keep conducting group
interviews until new insights are gained.
Focus groups
The term focus group was first coined by R.K.
Merton in his 1956 book, the focused
interview.
Focus group is a panel of people (typically
made up of 6 to 10 participants) led by a
trained moderator, who meet for 90 minutes to
2 hours.
A focus group is a form of
qualitative research in which a
group of people are asked about
their perceptions, opinions,
beliefs, and attitudes towards a beliefs, and attitudes towards a
product, service, concept,
advertisement, idea, or
packaging.
Obtaining general background about a
topic or issue
Interpreting previously obtained
quantitative results
Highlighting areas of opportunity for
specific managers to pursue
Stimulating new ideas for products Stimulating new ideas for products
and programs
* Diagnosing problems that managers need to
address
EXAMPLE
A panel of experts are sitting
together and are discussing about
the potential new location of the the potential new location of the
restaurant they are about to open by
discussing its advantages,
disadvantages, etc
Telephone focus group:
With telephone conferencing facilities
telephone focus group can be effective in
following situations: following situations:
* When it is difficult to recruit desired
participants members of elite group,
professionals, physicians etc.
When target group members are rare or
widely dispersed geographically directors,
celebrities etc.
When issues are sensitive and anonymity is
needed- competitors, people suffering from
contagious disease.
* When researcher wants nationwide
representation of participants
The technique used for studying group
dynamics using e-mail and websites,
user net newspaper or internet chat
room. Online voice chats reduce the
cost associated with telephone.
What is gained is the speed and access
but the drawback of this medium is
that the moderator fails to observe
nonverbal language. Moreover use of
moderators physical presence to
influence openness and depth of
response does not work here. response does not work here.
Another method is videoconferencing
focus group that reduces cost same as
telephone method.
What is gained is the speed and access but
the drawback of this medium is that the
moderator fails to observe nonverbal
Telephone.
moderator fails to observe nonverbal
language. Moreover use of moderators
physical presence to influence openness and
depth of response does not work here.
It is a research methodology
that combines individual
and group interviews with
record analysis and
observation.
Information is extracted from
company brochures, annual reports,
sales receipts and newspaper and
magazine articles, along with direct
observation which is further
combined with interview data from
participants. participants.
The objective is to obtain multiple perspective
of a single organization, situation, event, or
process at appoint in time or over a period of
time.
Single case analysis is performed before any
cross case analysis is conducted and emphasis is
made on what differences occur, why and with made on what differences occur, why and with
what effects.
Prescriptive inferences are made about best
practices after completion of case studies on
several organizations and situations.
EXAMPLE:
When opening a new business, the
entrepreneurs would conduct the
SWOT analysis and see the SWOT analysis and see the
competitors tactics to apply on
their own business like pricing
strategy used by him in the same
industry.
It is designed to address
complex, practical problems
about which little is known.
EXAMPLE
A difficult customer comes to the
restaurant first time, so how the manager
would tackle such a customer:
either ignore (but then there would be a
risk of negative word of mouth) risk of negative word of mouth)
Compensate by giving full free food
(cost but good marketing)
Deal with them by doing anything
within the shortest period of time to
replace unsatisfactory meals.
To acquire knowledge, one must study
But to acquire wisdom, one must
observe.
An eye critically nice can only be An eye critically nice can only be
formed by observing well colored
pictures with attention.
USES OF
OBSERVATION OBSERVATION
OF OBSERVATION
Observation qualifies as scientific inquiry when it
is conducted specifically to answer a research is conducted specifically to answer a research
question, is planned and executed, uses proper
control and provides reliable and valid account of
what happened
The versatility of observation makes it an
indispensable primary source method and a
supplement for other methods
Many academics deny its historic
stature as a creative means of
obtaining primary data and its
potential for forging business
decisions because of its minor
technique of field data collection. technique of field data collection.
OBSERVATIONS
NONBEHAVIORAL
OBSERVATIONS
BEHAVIORAL
OBSERVATION OBSERVATIONS
Record Analysis
Physical condition Analysis
Physical Process Analysis
OBSERVATION
Nonverbal Behavior
Linguistic Behavior
Extra-linguistic Behavior
Spatial Relationship
NONBEHAVIORAL
OBSERVATION
Non-behavioral observation is the
observation of the effects or traces observation of the effects or traces
of prior actions or of nonhuman
activity.
Non-behavioral observation
includes:
1. RECORD ANALYSIS
Record analysis is the extraction of data
from current or historical records.
Example:
Data mining
Content Analysis etc
2. PHYSICAL CONDITION ANALYSIS
Physical condition analysis is the recording of
observation of current conditions resulting
fromprior decisions.
Example: Example:
Store audits of merchandise
availability.
Analysis of financial
statements.
3. PROCESS OR ACTIVITY ANALYSIS
Process or activity analysis is observation by a
time/motion study of stages in a process,
evaluated on both effectiveness and efficiency.
Example:
Architecture observing the site during its
construction. ?
Observing the assembly-line processing.
Behavioral observation is a systematic
way of observing, recording, and
interpreting the behavior of a person.
BEHAVIORAL
OBSERVATION
interpreting the behavior of a person.
This observational study of persons can
be classified as:
1. NONVERBALBEHAVIOR
Nonverbal behavior is the most
prevalent of these and includes body
movement, motor expressions, and
exchanged glances.
EXAMPLE:
One can study body movements as
an indicator of interest or boredom,
anger or pleasure in a certain
environment.
Eye blink rates are studied as
indicators of interest in advertising
messages.
Exchanged glances are of interest in
studies of interpersonal behavior.
2. LINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR
Linguistic behavior is the observation of
human verbal behavior during
conversation, presentation or interaction.
EXAMPLE:
Sounds made by the students
in chorus to annoy their
teachers. teachers.
Observing the linguistic
behavior of the presenter
during the presentation etc.
3. EXTRALINGUISTIC BEHAVIOR
There are four dimensions of extra linguistic activity:
Vocal
(pitch,
loudness
and
Temporal
(rate of
speaking,
duration of
and
timbre)
duration of
utterance,
rhythm)
Interaction
(tendencies
to
interrupt,
dominate,
inhibit)
Verbal Stylistic
(vocabulary and
pronunciation
peculiarities,
dialect, and
characteristic
expression
4. SPATIALRELATIONSHIP
Spatial relationship is a recording of how
humans physically relate to one another.
EXAMPLE:
A study of how salesperson
physically approach customers.
Observing the effects of crowding in Observing the effects of crowding in
a workplace.
Observing employees behavior in
customer care centers of private
and public institutions etc
THE
OBSERVER-
PARTICIPANT PARTICIPANT
RELATIONSHIP
The relationship between
observer and participant maybe
viewed from three perspectives:
Whether
Whether
the
observers What role
Whether
the
observation
is direct or
indirect
observers
presence is
known or
unknown to
the
participant.
What role
the
observer
plays.
DIRECT OBSERVATION:-
Occurs when the observer is physically present and
personally monitors what take place.
DIRECTNESS OF
OBSERVATION
Advantage Advantage
This approach is very flexible because it allows the observer
to react to and report subtle aspects of events and behaviors
as they occur.
Disadvantage
Observers perception circuits may become overloaded as
events move quickly.
Observers fatigue, boredom and distracting events can
reduce the accuracy and completeness of observation.
INDIRECT OBSERVATION
Indirect observation occurs when the recording
is done by mechanical, photographic, or
electronic means.
Advantage
This approach is less biasing and may be less This approach is less biasing and may be less
erratic than direct observation.
Permanent records can be reanalyzed to
include many different aspects of an event.
Disadvantage
Indirect observation is less flexible than direct
observation.
Whether the observers presence is
known or unknown to the
participant
When the observer is known, there
is a risk of a typical activity by a
participant.
The potential bias from participant
awareness of observers is always a
matter of concern.
Observers use concealment to shield
themselves from the object of their
observation. Often, technical means such as
one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or
microphones are used. These methods
reduce the risk of observer bias but bring up
a question of ethics. a question of ethics.
The third observer-
participant issue is whether
the observer should
participate in the situation
while observing. A more while observing. A more
involved arrangement,
participant observation,
exists when the observer
enters the social settings
and acts as both an
observer and a participant.
Participant observation makes a
dual demand on the observer.
Recording can interfere with
participation, and participation can
interfere with observation.
Examples:
Study the functioning of the travelling
audit team
Mystery shopping
Four things to be kept in mind
while conducting an observation
study:
The Type of
Study
Observer
Training
Study
Content
Specification
Training
Data
Collection
1.SIMPLE OBSERVATION
THE TYPE OF
STUDY
Observation is found in almost all
research studies, at least at the
exploratory stage. Such data
collection is known as simple
observation.
2.SYSTEMATIC
OBSERVATION
Systematic observation employs
standardized procedures, trained
observers, schedules for recording,
and other devices for the observer
that mirror the scientific
procedures of other primary data
methods.
To specify the observation content,
CONTENT
SPECIFICATION
To specify the observation content,
researcher should include both the
major variables of interest and any
other variables that may affect
them.
Observation can be at either
a factual or inferential level.
Example below shows some Example below shows some
of the factual and inferential
components of salesmans
presentation.
OBSERVER TRAINING
There are a few general
guidelines for the qualification
and selection of observers:
CONCENTRATION
Observers should have the ability to
function in a setting full of distractions
and selection of observers:
DETAIL-ORIENTED
They should have the ability to
remember detail of an experience
UNOBTRUSIVE
They should have the ability to blend They should have the ability to blend
with the setting and not be distinctive .
EXPERIENCE LEVEL
They should have the ability to extract
the most from an observation study .
The data collection plan
specifies the details of the
task. In essence it answers
the questions:
DATA COLLECTION
the questions:
Who
What
When
How
And where?
WHO
What qualifies a participant to be
observed?
WHAT WHAT
The characteristics of the observation
must be set as sampling elements and units
of analysis. This is achieved when event-
time dimension and act terms are defined.
WHAT
1.EVENT SAMPLING
Researcher records selected behavior that answers the
investigative question.
2.TIME SAMPLING
The researcher choose among a time-point sample, continuous
real-time measurement, or a time interval sample. real-time measurement, or a time interval sample.
3.ACT
Any of the following could be defined as an act for a
observation study:
a. A single expressed thought.
b. A physical movement.
c. A facial expression.
d. A motor skill.
WHEN?
The exact time of observation is very important.
Example
In case of inventory management.
HOW?
How the data/environment will be observer (directly How the data/environment will be observer (directly
or indirectly) and How will researcher tackle the
participants and other variables.
WHERE?
Within a spatial confine, it defines where does the act
take place.
ADVANTAGES
AND DISADVANTAGESOF
OBSERVATION
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Collect data where and when an
event or activity is occurring.
Susceptible to observer bias.
Does not rely on peoples
willingness or ability to provide
information.
Susceptible to the hawthorne
effect, that is, people usually
perform better when they know
they are being observed,
although indirect observation although indirect observation
may decrease this problem.
Allows you to directly see what
people do rather than relying on
what people say they did.
Can be expensive and time-
consuming compared to other
data collection methods
Does not increase your
understanding of why people
behave as they do
Research Design is
classified on the basis
of the Approach used of the Approach used
to gather Primary
Data.
Observe
People,
Communicate with
people about topics
like Participants
Attitudes, Intentions,
Motives and
Expectations.
People,
Conditions,
Behavior,
Events or
Processes.
Expectations.
Which
Approach to
use?
Communication
Approach
Creation and
Selection of the
Measurement
Question
Instrument
Design
Sampling
Issues
Approach
Affects the
following
Instrument
Design
Data
Collection
Processes
Issues
A survey is a
measurement process used
to collect information
during a highly structured
interview with or without
the human interviewer. the human interviewer.
To drive comparable
data across subsets of data across subsets of
the sample to find
similarities and
differences.
Strength of the Survey Strength of the Survey
as a Primary Data
collecting Approach
Greater Strength is
its Versatility
Less time and
effort consuming
Telephone, e-mail,
computer, internet can
expand geographic
coverage
Abstract
information of all
types gathered
All
communication communication
research has
some error
Researcher can not get
Business Decision maker
answer a research
question if:
Questions are
crafted/selected
inappropriately
Or have used
inappropriate
instructions
to find
information.
Asked in an
inappropriate
order or
inappropriate
transitions
are used
Error In
Communication
Research
Participants
Measurement
Questions
Interviewers
Three Major Sources of
Error
Participants
Interview Error
Major source of Major source of
sampling error and
response bias
It is caused by:
1. Failure to secure
full participants full participants
cooperation
(sampling error)
E.g. Customer feedback
surveys taken at restaurants
dont provide clear info as
to what is the usage of this to what is the usage of this
info collected.
How to Reduce this error?
Stressing the
Training of
receptionist to serve
Stressing the
importance
information needed
receptionist to serve
as a question
interpreter or prober
2.Failure to record answers
accurately and completely (data
entry error)
E.g. There are open ended question and
space to write answer is limited or
insufficient which results in
incomplete info.
3. Failure to consistently execute
interview procedures
E.g. Interviewer collecting data from
patients waiting in any clinic and he
defines the terms differently to every
patient present there.
4. Failure to establish appropriate
interview environment
E.g. Like surveys conducted outside malls
on streets when people are walking and
there is no place to sit or anything.
5. Falsification of individual
answers or whole interviews
E.g. like collecting info from people even
seeing they are in a hurry and are most
likely to fill DK options or other easy ones.
6. Inappropriate influencing
behavior
E.g. interviewer dressed too casual or
informal when conducting a survey about
the potential new branch of an existing
business from higher ups of the business.
7. Physical presence bias
E.g. if an old interviewer is sent to conduct survey
about whether to open up a cigar lounge or a
formal restaurant from youngsters then they are
more likely to say restaurant out of respect for
old interviewer and mould their response cause
of the authority.
Participation
Based
Errors
Whether they
respond and how
they respond
That participation is worth their time,
Participants must
believe
Would be satisfying an experience
And must dismiss all mental reservations about
participation to have a successful participation.
Participants feel
reserved from being
interviewed because:
They suspect
interviewer to
Interview
maybe
interviewer to
have illegitimate
purpose.
They feel topic
is too sensitive.
maybe
embarrassing
or intrusive.
Response
Based Errors
:
Participants fails to give correct Participants fails to give correct
answers.
Participants fail to give complete
answers.
E.g. When the interviewer asks question
regarding our preferable dressing and the
participant chooses eastern because of the
society even though she likes more of society even though she likes more of
western that is because of the social
desirability bias or acquiescence etc.
COMMUNICATION
APPROACHES
ADVANTAGES
Self Administered
Surveys
Telephone Surveys Personal Interview
Self Administered
Surveys
Telephone Surveys Personal Interview
Low response rate Response rate is lower
than for personal
interview
High costs
No interviewer intention Higher cost if Need for highly trained
DISADVANTAGES
No interviewer intention
or probing
Higher cost if
interviewing
geographically dispersed
sample
Need for highly trained
interviewers
Cant be long or complex Interview length must be
limited.
Long time needed in
field collecting data
Accurate mailing lists
needed.
Many phone numbers
are unlisted or are not
working.
May be wide geographic
dispersion
Self Administered
Surveys
Telephone Surveys Personal Interview
Need for low distraction
environment for survey
completion
Some target groups are
not available by phone.
Follow-up is labor
intensive
Skewed responses Incomplete responses Not all participants are
available or accessible
Directions or computer
instructions needed
Illustrations can not be
used.
Participants often
unwilling to talk to
strangers
Computer security Some places are hard to
visit.
Questions can be
altered or participants
coached by
interviewers.
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Experimentation
An experiment
is a study
involving
intervention by
The usual
intervention is to
manipulate some
variable in a setting intervention by
the researcher
beyond that
required for
measurement.
variable in a setting
and observe how it
affects the
participants or
subjects being
studied.
There is at least one
independent
variable (IV) and
one dependent
variable (DV) in a variable (DV) in a
causal relationship.
We hypothesize
that, in some way,
the IV causes the
DV to occur.
You could do an experiment by setting
up a situation in which you could
manipulate the noise level (IV)
perhaps by making it really loud for
For Example:
perhaps by making it really loud for
one group of people and really soft for
another. And of course you could give
them a task that requires
concentration, and their performance
on this task would be the DV.
1. There must be an
agreement between
independent and
Three types of evidences
necessary to support causality.
independent and
dependent variables. The
presence or absence of
one is associated with the
presence or absence of the
other.
2. Beyond the correlation of
independent and dependent
variables, we consider the time order
of the occurrence of the variables.
The effect on the dependent variable
should not precede the manipulation should not precede the manipulation
of the independent variable. The
effect and manipulation may occur
simultaneously or the manipulation
may occur before the effect.
3. Support comes when researchers
are confident that other
extraneous variables did not
influence the dependent variable.
To ensure that these other To ensure that these other
variables are not the source of
influence, researchers control
their ability to confound the
planned comparison.
Difference between
Experimentation & Other
Primary Data Collection
Methods:
In other methods, the
researcher is required to
accept the world as it is found
whereas an experiment allows
the researcher to the researcher to
systematically alter the
variables of interest and
observe what changes follow.
Evaluation of Experiments
Ability to manipulate IV
Use of control group Use of control group
Control of extraneous variables
Replication possible
Field experiments possible
Artificiality of labs
Non-representative sample
Expense
Focus on present and
immediate future
Ethical limitations
Experimentation in the
Research Process:
Conducting an Experiment:
The seven activities a
researcher must researcher must
accomplish to make
the endeavor
successful:
Select relevant variables.
Specify the treatment levels.
Control the experimental
environment.
Choose the experimental design. Choose the experimental design.
Select & assign the subjects.
Pilot test, revise & test.
Collect & analyze the data.
Select relevant variables.
Researchers challenges:
Select variables that are
the best operational
definitions of the original
concepts
Constraints:
Project budget
Time allocated
Availability of
Determine how many
variables to test
Select or design
appropriate measures for
the chosen variables
Availability of
appropriate controls
Number of
subjects being
tested
In an experiment, participants experience a
manipulation of the independent variable,
called the experimental treatment. The
treatment levels are the arbitrary or
natural groups the researcher makes within
Specify the treatment levels.
natural groups the researcher makes within
the independent variable.
A control group is a group of participants
that is measured but not expose the
independent variable being studied.
Control the experimental
environment
Environmental control means holding the
physical environment of the experiment
constant.
Other forms of control involve subjects
and experimenters.
When participants do not know if they are
receiving the experimental treatment, they
are said to be blind.
When neither the participant nor the
researcher knows, the experiment is said
to be double-blind.
In the conduct of the experiment,
the researchers apply their
knowledge to select one design that
is best suited to the goals of the
Choose the experimental design.
is best suited to the goals of the
research.
Fair selection of the design means a
more accurate result of the
experiment.
Select & assign the subjects
The participants selected
for the experiment should
be representative of the be representative of the
population to which the
researcher wishes to
generalize the studys
results.
Three ways of selecting & assigning subjects:
Random assignment uses a randomized
sample frame for assigning participants to
experimental and control groups.
Matching is an equalizing process for
assigning participants to experimental and
control groups. Matching employs a non-
probability quota sampling approach.
Quota matrix is a means of visualizing the
matching process.
Intended to reveal errors in the
design & improper control of
extraneous or environmental
conditions. conditions.
(Pretesting enables researchers to
refine the design & controls before
the final test).
Collect & analyze the data.
The data collected from experiments
is more conveniently arranged than
data from other primary data
collection methods, because of the collection methods, because of the
levels of the treatment conditions,
pretests and posttests, and the group
structure.
Conducting an Experiment Example:
WuXi PharmaTech, a
pharmaceutical company,
manufactured a new drug
specifically for joint pain relief due specifically for joint pain relief due
to arthritis. They conducted an
experiment to test the performance
of the drug. Here are the steps they
followed.
Determine what is going to be
studied:
WuXi PharmaTech conducted
this experiment to test the this experiment to test the
performance of their new drug
specifically for joint pain relief
due to arthritis.
Choose the subjects:
This was done by WuXi
PharmaTech at random as to
include diverse ages, medical include diverse ages, medical
histories, environmental
backgrounds, race and gender,
including only those with
arthritis.
Divide subjects into two groups at random;
one that will be the control and one that will
receive the treatment being tested:
The control group will be given a placebo or
an alternative form of treatment and will
provide a baseline result to which the provide a baseline result to which the
treatment group's results are compared. This
placebo group is also there in order to
eliminate placebo effect, which can also skew
the results.
Environmental control:
It was a double blinded study;
the subjects did not know
which group they are in until which group they are in until
after their participation is
complete. Experimenters were
also not aware of which group
each subject is in.
Time frame for which the
treatment was applied: 10 weeks
Administer the treatments and Administer the treatments and
placebo to the respective
groups.
Interpret the results of the study:
WuXi PharmaTech used statistical
analysis technique known as a T-Test.
WuXi PharmaTech, the p-value was WuXi PharmaTech, the p-value was
0.034. This means that the treatment
has a different effect on a subject than
the placebo and therefore the
treatment is effective.
PRESENTED BY
ADEES AHMED (02)
ANUM ILYAS (11)
BISMAH AHMED (15) BISMAH AHMED (15)
HINA ABID (18)
MARIA ILYAS (28)
NOOR ABBAS BALOCH (42)