GEOLOGY BASICS

Earth's Internal Structure

The Earth's interior is characterized by a
gradual increase in temperature, pressure and
density with depth.
At only 100 km depth, the temp is ~1300C.
At the Earth's center, the temperature is
>6700C.
The pressure in the crust increases ~280 bars
for every kilometer depth



Interior of the Earth (overall density = 5.5 g/cm
3
)
Earths interior is made up of three layers:
1. Crust is the thin (<100 km) outermost layer of
the Earth and has a density of 2.53 g/cm
3
.
2. Mantle is the thick (2,900 km), solid layer
between the crust and the Earths core. Density of
the mantle is 39 g/cm
3
. The crust floats on top
of the mantle.
3. Core is the central part of the Earth, composed of
a solid inner core and a liquid outer core.
Density of the core ranges from 913 g/cm
3
and
is probably composed of iron and nickel.

Layering by Strength
Most of the Earth is not molten and most of the lava
from volcanoes rises upward from a narrow region of
the mantle which is partially molten.
The shape of a planet is determined by the strength and
fluidity of the inside as well as the strength of gravity
Large worlds (> 500 km diameter) are round
Small worlds are irregular in shape
The crust and the top part of the mantle is relatively
cool region of rock called the lithosphere that floats on
the rest of the mantle.

Lithosphere (0 to ~100 km)
It's very stiff, and fractures if you push too
hard

The outer 75 km (with big variations between
10 and 300km) of the earth is a region which
does not get heated up to near-melting because
it is losing heat rapidly to the surface - it is
stuck at a temperature close to 0C. This
relatively cool shell is called the lithosphere.

Plate Tectonics
A relatively recent theory that the Earth's crust is
composed of rigid plates that move relative to one
another.
Plate movements are on the order of a few
centimeters/year - about the same rate as your
fingernails grow!
There are 3 types of plate boundaries:
1. divergent
2. convergent
3. transform


Convergent boundaries - plates move
together forming a subduction zone and
mountain chains.
Divergent boundaries - plates move apart
forming the mid-ocean ridge(edge,fold) and
seafloor spreading.
Transform boundaries - plates grind past
one another. These boundaries subdivide the
mid-ocean ridge and also form the San
Andreas fault system.

A simplified model of tectonic plates and the
location and nature of earthquakes.

Plate Boundaries
Plate boundaries are the boundaries where the real
action occurs.
The plates are all moving relative to each other. At the boundary between
two plates, there must be some motion of one relative to the other. You get
three possibilities:
Spreading center: Divergent boundary
At the top of a rising convection limb. Heat is being brought up. Volcanism.
Usually under-ocean. Often associated with a rift valley.
Collision zone: Convergent boundary
Cold lithosphere bends downward and begins sinking into the mantle
(subduction). Mountains are squeezed up here by the collision. Most
earthquakes occur here.

Parallel plate motion: Transform / Transcurrent / Strike Slip faulting
The San Andreas Fault is the most famous transform fault system.


Geologic Time
Absolute (Radiometric) Dating:
Using radioactive decay of elements to determine the absolute
age of rocks. This is done using igneous and metamorphic
rocks.


Types of Rocks
There are three types of rocks
1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
Two Types of Igneous Rocks
Extrusive (Exterior)
Intrusive (Interior)
Igneous rocks that solidify into rock beneath Earths
surface
Coarse Grained
Cool Slowly
Granite

Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Extrusive (Exterior)
Igneous rocks that solidify into rock on Earths
surface
Fine Grained
Cool Quickly

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS
Intrusive (Interior)
Igneous rocks that solidify into rock beneath
Earths surface
Coarse Grained
Cool Slowly
Granite

IGNEOUS ROCK FORMATION
ORIGIN OF MAGMA
Where does the heat come from that melts rocks?
Formation of Earth
Heat from the decay of radioactive elements
Factors that Affect Magma Formation
Temperature
Increases with depth
Pressure
Increases with depth
Water Content
Decreases melting point
Mineral Composition
Different minerals, different melting points

2. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphism
Transition of one rock into another by temperatures
and/or pressures unlike those in which it formed
Metamorphic rocks are produced from
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Other metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism progresses incrementally from low-
grade to high-grade
During metamorphism the rock must remain solid

AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
Heat
Most important agent
Recrystallization results in new, stable minerals
Two sources of heat
Contact metamorphism heat from magma
An increase in temperature with depth -
geothermal gradient (20 to 30 degrees Celsius per
kilometer of depth)

Pressure and differential stress
Increases with depth
Confining pressure applies forces equally in all
directions
Rocks may also be subjected to differential stress
which is unequal in different directions
Chemically active fluids
Mainly water
Enhances migration of ions
Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals
Sources of fluids
Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks
Fractures in igneous rocks
Hydrated minerals such as clays and micas

COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Foliated rocks
Slate
Very fine-grained
Excellent rock cleavage
Most often generated from low-grade metamorphism of shale,
mudstone, or siltstone
Phyllite
Gradational between slate and schist
Platy minerals not large enough to be identified with the
unaided eye
Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces
Exhibits rock cleavage
Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite and/or chlorite

Slate (left) and Phyllite (right)
Schist
Medium- to coarse-grained
Platy minerals (mainly micas) predominate
The term schist describes the texture
To indicate composition, mineral names are used
(such as mica schist)
Gneiss
Medium- to coarse-grained
Banded appearance
High-grade metamorphism
Often composed of light-colored feldspar-rich layers
with bands of dark ferromagnesian minerals

Garnet-mica schist
Nonfoliated rocks
Marble
Coarse, crystalline
Parent rock was limestone or dolostone
Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite crystals
Used as a decorative and monument stone
Exhibits a variety of colors
Quartzite
Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone
Quartz grains are fused together

Quartzite (Left) Marble (Right)
3. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sediment becomes sedimentary rock through
lithification, which involves:
Compaction
Cementation
Recrystallization (of carbonate sediment)

Process of Sedimentary Rock Formation
Types of sedimentary rocks
Overview
Terrigenous (detrital or clastic)
Conglomerate or Breccia
Sandstone
Siltstone
Shale
Chemical/biochemical
Evaporites
Carbonate sedimentary rocks (limestones and dolostone)
Siliceous sedimentary rocks
Organic (coals)
Other - ironstones
Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary Environments
Fossils