1

ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CYCLES

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Conservation of energy for closed system:
Q - W = AE
Cycle returns system to initial state
No net change in system energy
Q
cycle
= W
cycle
1
2 3
4
V
P
Thermodynamic Cycle: Sequence
of process paths returning to
original state.
Y :: Property
}
= 0 dY
POWER CYCLES
Conversion of thermal energy to
useful work
Qin cannot be converted
perfectly to W
cycle
Q
out
will always be present
Thermal efficiency:
Hot Body
System
Cold Body
Q
in
Q
out
W
cycle
=Q
in
-Q
out
in
out
in
cycle
power
Q
Q
Q
W
= = 1 q
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
Work is used to extract heat
from cold body
Q
out
will be greater than Q
in
C.O.P.:
(Coefficient of Performance)
Hot Body
System
Cold Body
Q
in
Q
out
W
cycle
=Q
out
-Q
in
in out
in
cycle
in
refrig
Q Q
Q
W
Q

= = |
HEAT PUMP CYCLE
Work is used to supply
heat to hot body
Q
out
will be greater than
Q
in
C.O.P.:
Hot Body
System
Cold Body
Q
in
Q
out
W
cycle
=Q
out
-Q
in
in out
out
cycle
out
hp
Q Q
Q
W
Q

= =
2
Example:
The thermal efficiency of a power cycle operating as shown in the figure is 30%, and
Q
out
=650 MJ. Determine the net work developed and the heat transfer Q
in
, each in MJ.
Hot Body
System
Cold Body
Q
in
Q
out
W
cycle
=Q
in
-Q
out
Example:
A power cycle has a thermal efficiency of 35% and generates electricity at a rate of 100 MW.
The electricity is valued at $0.08/kW-h. Based on the cost of fuel, the cost to supply Q
in
is
$4.50/GJ. For 8000 hours of operation annually, determine, in $
(a) the value of electricity generated per year
(b) the annual fuel cost
Example:
A gas undergoes a thermodynamic cycle consisting of three processes:
Process 1-2: compression with pV=const., from p
1
=1 bar, V
1
=1.6 m
3
to V
2
=0.2 m
3
, U
2
-U
1
=0
Process 2-3: constant pressure to V
3
=V
1
Process 3-1: constant volume, U
1
-U
3
=-3549 kJ
There are no significant changes in kinetic or potential energy. Determine the heat transfer
and work for Process 2-3, in kJ. Is this a power cycle or a refrigeration cycle?
Example problem:
Known: My coffee is cold (room temperature, m=0.25 kg). I
microwave it, which transfers 70 kJ of radiation (heat transfer) to
the liquid. I also stir it vigorously adding 10 kJ of energy (paddle-
wheel work). What is the change in internal energy? What is the
temperature change (this is what I really care about)?
Analysis:
3
State Principle
State Principle: The equilibrium state of a simple, pure substance is fixed by
specifying two, independent, intensive properties.
Equilibrium state = balance of all forces, no gradients in system
Pure = uniform and constant chemical composition; homogenous
Simple = only one relevant, quasi-equilibrium work mode
Most important case is simple compressible system for which only quasiequilibrium
work mode is
IMPORTANT: two intensive properties fix the state, but a single extensive
property (usually mass) must also be known to specify the size of the system.
W p d V =
}
Important consequences of state principle
We know (calculated, were given, measured):
p and T can look up v and u
v and T can look up p and u
u and T can look up p and v
p and u can look up v and T
Three ways of looking up these property relationships:
(1) Graph p-v-T surface
(2) Table property tables
(3) Equation equation of state
Today we will look at the graphical technique
THE p-v-T SURFACE
Three-dimensional representation of equation of state for simple
compressible substance
Best representation of phase transformations (solid-liquid-gas),
shows one-, two-, and three-phase regions along with saturation
states between them.
Phase Changes
- Sublimation (solid-gas)
- Evaporation or condensation (liquid-gas)
- Melting or freezing (solid-liquid)
( ) p f T v = ,
4
Phase Change Process

Consider phase change process at constant
pressure, i.e. pure water in sealed cylinder


A)






B)









Mass
P = 1 atm, T = 20 C
Compressed liquid
Mass
P = 1 atm, T = 100 C
Saturated liquid
V increases slightly
Q
Phase Change Process

C)









D)






E)




Mass
P = 1 atm, T = 100 C
Liquid-vapor mixture
V increases dramatically
Q
Mass
P = 1 atm, T = 100 C
Saturated Vapor
V increases
Q
Mass
P = 1 atm, T = 300 C
Superheated vapor
V increases as about V~T
Phase Change Process
Plot T vs. Volume for constant pressure phase change process:
Note: T and p are NOT independent properties for a liquid-vapor mixture (2-
phase region).
v (d) v (c) v (b) v (a) v (e)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
volume (m^3)
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

C
)
5
Different types of 2-D diagrams
Phase Diagram - (p-T diagram) - demonstrates that at all phase
change locations (saturation curves), pressure and temperature not
independent
p-v Diagram - Most commonly used diagram for process
visualization. Clear representation of boundary work,
T-v Diagram - Usually replaced by T-s diagrams (later), which allow
heat transfer visualization similar to work visualization in p-v
diagram.
Could also construct u-T diagrams, v-u diagrams, etc.
W p d V =
}
Important Definitions
Critical point - saturated liquid and vapor lines meet: no differentiation between
liquid and gas (fluid), maximum pressure for separate liquid state
- Critical temperature (T
c
): temperature at the critical point
- Critical pressure (P
c
): pressure at the critical point
- maximum P and T for which liquid and vapor coexist
Saturation temperature (T
sat
): the temperature at which a phase change takes place
at a given pressure
Saturation pressure (P
sat
): the pressure at which a phase change takes place at a
given temperature
Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): liquid in which the pressure is greater than
the saturation pressure or equivalently the temperature is lower than the
saturation temperature
Superheated vapor: vapor in which the temperature is greater than
the saturation temperature
Isotherm: curve of constant temperature
Isobar: curve of constant pressure
Quality:
Vapor Dome - vapor-liquid, two-phase region
Triple line - Solid-Liquid-Vapor equilibrium, a single point (triple
point) on P-T diagram
x
m
m m
v a p o r
l i q u i d v a p o r
=
+
Property Tables
Water:
Saturated water (liquid-vapor): Tables A-2, A-3
Superheated water: Table A-4
Compressed water (supercooled): Table A-5
Saturated water (solid-vapor): Table A-6
Refrigerant 22: Tables A-7, A-8, A-9
Refrigerant 134a: Tables A-10, A-11, A-12
Ammonia: Tables A-13, A-14, A-15
Propane: Tables A-16, A-17, A-18
Ideal Gases: Tables A-20 through A-23
British units: Table A-2E through A-23E
6
The equilibrium state of a simple pure substance is fixed by specifying two
independent intensive properties.
Property Tables:
1. Superheated vapor
2. Compressed liquid
3. Liquid-vapor region or
Procedure for using tables:
1. Go to the saturation table (2-phase) for the correct substance
2. Determine the phase of the substance
3. Go to the correct phase table for the correct substance
4. Look up the property
( ) f p T ,
( ) f p T ,
( ) {} , p f ( ) {} , T f
Examples:
1) What is the internal energy of water at p=1 bar and T=200 C?
2) What is the pressure of water at T=200 C and v=0.4249 m
3
/kg?
3) Liquid water and steam coexist at p=3.0 bar. What is the
temperature and internal energy?
4) Why cant you make a good cup of coffee on top of Mt. Everest?
Interpolation
Most often, the state of the system does not fall exactly on a table grid
point
What is the internal energy of water at p=3 bar and T=180 C?
Could use value at T=200 C (closest grid point) which yields 1-2%
error
OR interpolate between grid points by assuming that the missing
data is linear
u = CT + uo
We know u1 @ T1 and u2 @ T2 (the two closest grid points)
We want u3 @ T3
u
1
= C T
1
+ u
o
u
2
= C T
2
+ u
o
Subtracting: (u
1
-u
2
) = C(T
1
-T
2
)
C = (u
1
-u
2
)/(T
1
-T
2
)
u
o
= u
1
-T
1
(u
1
-u
2
)/(T
1
-T
2
) = u
2
-T
2
(u
1
-u
2
)/(T
1
-T
2
)
u
3
= T
3
(u
1
-u
2
)/(T
1
-T
2
)+u
1
-T
1
(u
1
-u
2
)/(T
1
-T
2
)
u
3
= (u
1
-u
2
)(T
3
-T
1
)/(T
1
-T
2
) + u
1
On all homework, always interpolate if necessary
On quizzes and exams, use the closest grid point if you do not have
time to interpolate
7
TWO-PHASE REGION
For a given temperature there is only one pressure
For a given pressure there is only one temperature
v and u (and h and s, used later) are defined at the saturated liquid and saturated
vapor point:
v
f
= function of T or p only = specific volume if all of the substance is liquid
v
g
= function of T or p only = specific volume if all of the substance is vapor
Recall that the quality, x, tells us how much mass of vapor versus liquid is in our
system. This is often our second property required to fix the state.
Thus,
--use tables to evaluate v
g
and v
f
--for two-phase mixture, the average specific volume is:
Similarly, for any mixture property:
Calculation of quality from properties:
tot
g g f f
m
m v m v
m
V
v
+
= =
( )
tot
g g g tot f
m
m v m m v
v
+
=
g
tot
g
f
tot
g
f
v
m
m
v
m
m
v v + =
g f
xv v x v + = ) 1 (
) (
f g f
v v x v v + =
fg f
xv v v + =
fg f f g f m
xY Y Y Y x Y Y + = + = ) (
x
Y Y
Y Y
Y Y
Y
m f
g f
m f
f g
=

=

Examples:
1) What is the internal energy of water at p=2.5 bar and x=0.5?
2) What is the internal energy of water at T=180 C and x=0.3?
3) What is the quality of water with v = 0.1 m
3
/kg at T=150 C?
4) What is the temperature of water at p=3.0 bar and u=2000 kJ/kg?
u=3000 kJ/kg
INTERNAL ENERGY and ENTHALPY
Recall that total energy,
E = KE + PE + U
Internal energy: Measure of energy stored at the
molecular level.
Enthalpy:
What are the units?
Enthalpy is a completely derived quantity. It is not necessary, but the term u+pv
shows up so often (especially in open system analysis) that h is a time-saving
quantity to tabulate.
U U T v m = ( , , )
( ) u u T v U m = = ,
H U p V = +
h u p v h T v = + = ( , )
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Values of u and h listed relative to a reference state.
For simple compressible system the differential form of the first law
of thermodynamics is
where

Thus for a constant volume process,

For a constant pressure process,
o o Q W d U =
o W p d V =
o Q d U p d V = +
Q U = A
Q H = A
Example
1) What is the enthalpy (Btu/lbm) of water at 30 lbf/in
2
and 420 F?
First: What phase is it in?
Double interpolation
Neither data point falls on a grid point thus we must interpolate in
two directions.
T=
EXAMPLE
Given: System consisting of 2 lb of water undergoes the following cycle.
1-2: adiabatic compression from p
1
=200 psi, x
1
= 90% to p
2
=600 psi, T
2
=500 F
2-3: isothermal process with W
23
= 236.2 Btu to p
3
= 200 psi
3-1: isobaric process
Find: Net work and heat transfers
Assumptions: 1. closed system 2. AKE=APE=0
Solution:
SPECIFIC HEATS
( ) v T u u , =
dv
v
u
dT
T
u
du
T v
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
c
c
v
v
T
u
c |
.
|
=
c
c
dv
v
u
dT c du
T
v |
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
9
( ) pv u p T h h + = = ,
dp
p
h
dT
T
h
dh
T p
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
=
c
c
c
c
p
p
T
h
c |
.
|
=
c
c
dp
p
h
dT c dh
T
p |
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
SPECIFIC HEATS
Notes:
1. c
v
and c
p
are properties of a single-phase substance (just like u, v, h, etc.). They
can be a function of temperature and pressure.
2. specific heat can be characterized as a measure of energy required to change the
temperature of a substance
3. the ratio of specific heats is often used in calculations
IMPORTANT: specific heats are only specify energy changes of a substance
due to temperature. A systems energy can also change because of pressure or
phase changes and these must be considered separately.
v
p
c
c
k =
For a simple, compressible, closed system
1. Constant Volume:
2. Constant Pressure:
NOTE: you must substitute the function c
v
(T) or c
p
(T) and carefully integrate
(Table A20-21)
What if the specific heat is constant?
dp
p
h
dT c dh
T
p |
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
dv
v
u
dT c du
T
v |
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
c
dT c m U
T
T
v }
= A
2
1
dT c m H
T
T
p }
= A
2
1
LIQUID AND SOLID PROPERTIES
Compressed liquid tables are not available for most substances
However, pressure has only a small effect on the internal energy or
specific volume of solids and liquids
Therefore, u and v for a compressed liquid are essentially equal to the
values for a saturated liquid at the same temperature
Thus
Convince yourself using water tables
( ) ) ( , T v p T v
f
~ ( ) ( ) T u p T u
f
~ ,
( ) ( ) T pv T u p T h
f f
+ ~ ) ( ,
( ) ( ) ( ) | | T p p T v T h p T h
sat f f
+ ~ ) ( ,
10
INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCES
We can further assume that v = constant (see the water tables)
Implication: equal specific heats (Table A19)

Often incompressible substances (especially solids) will be assumed

to have a constant c
A A
A A A
u c T
h c T v P
=
= +
( ) T c c
T
u
T
h
c
v
v p
p
= = |
.
|

\
|
c
c
= |
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
Example Problems
A quantity of water is at 15 MPa and 100 C. Evaluate the specific volume (m
3
/kg) and the
specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) using
(a) Data from Table A-5
(b) Saturated liquid data from, Table A-A
A well-insulated copper tank of mass 13 kg contains 4 kg of liquid water. Initially, the
temperature of the copper is 27 C and the temperature of the water is 50 C. An electrical
resistor of negligible mass transfers 100 kJ of energy to the contents of the tank. The tank
and its contents come to equilibrium. What is the final temperature (C).