IEEE

Power Engineering Society

Tutorial on Harmonics Modeling and
Simulation

C!D
IEEE
TP-125-0
Tutorial on
Harmonics Modeling and Simulation
IEEEPower Engineering Society Task Force onHarmonics Modeling and Simulation
IEEEPower Engineering SocietyHarmonics Working Group
Sponsoredby the Life Long Learning Subcommittee of the
IEEE Power EngineeringEducation Committee
IEEE Power Engineering Society
Tutorial On
HARMONICS MODELING AND SIMULATION
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FOREWORD
The problemof power system harmonics is not new. Utilities recognizedthe consequences ofhannonics in
the 1920s and early 1930s when distorted voltage and current waveforms were observed on transmission lines. At
that time, the major concerns werethe effects of harmonics on electric machines, telephone interference and power
capacitor failures. Althoughsuch concerns still exist today, harmonics are becoming a serious problem, potentially
damaging consumer loads as well as power delivery equipment because of the substantial increase of harmonic-
producing loads in recent years.
Significant efforts have been made in the past two decades to improve the management of harmonics in
power systems. Standards for harmonic control have been established. Sophisticated instruments for harmonic
measurements are readily available. The area of power system harmonic analysis has also experienced significant
developments and well-accepted component models, simulation methods and analysis procedures for conducting
harmonic studies have been established. Harmonic studies are becoming an important component of power system
analysis and design.
The progress in the area of power system harmonic modeling and simulation and the need of practicing
engineers to upgrade their harmonic analysis skills were recognized by the Power System Harmonics Working
Group of the IEEE Power Engineering Society and the Harmonics Working Group of the IEEE Industry
ApplicationsSociety. Under the sponsorship of the Transmission and Distribution Committeein the IEEE-PESand
the Power Systems EngineeringCommittee in the IEEE-lAS, the Harmonics Modeling and Simulation Task Force
of the PES Harmonics Working Group and the lAS Harmonics Working Group have developed this tutorial on
harmonics modeling and simulation. Thepurpose of the tutorial is to summarize the developments in the area from
both theoretical as well as application perspectives. Latest and proven techniques for harmonic modeling and
simulation are discussed along with case studies. By focusing on the practical aspects of applying harmonic
modeling and simulationtheories, the tutorial is expectedto provide readerswith a soundtheoretical backgroundas
well as practical guidelinesfor harmonic analysis.
We begin the tutorial with an introduction to the objectives and key issues of harmonics modeling and
simulation. The theoryof Fourier analysis is discussed for applications in power systemharmonicanalysis. Detailed
discussionof modeling of electricnetworks andcomponents including harmonic-producing devices then follows in
several papers. Various network solution techniques for harmonic power flow and frequency scan calculations are
summarizedand casestudies are used to demonstrate the practical aspects of harmonicanalysis. Three harmonictest
systems are presented. Finally, the areas that stillneedfurther research and development are discussedin the closing
commentsof this tutorial.
This tutorial material has drawnon the considerable expertise of the Harmonics WorkingGroups andtheir
task forces. The contributors have generously donatedtheir time and effort to what we believe will be a valuable
reference work on the subject. In addition, guidance and encouragement of Mr. Tom Gentile, Chair of the PES
Harmonics Working Group and Dr. Mack Grady, Chair of the General Systems Subcommittee of the PES T&D
Committee made our task much easier. Dr. M.E. El-Hawary, Chair of Life Long Learning Subcommittee of the
IEEE Power Engineering Education Committee, provided generous support to many aspects of this activity. We
wish to takethis opportunityto thankall contributors for their effort in completingthis task.
MarkHalpin, Tutorial Editor
WilsunXu, Tutorial Organizer andChair, PESHarmonics Modelingand SimulationTask Force
SatishRanade, Past Chair, PES Harmonics Modeling and Simulation Task Force
Paulo F. Ribeiro, Vice Chair, PESHarmonics Modeling and Simulation Task Force
iii
Tutorial Contents

Forward M. Halpin, W. Xu,
S. Ranade
G. Chang 8
P. Ribeiro 15
G. Chang, W. Xu 28
Y. Liu, Z. Wang 35
T. Ortmeyer, M.F. 43
Akram, T. Hiyama
M. Halpin, P. 49
Ribeiro, J.J. Dai
C. Hatziadoniu 55
w. Xu, S. Ranade 61
M. Halpin, 67
R. Burch
W.Xu 71
M. Halpin 78
79
1. AnOverview of Harmonics Modeling and
Simulation
2. Harmonics Theory
3. Distribution System and Other Elements
Modeling
4. Modeling ofHarmonic Sources: Power
Electronic Converters
5. Modeling ofHannonic Sources - Magnetic
Core Saturation
6. Harmonic Modeling of Networks
7. Frequency-Domain Harmonic Analysis
Methods
8. Time Domain Methodsfor the Calculation of
Harmonic Propagation and Distortion
9. Analysis of Unbalanced Harmonic Propagation
inMultiphase Power Systems
10. Harmonic Limit Compliance Evaluations Using
IEEE519-1992
11. Test Systems for Harmonics Modeling and
Simulation
Conclusions
Author Biographies
v
S. Ranade, W. Xu 1
Chapter 1
AN OVERVIEW OF HARl\10NICS MODELING AND SIMULATION
s. J. Ranade
NewMexico State University
Las Cruces, NM, USA
W.Xu
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
1 3 S 7 9 11 13 1S 17 19 21 23 2S 27 29 31
Harmonic Order
Figure1.1. Aharmonic (amplitude) spectrum.
.:-: -.-.
0.0164 0.0123 0.0082
Harmonic spectrum
Time Sees
0.0041
Fundamental
-1
-1.5
o
0.80
0.70
0.90
-8 0.60
::I
i 0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20 .
0.10
-0.5
Figure 1.2. Synthesis of a waveformfromharmonics.
The waveformis aperiodic where theFourier series is an
approximation [4].
0.5
1.5
1.00
The waveform is aperiodic but can be expressed as a
trigonometric series [3]. In this case the components in
the Fourier series that are not integral multiples of the
power frequency are sometimes called 'non-integer'
harmonics.
1.1 Introduction
00
f(t)=C
o+
:LCacos(nmt+9a) (1.1)
11=1
where Co is the dc value of the function. ell is the peak
value of the nTh harmonic component and ell is its phase
angIe. A plot of normalized harmonic amplitudes eric} is
called the harmonic magnitude spectrum, as illustrated in
Figure 1.1. The superposition of harmonic components to
createtheoriginal waveform is shownin Figure 1.2
Domain of Application: In general one can think of
devices that produce distortion as exhibiting a nonlinear
relationship between voltage and current. Such
relationships can lead to several forms of distortion
summarized as:
Fourier Series: Theprimary scopeof harmonics modeling
and simulation is in the study of periodic, steady-state
distortion. The Fourier series for a regular, integrable,
periodic function f(t), of periodT seconds and fundamental
frequency f=lrr Hz, or eo=21tfradls, canbewritten as [3]:
Distortion of sinusoidal voltageandcurrent waveforms
caused by harmonics is one of the major power quality
concerns in electric power industry. Considerable efforts
have been made in recent years to improve the
management of harmonic distortions in power systems.
Standards for harmonic control have been established.
Instruments for harmonic measurements are widely
available. The areaof powersystemharmonic analysis has
also experienced significant advancement [1,2]. Well-
accepted component models, simulation methods and
analysis procedures for conducting systematic harmonic
studies havebeendeveloped. In this chapter wepresentan
overview of the harmonics modeling andsimulation issues
andalsoprovide anoutline of this tutorial.
1.2 Fourier Seriesand Power System Harmonics
A periodic steady-state exists and the distorted
waveform has a Fourier series with fundamental
frequency equal topower systemfrequency.
A periodic steady state exists and the distorted
waveform has a Fourier series with fundamental
frequency that is a sub-multiple of power system
frequency.
The first case is commonly encountered and there are
several advantages to using the decomposition in tenns of
harmonics. Harmonics have a physical interpretation andan
intuitive appeal. Since the transmission network is usually
modeled as a linear system, the propagation of each
harmonic can be studied independent of the others. The
number of harmonics to be considered is usually small.
which simplifies computation. Consequences such as losses
1
can be related to harmonic components and measures of
waveform quality can he developed in terms of harmonic
amplitudes.
Certain types of pulsed or modulated loads create
waveforms corresponding to the secondcategory. The third
category can occur in certain pulse-width modulated
systems. Somepractical situations such as arc furnaces and
transformer inrush currents correspond to the fourth case.
DC arc furnaces utilize conventional multiphase rectifiers
but the underlying process of melting is not a stationary
process. When reference is made to harmonics in this
instance it corresponds to the periodic waveform that
would be obtained if furnace conditions were to be
maintained constant over a period of time. Harmonics
modeling can lend insight into some of the potential
problems but transient studies becomeveryimportant.
The Origin of Harmonics: Main sources of harmonics in
conventional power systems are summarized below.
1. Devices involving electronic switching: Electronic
power processingequipment utilizes switching devices.
The switching process is generally, but not necessarily,
synchronized to the ac voltage.
2. Devices with nonlinear voltage-current relationships:
Iron-core reactors and arcing loads are typical examples
of such devices. When excited with a periodic input
voltage the nonlinear v-i curve leads to the generation
of harmonic currents:
Distortion Indices: The most commonlyused measure of
the quality of a periodic waveformis the total harmonic
distortion (1lID).
TIID = J ~ I Cl (1.2)
IEEE Std. 519 [5] recommends limits on voltage and
current THD values. Other i n i ~ such as telephone
interference factor (TIF) and leT product are used to
measure telephone interference. The K-faetor indices are
usedto describe the impact of harmonics onlosses and are
usefulinde-rating equipment suchas transformers.
Harmonics in Balanced and Unbalanced Three-Phase
Systems: In balanced three-phase systems and under
balanced operating conditions, harmonics In' each phase
have specificphaserelationships. For example, in the case
of the third harmonic, phase b currents would lag those in
phasea by 3x120 or 360, andthose in phase c wouldlead
by the same amount. Thus, the third harmonics have no
phase shift and appear as zero-sequence components.
Similar analysis shows that fifth harmonics appear to be of
negative sequence, seventh are of positive sequence, etc.
System impedances must be appropriately modeled based
onthe sequences.
The magnitudes and phase angles (in particular) of
three-phaseharmonic voltages andcurrentsaresensitiveto
network or load unbalance. Even for small deviations from
balanced conditions at the fundamental frequency. it has
been noted that harmonic unbalance can be significant. In
the unbalanced case line currents and neutral currents can
contain all orders of harmonics and contain components of
all sequences. Three-phase power electronic converters can
generate non-characteristic under unbalancedoperation.
1.3 Harmonics Modeling and Simulation
The goal of harmonic studies is to quantifythe distortion
in voltage and current waveforms at various points in a
power system. The results are useful for evaluating
corrective measures and troubleshooting harmonic caused
problems. Harmonic studies canalso determinetheexistence
of dangerousresonant conditionsand verifycompliancewith
harmonic limits. The need for a harmonic study may be
indicated by excessive measured distortion in existing
systems or by installation of harmonic-producing
equipment. Similar to other power systems studies the
harmonics study consistsof the following steps:
Definition of harmonic-producing equipment and
detennination of models for their-representanon,
Determination of the models to represent other
components in the systemincludingexternal networks.
Simulation of the system for various scenarios.
Many models have been proposed for representing
harmonic sources as well as linear components. Various
network harmonic solution algorithms have also been
published. In the following sections, we briefly summarize
the well-accepted methods for harmonic modeling and
simulations. Other chapters in this tutorial will expandupon
these ideas and illustrate how to set up studies in typical
situations.
1.4 Nature and Modeling of Harmonic Sources
The most commonmodel for harmonic sources is in the
form of a harmonic current source, specified by its
magnitude and phase spectrum. The phase is usually defined
with respect to the fundamental component of the tenninal
voltage. The data can be obtained form an idealjzed
theoretical model or from actual measurements. In many
cases, the measured waveforms provide a more realistic
representation of the harmonic sources to be modeled. This
is particularly true if the system has significant unbalances
or if non-integer harmonics are present When a system
contains a single dominant source of harmonics the phase
spectrumis not important However, phase angles must be
represented when multiple sources are present A common
method is to modify the phase spectrum according to the
phase angle of the fundamental frequency voltage seen by
the load. Ignoring phase angles does not always result in the
'worst case'.
More detailed models become necessary if voltage
distortion is significant or if voltages are unbalanced. There
2
are three basic approaches that can be taken to develop
detailed models:
Develop analytical formulas for the Fourier series as a
function of terminal voltage and operating parameters
for the device.
Develop analytical models for device operation and
solve for device current waveform by a suitable
i terative method.
Solve for device steady state current waveform using
time domainsimulation.
Advanced models require design data for the device.
For example, for a mediumpower ASD it is necessary to
specify parameters such as transformer data, de link data
and motor parameters. Apart from potentially higher
accuracy, an important advantage of such detailed models
is that the user can specifyoperatingconditions, e.g., motor
speed in a drive, rather than spectra.
In the analysis of distribution and commercial power
systems one may deal with a harmonic source that is an
aggregateof many sources. Sucha source can be modeled
by measuring the aggregate spectrum. It is very difficult to
develop a current source type model analytically based on
the load composition data. Reference [7] has pointed out
that the aggregate waveforms can be much less distorted
thanindividual devicewaveforms.
Harmonie sources' may also exhibit time-varying
characteristics. Since standards and practice permit
harmonic guidelines to be violated for short periods of
time, including the time-varying characteristics of
hannonic sources can be useful and can present a more
realistic picture of actual distortions. More research is
needed in this area[8].
Nonlinear Voltage-Current Sources: The most common
sources in this category are transformers ( due to their
nonlinear magnetization requirements), fluorescent and
other gas discharge lighting, and devices such as arc-
furnaces. In all cases there exists a nonlinear relationship
between the current and voltage. The harmonic currents
generated by these devices can be significantly affected by
the waveforms and peak values of supply voltages. It is
desirable to represent the devices with their actual
nonlinear v-i characteristicsin harmonic studies, instead of
as voltageindependent harmoniccurrentsources.
Power Electronic Converters: Examples of power
electronic devices are adjustable speed drives, HVDC
links, and static var compensators. Compared to the non-
linear v-i devices, harmonics from these converters are less
sensitive to supply voltage variation and distortion.
Harmonic current source models are therefore commonly
used to represent these devices. As discussed before, the
phase angles of the current sources are functions of the
supply voltage phase angle. They must be modeled
adequately for harmonic analysis involving more than one
source. The devices are sensiuve to supply voltage
unbalance. For large power electronic devices such as
HVDC terminals and transmission level SVCs, detailed
three-phase models may be needed. Factors such as tiring-
angle dependent harmonic generation and supply voltage
unbalance are taken into account in the model. Thesestudies
normally scan through various possible device operating
conditions and filter performance,
Rotating Machines: Rotating machines can be a harmonic
source as well. The mechanism of harmonic generation in
synchronous machines is unique. It cannot be described by
using either the nonlinear v-i device model or the power
electronic switching model. Only the salient pole
synchronous machines operated under unbalanced
conditions can generate harmonics with sufficient
magnitudes. In this case, a unbalanced current experienced
by the generator induces a second harmonic current in the
field winding, which in tune induces a third harmonic
current in the stator. In a similar manner, distorted system
voltage can cause the machines to produce harmonics.
Models to represent such mechanisms have been proposed
[1]. For the cases of saturation-caused harmonic generation
from rotatingmachines, the n o n i n e 3 ~ i modelcanbe used.
High frequency sources: Advances in power electronic
devices have created the potential for a wide range of new
power conversion techniques. The electronic ballast for
fluorescent lighting is oneexample. In general, these systems
employ high frequency switching to achieve greater
flexibility in power conversion. With proper design, these
techniques can be used to reduce the low frequency
harmonics. Distortion is created at the switching frequency,
which is generally above 20 kHz. At such high frequency,
current distortion generally does not penetrate far into the
system but the possibility of system resonance at the
switching frequency can still exist
Non-integer harmonic sources: There exist several power
electronic systems which produce distortion at frequencies
that are harmonics of a base frequency other than 60 Hz.
There are also devices that produce distortion at discrete
frequencies that are not integer multiples of the base
frequency. Some devices havewaveforms that donot submit
to a Fourier or trigonometric series representation. Lacking
standard terminology, we will call these non-harmonic
sources. Modeling of this type of harmonic sources has
attractedmanyresearch interests recently.
1.5Networkand LoadModels
NetworkModel: The main difficulty in setting upa network
model is to determinehowmuch of the network needs to be
modeled. 1be extent of network representation is limited by
available data and computing resources. The following
observations can bemade:
For industrial power systems connected to strong or
dedicatedthree-phase distribution feeders it is generally
3
The above observations are not guaranteed rules, but are
based on common practice. Perhaps the best way to
determine the extent of network modeling needed is to
perform a sensitivity study; i,e., one can progressively
expandthe network model until the results do not change
significantly. In many harmonic studies involving
industrial plants, the supply system is represented as a
frequency-dependent driving-point impedance at the point
of common coupling.
Overhead Linesand UndergroundCables: Modeling of
lines and cables over a wide range of frequencies is
relatively well documented in literature [9]. Typical lines
or cablescanbe modeled by muItiphase coupledequivalent
circuits. For balanced harmonic analysis the models can be
further simplified into single-phase. pi-circuits using
positive and zero sequence data. The main issues in
modeling these components are the frequency dependence
of per-unit length series impedance and the long line
effects. As a result, the level of detail of their models
depends on the line lengthand harmonic order:
sufficient to model two transtormations from the load
point. Generally, transformer impedances dominate.
Branch circuits should be modeled if they connect to
power factor correction capacitors or motors. Although
capacitance of overhead lines is usually neglected,
cable capacitance should be modeled for cables longer
than 500 feet.
Large industrial facilities are served at sub-
transmission and even transmission voltage. In this
case it is important to model at least a portion of the
HVIEHV network if the facility has multiple supply
substations. If it has only one supply substation,
utilities may provide the driving-point impedance seen
by the facility.
Distributionfeeders (at least in the USandCanada) are
unbalanced and loads are often served from single
phase laterals. Shunt capacitors are extensively used.
Thus it becomes mandatory to model the entire feeder,
andsometimes adjacent feeders as well.

In industrial systems and utility distribution systems

where line lengths are short it is customary to use
sequence impedances. Capacitanceis usually neglected
except in the case of long cableruns,
An estimate of line-length beyond whicb long line
models should be used is 1501n miles for overhead line
and 90Inmiles for underground cable, where n is the
harmonicnumber.
Skin effect correction is important in EHV systems
because line resistance is the principal source of
damping.
windings are used to mitigate harmonics. The phase shifts
associated with transformer connections must be accounted
for in multiplesource systems.
Other considerations include the nonlinear characteristics
of core loss resistance, the winding stray capacitance and
coresaturation. Harmonic effects due to nonlinear resistance
are small compared to the nonlinear inductance. Effects of
stray capacitance are usually noticeable only for frequencies
higher than 4 kHz. The saturation characteristics can be
represented as a harmonic source using the nonlinear v-i
model if saturation-caused harmonic generation is of
concern.
Passive Loads: Linear passive loads have a significant
effect on system frequency response primarily near resonant
frequencies. As in other power system studies it is only
practical to model an aggregate load for which reasonably
good estimates (MW and MYAR) are USUally readily
available. Such an aggregate model should include the
distributionor service transformer. At power frequencies the
effect of distribution transformer impedance is not of
concern in the analysis of the high voltage network. At
harmonic frequencies the impedance gf.. the transfonner can
be comparable to that of motor loadS, because induction
motors appear as locked-rotor impedances at these
frequencies.
A general model thus appears as in Figure 1.3. To
characterize this model properly, it is necessary to knowthe
typical composition of the load. Such data are usually not
easilyavailable. The following models havebeen suggested
in literature (n represents the harmonic order):
Model A : Parallel R,L with R= V
2
/ (P); L= V
2
/(21CfQ)
This model assumes that the total reactive loadis assigned to
an inductor L. Because a majority of reactive power
corresponds to induction motors, this model is not
recommended.
Model B : Parallel R,L with
R =V
2
/ (k*P), L =V
2
/ (21tfk*Q) ; k= .1h+.9
Model C : Parallel R,L in series with transfonnerinductance
Ls, where
R=V
21P;
L =n R/(21tf 6.7*(QIP)-.74);Ls= .073 b R
Model C is derived from measurements on medium voltage
loads using audio frequency ripple generators. The
coefficients cited above correspond to one set of studies
[10], and may not be appropriate for all loads. Load
representation for harmonic analysis is an active research
area.
Transformers: In most applications, transformers are
modeled as aseries impedance with resistance adjusted for
skin effects. This is because adequate data is usually not
available. Three-phase transformer connections may
provide 30 phase shift. Other connections such as zigzag
4
Figure 1.3: Basic Load Model.
Large Rotating Loads: In synchronous and induction
machines the rotating magnetic field created by a stator
harmonic rotates at a speed significantly different from that
of the rotor, Therefore at harmonic frequencies the
impedance approaches the negative sequence impedance.
In the case of synchronous machines the inductance is
usually taken tobeeither thenegative sequence impedance
or the average of direct and quadrature sub-transient
impedances. For induction machines the inductance is
taken to be the locked rotor inductance. In each case the
frequency-dependence of resistances can be significant.
The resistancenormally increase in the form n' where n is
the harmonic order and the parameter 'a' ranges from0.5-
1.5. Most motors are delta-connected and therefore do not
provide a path for zero-sequence harmonics.
1.6 HarmonicSimulation
It is appropriate to note that a large number ofharmonic
related problems encountered in practice involve systems
with relativelylow distortion and often a single dominant
harmonic source. In these cases simplified resonant
frequency calculations, for example, canbeperformed by
hand [5] and distortion calculations can be made with a
simple spreadsheet For larger systems and complicated
harmonic producing loads, more fonnal harmonic power
flow analysis methods are needed. In this section,
techniques presently being used for harmonics studies are
reviewed. These techniques vary in terms of data
requirements, modeling complexity, problem formulation,
andsolution algorithms. Newmethods arebeingdeveloped
and published. .
Mathematically, the harmonic study involves solving
the network equation for each harmonic written in matrix
formas
[Iml = [YnJ[VnJ m=I, 2 ... n (1.3)
where [Yml represents the nodal admittance matrix, [lml is
thevector of source currents and [Vml is the vector of bus
voltages for harmonic number m. In more advanced
approaches thecurrent source vector becomes a function of
bus voltage.
Frequency Scan: The frequency .scan is usually the first
step in a hannonicstudy. Afrequency or impedance scanis
a plot of the driving point (Thevenin) impedance at a
system bus versus frequency. The bus of interest is one
where a harmonic source exists. For simple system this
impedance can be obtained from an impedance diagram.
More formally, the Thevenin impedance can be calculated
by injecting a 1 per unit source at appropriate frequency into
the bus of interest. The other currents are set to zero and
(1.3) is solved for bus voltages. These voltages equal the
drtving-point and transfer impedances. The calculation is
repeated over the harmonic frequency range of interest.
Typically, a scan is developed for both positive and zero
sequence networks.
If a harmonic source is connected to the bus of interest,
the harmonic voltage at the bus is given by the harmonic
current multiplied by the harmonic impedance. The
frequency scan thus gives a visual picture of impedance
levels and potential voltage distortion. It is a very effective
tool to detect resonances which appear as peaks (parallel
resonance) and valleys (series resonance) in the plot of
impedance magnitude vs. frequency.
Simple Distortion Calculations: In the simplest harmonic
studies harmonic sources are represented as current sources
specified by their current spectra. Admittance matrices are
then constructed and harmonic voltage components are
calculated from (1.3). The hannomc'" current components
have a magnitude determined from the typical harmonic
spectrum and rated load current for theharmonic producing
device.
where n is the harmonic order and the subscript 'spectrum'
indicates the typical harmonic spectrumof the element To
compute indices such as THD the nominal bus voltage is
used.
For the multiple harmonic source cases it is important to
also model the phase angle of harmonics. A fundamental
frequency power-flow solution is needed, because the
harmonic phase angles are functions of the fundamental
frequency phaseangleas follows:
9n = 9D-spedIUm +n(8
1
-91-spectzum}
where 9
1
is the phase angleof the harmonic source currem. at
the fundamental frequency. 9
n
-specllUm is thephaseangle of the
n-th harmonic current spectrum. Depending on the phase
angles used, the effects of multiple harmonic sources can
either add or cancel. Ignoring phase relationships may,
therefore, leadto pessimistic or optimistic results.
Harmonic Power Flow Methods: The simple distortion
calculation discussed above is the basis for most harmonic
study software and is useful in many practical cases. The
main disadvantage of the method is the use of 'typical'
spectra. This prevents an assessment of non-typical
operatingconditions. Such conditions include partial loading
of harmoruc-producing devices, excessive distortion and
unbalance. To explore suchconditions the user must develop
5
typical spectra tor each condition when using the
simplified method. The disadvantages have prompted the
development of advanced harmonic analysis methods. The
goal is to model the physical aspects of harmonic
generation from the device as a function of actual system
conditions.
The general idea is to create a model for the harmonic
producing device in the form
Here V
t,
V
2
, , V
n
are harmonic voltage components, It, 1
2
,
..., In, are corresponding harmonic current components and
C represents multiple operating and design parameters.
Equation (1.4)permits the calculation of harmonic currents
from voltages and includes power flow constraints. The
total procedure is to simultaneously solve(1.3) and (1.4).
One of the well-known methods is the so called
"harmonic iteration method" [11,12]. Equation (1.4) is first
solved using an estimated supply voltage. The resulting
current spectrum is used in (1.3) to calculate the supply
voltage. This iterative process is repeated until
convergence is achieved. Reliable convergence is achieved
although difficulties may occur when sharp resonances
exist Convergence can be improved by including a
linearizedmodel of (1.4) in (1.3). A particular advantage of
this "decoupled" approach is that device models in the
form of (1.4) can be in a closed form, a time domain
model, or in anyother suitable form.
Another method is to solve (1.3) and (1.4)
simultaneously using Newton type algorithms. This
method requires that device models be available in closed
form whereinderivatives can be efficiently computed [13].
The various methods above can be extended, with a
significant increase in computational burden, to the
unbalanced case. Both (1.3) and (1.4) are cast in a multi-
phase framework [11,14]. Such an approach can have
several advantages. The first is the modeling of zero
sequence current flow. Second is the capabiltty of
addressing non-charaeteristic harmonics.
Finally, it is appropriate to note that harmonic studies
can be performed in the time domain. The idea is to run a
time-domain simulation until a steady state is reached. The
challenge is first to identify that a steady-state has indeed
been achieved. Secondly, in lightly damped systems
techniques are neededto obtain the steady-state conditions
within a reasonable amount of computation time.
References [14,15] provide examples of such methods.
1.6 Summary
Harmonic studies are becoming an important
component of power system planning and design. In using
software to analyze practical conditions it is important to
understand the assumptions made and the modeling
capabilities. Models and methods used depend upon system
complexity anddata availability. The purpose of thistutorial
is to suggest what is required to set up harmonics studies
with emphasis on modelingand simulation.
This overview has attempted to summarize key ideas
from chapters that follow. The propagation of harmonic
current in a power system, and the resulting voltage
distortion, depends on the characteristics of harmonic
sources as well as the frequency response of system
components. Characteristics of various harmonic sources
and consideration in their modeling have been summarized.
Component modeling has been described. Different
approaches to conduct analysis werediscussed in a common
framework. Subsequent chapters of this tutorial will expand
uponeachof thesetopicsandprovided illustrative examples.
Acknowledgments
This chapter was adapted from a paper developed by the
Task Forceon Harmonics Modeling and Simulation [1].
References
1. Task force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation,
"The modeling and simulation of the propagation of
harmonics in electricpower networks Part I : Concepts,
models and simulation techniques,It IEEE Tranasactions
on Power Delivery, Vol.l l, No.1, January 1996, pp.
452-465.
2. Task force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation,
"The modeling and simulation of the propagation of
harmonics in electric power networks Part II : Sample
systems andExamples," IEEE Tranasactions on Power
Delivery, Vol.I 1, No.1
t
January 1996, pp. 466-474.
3. A. Guillemin, The Mathematics of Circuir Analysis,
John Wileyand Sons,INC., NewYork, 1958.
4. Corduneanu, Almost Periodic Functions, John Wiley
(Interscience), New York, 1968.
5. IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems," IEEE
Standard519-1992, IEEE, NewYork, 1992.
6. Emanuel, A,E, Janczak, J., Pillegi, D.O., Gulachenski, E.
M., Breen, M., Gentile, TJ., Sorensen, D., "Distribution
Feeders with Nonlinear Loads in the Northeast USA:
Part l-Vojtage Distortion Forecast, IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No.1, January 1995, pp.340-
347.
7. Mansoor, Grady, W.M, Staats, P. T., Thallam, R. S.,
Doyle, M. T., Samotyj, " Predicting the net hannonic
currents from large numbers of distributed single-phase
computerloads:' IEEE Trans. on. Power Delivery, Vol.
10, No.4, Oct.. 1995, pp. 2001-2006.
8. Capasso, Lamedica, R, Prudenzi, A, Ribeiro, P, F,
Ranade, S. J., .. Probabilistic Assessment of Harmonic
Distortion Caused by Residential Loads," Proc. ICHPS
IV, Bologna, Italy.
6
9. Dommel, "Electromagnetic Transients Program
Reference Manual (EMTP Theory Book)", Prepared
tor Bonneville Power Administration, Dept. of
Electrical Engineering, Universityof British Columbia,
Aug. 1986.
10. ClORE Working Group 36-05, "Harmonics,
Characteristics, Parameters, Methods of Study,
Estimates of Existing Values in the Network," Electra,
No. 77, July 1981, pp. 35-54.
II. W. Xu, J.R. Jose and H.W. Dommel, "A Multiphase
Harmonic Load Row Solution Technique", IEEE
Trans. on Power Systems, vol. PS-6, Feb. 1991, pp.
174-182.
12. Sharma, V, Fleming, R.I., Niekamp, L.,"An iterative
Approach for Analysis of Harmonic Penetration in
Power Transmission Networks," IEEE Trans. on
Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No.4, October 1991, pp.
1698-1706.
13. D. Xia and G.T. Heydt, "Harmonic Power Row
Studies, Part I - Fonnulation and Solution, Part IT -
Implementation and Practical Application", IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-lOl, June 1982, pp.1257-1270.
14. Lombard, X., Mahseredjian, J., Lefebvre, S., Kieny,
C.,"Implementation of a new Harmonic Initialization
Methodin EMlP,n Paper 94- 8M 438-2 PWRD, IEEE
Summer Power Meeting, San Francisco, Ca., July
1994.
IS. Semlyen, A., Medina, A., "Computation of the
Periodic Steady State in Systems with Nonlinear
Components Using a Hybrid Tune and Frequency
Domain Methodology," Paper 95- WM 146-1 PWRS,
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, NY, Jan.
1995.
7
Chapter 2
HARMONICS THEORY
Gary W. K. Chang
Siemens PowerTransmission & Distribution
BrooklynPark, MN, USA
for Thesmallest constant T that satisfies (2.1) is called
the penodof thefunction. By iteration of (2.1), wehave
f(t)=f(t+hT), h=O, l, 2, .... (2.2)
Let function .f(t) be periodic with period T, then this
function canberepresented by thetrigonometric series
1 00
f(1) ="2
lJo
+ L (2.3)
h=l
(i)o = 2nl T . A series such as (2.3) is called
trigonometric Fourier series. It canbe rewritten as
(2.7)
(2.6)
(2.5)
00
f(t) =
h=--
where for h =0, 1, 2, ...,
1 I
T
'
2
.
cia =- !(t)e-jhmoldt.
T -T/2
Orthogonal Functions
A set of functions {tph(t)} is called orthogonal on an
interval a<t <(J if all groups of any two functions tp.(t)
and tpj V) in the set {fJh(t)} satisfy I
fJ {O
1"i (t)"i (t)dt = t '.
a r, 1=)
where , is a nonzero value. It can be shown that
{1, cosliJol, ..., coshtiJot, ...,sintlJol, .. , sinhfiJol t } is an
orthogonal set of sinusoidal functions on interval
00
f(t) =Co + ;h)' (24)
h=l
where Co =lZo /2, ch +/i ' and ;h =tan-leah
we see that the Fourier seriesexpression
of a function represents a periodic function as a sum
of SInUSOIdal components with different frequencies. The
component of hlD
o
is called the h-th harmonic of the
periodic function. Co is the magnitude of thedecomponent.
The component with h =1 is called the fundamental
component Ch and /Ph areknown as the h-th order harmonic
magnitude and phase angle, respectively. The magnitude
and phase angle of each harmonic determine the resulting
wavesbape of.f(t).
Equation (2.3) also can be represented by its complex
fonnas
2.1 Introduction
most conventional analyses, the power system is
essentially as a linear system with passive
elements excited by constant- magnitude and constant-
frequency sinusoidal voltage sources. However, with the
Widespread proliferation of power electronics loads
nowadays, significant amounts of harmonic currents are
being injected into power systems. Harmonic currents not
onlydisturb loads that aresensitive to waveform distortion,
but also cause many undesirable effects on power system
As a result, harmonic studies are becoming a
growing concern.
Harmonics are usually defined as periodic steady state
distortions of voltage and/or current waveforms in power
systems. In the harmonic polluted environment, the theory
regarding harmonic quantities needs to be defined to
distinguish from those quantities defined for the
fundamental frequency.
The purpose of this chapter is to present basic
harmonics theory. Initially, the Fourier series and analysis
methods that can be used to interpret waveform
phenomenon arereviewed. Some fundamentals of Fourier
transforms used in today's harmonics measurement
techniques are also introduced. The general harmonics
theory, the definitions of harmonic quantities, harmonic
indices in common use, and power system response and
solutions to harmonics arethendescribed.
2.2 Fourier Series and Analysis
The theory of the Fourier series was first introduced by
physicist andmathematician, Joseph Fourier, in
article 'Analytic of Heat' whichwas published
In 1882. The theory Involves expansions of arbitrary
functions in certain types of trigonometric series. It proves
that any periodic function in an interval of time could be
represented by the sum of a fundamental and a series of
higher orders of harmonic components at. frequencies
which are integral multiples of the fundamental
component The series establishes a relationship between
the function in time and frequency domains. Today, the
theory has become thefamous 'Fourier series' andit is one
of the most important tools for engineers and scientists in
manyapplications.
Fourier Series
A periodic function can be defined as any function for
which
/(t) =f(t+D (2.1)
8
- T / 2< t < T / 2. Using the orthogonal relations, we can
show that Fourier coefficients an, ai, and b
h
of (2.3) are
and
N-l
F(ktill.) = (2.16)
n=O
N-l
f =L F(ktill.)e
j2111cn 1N
(2.17)
k=O
wherek, n =0, 1, ..., N-I
t
Jill = 211,/ aT and =T / N.
The OFf is often used in harmonic measurement because
the measured data is always available in the form of a
sampled time function. The sampled time function is
represented by a time series of points of known magnitude
separated by fixed time intervals of limited duration.
Fourier analysis can be done by DFfs. The DFfs are
oftencalculated by the use of fast-Fourier transform (FFf)
algorithm [1]. FFr techniques are very fast methods for
performing the DFf calculations (Z.,iD) and (2.17) which
allow theevaluation of a largenumber of functions. There
are a number of available FFr algorithms that canbe easily
used in harmonic analysis.
2.3 Basic Definitions of Harmonic Quantities
Conventionally, the definitions used to describe electric
quantities for power system study are for systems operating
in sinusoidal steady state. However, when harmonics are
present because of systemnonlinearities, the definitions of
these electric quantities need to be modified from those
appropriate forsingle-frequency systems.
This section gives the basic definition of power system
harmonics and describes someuseful defin1tions associated
with voltage, current, instantaneous power, average (active)
power, apparent power, reactive power, and power factor
computations undernonsinusoidal situations.
Definition of Power SystemHarmonics
In thepower system, the definition of a harmonic canbe
stated as: A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having
a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental
frequency. Thus for a power systemwith fo fundamental
frequency, the frequency of the h-th order of harmonic is
hfo. Harmonics areoftenusedto define distorted sinewaves
associated with currents andvoltages of different amplitudes
and frequencies.
One can compose a distorted periodic waveshape of any
conceivable shape by using different harmonic frequencies
with different amplitudes. Conversely, one can also
decompose any distorted periodic waveshape into a
fundamental wave and a set of hannonics. This
decomposition process is calledFourter analysis. With this
technique, we can systematically analyze the effects of
nonlinear elements in power systems.
Discrete Fourier Transform
When the frequency domain spectrum and the time
domain function are both periodic sampled functions with
N samples per period, (2.14) and (2.15) can be represented
by the following so-called discrete Fourier transform
(DFf) pair:
(2.8)
(2.9)
(2.15)
(2.12)
(2.11)
(2.10)
2 T/2
an =-f f(t)dt,
T -T/2
2 fTI2
a
h
=- f(t)cos(h(iJol)dt, and
T -T12
andf(t) is called the inverse Fourier transformof F(OJ) ,
whichis defined as
1 j- .
/(1) =- F(OJ)eJO%dOJ
2n ....
Equations (2.14) and (2.15) are often called the Fourier
transfonn pair; and they are used to map any function in
the interval of (-00,00) in time or frequency domaininto a
continuous function in the inverse domain. 'The key
property of theFourier transform is its abilityto examinea
function or wavefonnfromthe perspective of both the time
and frequency domains. A given function can have two
equivalent modes of representations: one is in the time
domainand is calledf(t), andthe other is in the frequency
domain and is called F(m) . Equation (2.14) transforms
the time function into a frequency spectrum, and (2.15)
synthesizes the frequency spectrum to regain the time
function.
f(-t)=/(t),
andit is calledan oddfunction if
f(-t) =-/(t).
An even function is symmetrical to the vertical axis at the
origin, and an odd Junction is anti-symmetrical to the
vertical axis at the origin. A function with a periodof T is
half-wave symmetry if it satisfies thecondition .
/(1) =-:-f(tT /2). (2.13)
Iff(t) has half-wave symmetry andis eitheranevenor odd
function, then it has even or odd quarter-wave symmetry.
The use of symmetry simplifies the calculation of Fourier
coefficients in (2.8) - (2.10).
Fourier Transform
The Fouriertransform of a functionf(t) is defined as
F(O) = [f(t)e-i-dt. (2.14)
2 JTI2
b
h
= - f(t)sin(h{j)ot)dt,.
T -T12
whereh =1, 2, ....
For the set of complex valued functions {tph(t)}, it can
be shown that (2.7) holds when tpj t t) is the complex
conjugate of q;i (1)
Waveform Symmetry
A function f(t) is called an even function if it has the
property
9
(2.26)
(2.25)
(2.24)
(2.23)
00
Q = I, Vl& l l& sin( 8/a - 81&)' (2.27)
h=l
and D is defined as the distortion voltamperes which
correspond to the products of voltages and currents of
differentfrequency components in (2.18) and (2.19).
When harmonics are not present in (2.25), S is equal to
VtI
I
which is the conventionally defined apparent power at
fundamental frequency. Under the sinusoidal situation, the
power equation relates mutually the average, reactive, and
apparent power, andit is definedas
<Vi1
1
) 2 =if + G
2
, (2.28)
where Q
1
=Vi /1sin( ~ - ~ is the fundamental reactive
power defined in (2.27) for h =1.
At present, there is still no consensus in the definitions
and physical meanings regarding reactive power and
distortion power among researchers and scientists [4-7]. In
[8], somealternate definitions with interpretations on power
definitions other than the above are described.
The conceptof power factororiginated from the need to
quantify how efficiently a load utilizes the current that it
draws from the ac power system. Regardless of sinusoidal
or nonsinusoidal situation, the total powerfactor is defined
as
and
1 T JF
t.; = -1 i
2
(t )dt = L/i '
T 0 h=l
respectively.
The apparent power is givenby
S=Vrmsl
rms
Awidelyaccepteddefinitionof apparentpower is
S2 = p2+(jl +D
2
,
where Q is the reactivepower defmed:as
We see that each harmonic makes a contribution, either plus
or minus, to the average power. There are no contributions
to the average power from the voltage at one frequency and
the current at another. The average power generated by
harmonics is usually very small in comparison with the
fundamental average power.
Byapplying orthogonal relations, thenns values of (2.18)
and (2.19) are proved to be
1 T ft(i
Vrms = T 10 v
2
(t )dt = Lvl ,
h=1
00 00
v(t) = > h t =I,.J2V
hsin(hfl'ot+
~ , (2.18)
h=l h=l
00 00
i(t) =Lih(t) =I,-Iit, sin(hOJot + ~ , (2.19)
h=l h=l
where the de terms are usually ignored for simplicity, Vh
and t, are rms values for h-th order of harmonic voltage
and current, respectively.
The instantaneous power is defined as
p(t) =v(t)i(t), (2.20)
andthe average power over oneperiod Tof p(t) is defined
as
Most elements andloads in a power system respond the
same in both positive and negative half-cycles. The
produced voltages and currents have half-wave symmetry.
Therefore, harmonics of even orders are not characteristic.
Also, triplens (multiples of third harmonic) always can be
blocked by using three-phase ungrounded-wye or delta
transformer connections in a balanced system, because
triplens are entirely zero sequence. For these reasons,
even-ordered and triplens are often ignored in harmonic
analysis. Generally, the frequencies of interests for
harmonic analysis arelimited to the50thmultiple.
One majorsource of harmonics in the power system is
the static power converter. Under ideal operating
conditions, the current harmonics generated by a p-pulse
line-commutated converter can be characterized by
lh = III h and h =pn1 (characteristic harmonics) where
n = 1, 2, ... andp is an integral multiples of six. If 1) the
converter input voltages are unbalanced or 2) unequal
commutating reactances exist between phases or 3)
unequally spaced firing pulses are present in the converter
bridge, then the converter will produce non-characteristic
harmonics in addition to thecharacteristic harmonics. Non-
characteristic harmonics are those that are not integer
multiples of the fundamental power frequency.
The harmonic frequencies that are not integral multiples
of the fundamental power frequency are usually called
interharmonics. A major source of interharmonics is the
cycloconverter [2]. Onespecial subsetof interharmonicsis
called sub-harmonics. Sub-harmonics have frequency
values that areless than that of the fundamental frequency.
lighting flicker is one indication of the presence of sub-
harmonics. A well-known source of flicker is the arc
furnace [3].
Electric Quantities Under Nonsinusoidal Situation
When steady-state harmonies are present, instantaneous
voltageand current can be represented by Fourier series as
follows:
(2.21)
where P is the average power contributed by the
fundamental frequency Component and other harmonic
components, as shownin (2.22). In the nextsection, we also
will show the relationship between the power factor and
some harmonicdistortion indices.
10
lIT
P=- p(t)dt.
T 0
If we substitute(2.18) and (2.19) into (2.20) and makeuse
of theorthogonal relations of (2.7),it can beshown that
00 00
p=I,VIJhcos(8h-8i1) =LJ;. (2.22)
h=l h=l
p
p!=-,
s
(2.29)
Phase Sequences of Harmonics
For a three-phase balanced system under nonsinusoidal
conditions, the Iz-th order of harmonic voltage of each
phase can be expressed as
vaJ,(t) =.fiv,r sin(hCtJot + ()h)' (2.30)
vbh (I) =.fiv
h
sin{hCtJot - 2hn/3+ 6
h
) , (2.31)
vch (t) =.fiv
h
sin(haJol +2hn/3+6
h
) . (2.32)
Therefore, the harmonic phase sequence in a balanced
three-phase systemhas thepatternshown inTable 1.1.
Table 1.1. Harmonic PhaseSequences in aBalanced
Three-Phase PowerSystem
Harmonic Phase
Order Sequence
1
+
2 -
3 0
4
+
5 -
6 0
Observing Table 1.1, we find that the negative and zero
sequences are also present in the system, and all triplens
are entirely zero sequence. The above simple phase
sequence patterndoes not hold for the unbalanced system,
because harmonicsof each order contain the threedifferent
sequences. It requires a more complicated analysis [9].
The definitions in (2.18) - (2.24) are also suitable for
three-phase balanced system. However, for theunbalanced
system, the apparent power needs to be redefined and the
consensus has yet to be reached. Reference [10] provides
some practical power definitions under unbalanced
conditions.
2.4 Harmonic Indices
In harmonic analysis there are several important indices
used to describe the effects of harmonics onpower system
components and communication systems. This section
describes the definitions of those harmonic indices in
common use [11-13].
Total Harmonic Distortion (Distortion Factor)
The most commonly used harmonic index is
f ~ Jill
THn- = h=2 or THD h=2 (2.33)
~ ~ 1 11'
which is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the
harmonic components to the rms value of thefundamental
component and usually expressed in percent This index is
used to measure the deviation of a periodic waveform
containing harmonics from a perfect sinewave. For a
perfect sinewave at fundamental frequency, the THD is
zero. Similarly, the measures of individual harmonic
distortion for voltage and current at Iz-th order aredefined as
vh IV
I
and lhlll' respectively.
Total Demand Distortion
The total demanddistortion (TOO) is the total harmonic
currentdistortiondefinedas
~
TDD=V6.lh (2.34)
I
L
'
where I L is the maximum demand load current (15- or 30-
minute demand) at fundamental frequency at the point of
common coupling (Pee), calculatedas the average current
of the maximum demands for the previous twelve months.
The concept of TOO is particularly relevant in the
application of IEEEStandard519.
Telephone Influence Factor
Telephone influence factor (TIF) is a measure used to
describe the telephone noise originating from harmonic
currents and voltages in power systems. TIF is adjusted
based on the sensitivity of the telephone system and the
human ear to noises at various frequencies. It is defined as
00 00
L(WhVh)2 L(whlh)2
TlF
v
= h=l or TIF] = h=l , (2.35)
V
mu
Inns
where wh is a weighting accounting for audio and
inductive coupling effects at the h-th harmonic frequency.
Obviously, TIF is a variation of the previously defined
THD where the root of the sumof the squares is weighted
using factors that reflecttheresponse in thevoice band.
VeT and IT Products
Another distortion index that gives__ a measure of
harmonic interference on audio circuits similar to TIF is
the V-Tor IT product, where V is rms voltage in volts, I is
rIDS current in amperes, and T is the TIF. In practice,
telephone interference is often expressed as V T or IT,
which is defined as
_ 00
V T= L(W"V,,)2 or I T= L(whlh)2, (2.36)
h=1 h=l
where wh is the same as previously described. If kVT or
kl-T is used, then the index must be multiplied by a factor
of 1000. EQuation (2.36) refers to the fact that the index is
a product Of harmonic voltageor harmonic current and the
corresponding telephone influence factor. Observing
(2.35)and (2.36), we fmd that
TIF
v
Vmrs=V T and TIFf I rms=I T. (2.37)
C-Message Weighted Index
The C-message weighted tndexis similarto TIF, except
that each weighting Ch is used in place of wh. The
weighting is derived from listening tests to indicate the
relative annoyance or speechimpairment by an interfering
11
!he relation between TIF weight and C-message weight
IS
signal of frequency f as heard through a -SOO-type"
telephone set. This index is defined as
by substituting (2.23) and (2.24) into (2.33). The total
power factor in (2.29) becomes
p
pltot = 1 (2.43)
Yi/lvl +(THDy /1(0)2 +(THD[ /1(0)2
most onlyvery portion of average power of P
IS contributed by harmonics and total harmonic voltage
distortion is lessthan 10%. Thus(2.43) can be expressed as
11 1
pltot =- -;==================
VIII +(THD[/lOO)2
=cos(6
1
- pIdist (2.44)
In (2.44), the first term, cos( 6
1
- t5
1
) , is known as the
displacement power factor, and the second term, P!dist' is
defined as the distortion power factor. Because the
displacement powerfactor is always not greater than one, we
have
P/'ot s pIdist (2.45)
.for single-phase nonlinear loads with high
current distortton, the total power factor is poor. It also
should be noted that adding power factor correction
to such load is cause resonance
conditions. An alternative to improve-the distortion power
factor is using passive or active filter to cancel harmonics
produced by nonlinear loads.
2.5 Power System Response to Harmonics
In comparison with the load, a power system is stiff
enough to withstand considerable amounts of harmonic
currents without causing problems. This means that the
impedance is smaIler compared to the load
Apowersystem is not a significant source
of harmomcs. However, It becomes a contributor of
problems by wayof resonance whensevere distortion exists.
Assuming all nonlinear loads can be represented as
current the harmonic, voltage at each
bus In a power system can be obtained by solving the
following Impedance matrix or nodal admittance equations
for all ordersof harmonics underconsideration:
V
h
= Z. III (2.46)
or
(2.38) or C/ =-------- c
v
=- - - -
}\.'h =5Chfh' (2.39)
where fh is the frequency of the h-th order harmonic.
Transformer K-Factor
Transformer K-factor is an indexused to calculate the
derating of standard transformers when harmonic currents
are present [14]. The K-factor is defined as
00
L,h
2
(lhI /})2
K = (2.40)
L(lh lll )2
h=1
where h is the harmonic order and lhlll is the
corresponding individual harmonic current distortion.
(2.40) is calculated based on the assumption that the
transformer Winding eddy current loss produced by each
harmonic current component is proportional to the square
of the harmonic order and the square of magnitude of the
harmonic component
The K-rated transformer is constructed to withstand
more voltage distortion than standard transformers. The
K-faetor actually relates to the excessive heat that must
be dissipated by the transfonner. It is considered in the
design andinstallation stagefor nonlinear loads, and it is
used as a specification for new or replacement power
source equipment Table 2 shows typical commercially
available K-rated transformers, where all regular
transformers fall into K-l category.
Table 2: Commercially Available K-RatedTransfonners
Cate20ry
K-4
K-9
K-13
K-20
K-30
K-40
Distortion Power Factor
When voltage and current contain harmonics, it can be
shown[15] that
Vnn.r =VI + (THDv /1(0)2 (2.41)
and
I
h
= Y
b
V
h
t (2.47)
where V
h
is the vector consisting of the h-th harmonic
voltage at each bus that is to be determined. Z. is thesystem
harmonic impedance matrix, Y
b
is the system harmonic
admittance mattix, and I. is the vector of measured or
estimated harmonic currents representing the harmonic-
generating loads at connected busses.
In (2.46), Z. can be obtained by using a Z.bus building
algorithm for each harmonic of interest or from the inverse
of Y
h
in (247). but the harmonic effects ondifferent power
system components and loads need to be properly modeled
[16]. Approaches for harmonic analysis based on (2.46) or
(2.47) are commonly called curreet injection methods.
1bese approaches are usually-used in conjunwon with
fundamental frequency load flow computations. Through
providing the network harmonic impedance or admittance
and harmonic currents injected by nonlinear loads for all
12
Power
System
Figure 2.2. Parallel Resonance
When parallel resonance occurs in the circuit of Figure
2.2, theresonant frequency canbe determined by
hr =JXc = MVA
sc
, (2.49)
XL MVAR
cAP
where MYAsc is the short-circuit MVA at the harmonic-
generating load connection point ~ to the system and
MYARCAP is MVAR rating of the capacitor. It should be
understood that this approximatiqI!:!s only accurate for
systems with high XIRratios.
Another resonant scheme is shown in the distribution
network of Figure 2.3. If some of the feeder inductance
appears between groups of smaller capacitor banks, the
system may present a combination of many series and
parallel resonant circuits, although the resonant effects are
somewhat less than that caused by one large resonant
element. For this type of resonance problem, more
sophisticated harmonic analysis programs must be
employed to predict the harmonic characteristics of the
system.
Substation
&i
frequency. When parallel resonance exists on the power
system, significant voltage distortion and current
amplification may occur. The highly distorted bus voltage
may cause distorted currents flowing in adjacent circuits.
Theamplitied current mayresult in equipment failure.
XL
Figure 2.3. Distributed Resonance
2.6Solutions to Harmonics
Passive harmonic tilters are an effective mitigation
method for harmonic problems. The passive filter is
generally designed to provide a path to divert the
troublesome harmonic currents in the power system.
Two common types of filters are the series and the shunt
filters. The series fIlter is characterized as a parallel
resonant and blocking type whichhas a high impedance at
its tuned frequency. The smoothing reactor used in power
electronics device is an example. The shunt filter is
characterized asa series resonant and trap type which has a
low impedance at its tuned frequency. The single tuned
LC filter is the most common design in power systems.
More detailed information on harmonic tilter design and
applications canbe found in[12,17].
Harmonic currents ina power system canalso bereduced
by providing a phase shift between nonlinear loads on
13
Figure 2.1. Series Resonance
Parallel Resonance
Figure 2.2shows the circuit topology in which parallel
resonance is likely to occur. Parallel resonance occurs
when the parallel inductive reactance and the parallel
capacitive reactance of the system are equal at certain
frequency, and the parallel combination appears to be a
very large impedance to the harmonic source. The
frequency where thelarge impedance occurs is theresonant
harmonics under consideration, the individual and total
harmonic voltage distortions at each bus can be
determi ned. Reterence [ 16] also describes some other
harmonic analysis methods.
Observing (2.46), we see that system harmonic
impedance plays an important role in the system response
to harmonics, especially when resonance occurs in the
system. Resonance is defined as an amplification of power
system response to a periodic excitation when the
excitation frequency is equal to a natural frequency of the
system. For a simple LC circuit excited by a harmonic
current, the inductive and capacitive reactance seen from
the harmonic current source are equal at the resonant
frequency Ir = 1/ (2rc.JLC).
In a power system, most significant resonance
problems are caused by a large capacitor installed for
displacement power factor correction or voltage
regulation purposes. The resonant frequency of the
system inductive reactance and the capacitor reactance
often occurs near fifth or seventh harmonic. However,
resonant problems occurring at eleventh or thirteenth
harmonic are not unusual. There are two types of
resonances likely to occur inthe system: series andparallel
resonance. Series resonance is a low impedance to the
flow of harmonic current, and parallel resonance is a high
impedance totheflow ofharmonic current
Series Resonance
As shown in Figure 2.1,if the capacitor bankis in series
with the system reactance and creates a low impedance
path to the harmonic current, a series resonance condition
may result. Series resonance may cause high voltage
distortion levels between the inductance and the capacitor
in the circuit due to the harmonic current c-oncentrated in
the low impedance path it sees. Series resonance often
causes capacitor or fuse failures because of overload. The
series resonant condition isgiven by
h; =JXc , (2.48)
XL
where h; is theharmonic order of resonant frequency.
XL x,
L--- Power
~ y s t e ~
different branches. One popular method called phase
multiplication is to operate separate six-pulse static
converters (12-pulse and higher) in series on the de side
and in parallel on the ac side throughthe phase-shifting
and L\-Y) transformers [18] so that there is self-
cancellation of some harmonics. Sometimes, a specially
designed transformer (zigzag) is used to trap triplen
harmonic currents and to prevent the currents flowing back
to the source from the nonlinear load. This Zigzag
transformer is usually designed to provide a low harmonic
impedance between its windings compared to the source
harmonic impedance. Thus there are circulating harmonic
currents betweenthe nonlinear load and the transformer.
Active filtering techniques [19] have drawn great
attention in recent years. By sensing the nonlinear load
harmonic voltages and/or currents, active filters use either
1) injected harmonics at 180degrees out of phase with the
load harmonics or 2) injected/absorbed current bursts to
hold the voltage waveform within an acceptable tolerance.
These approaches provide effective filtering of harmonics
and eliminate some adverse effects of passive filters such
as component aging and resonanceproblems.
Harmonic standards provide useful preventive solutions
to harmonics. Recent standards such as IEEE 519-1992
[11] and lEe 1000-3-2[20] emphasizeplacement of limits
on harmonic currents produced by nonlinear loads for
customers and network bus harmonic voltage distortionfor
electric utilities.
2.7 Summary
For harmonic studies, Fourier series and Fourier
analysis are fundamental concepts. Many FFr algorithms
have been implemented for DFf computations on
measuring harmonics.
In nonsinusoidal situations, the conventional electric
quantities used in sinusoidal environment need to be
redefined. However, power definitionsas well as harmonic
phasesequences under unbalanced three-phase systems are
still under investigation. Several hannonic indices have
been defined for the evaluation of harmonic effects on
power systemcomponents andcommunication systems.
To predict precisely the power system response to
harmonics requires accurate models for power system
elements and harmonic-generating loads. A simple
technique for hannonic aDalysis is the current injection
method, which is perfonned in the frequency domain.
Other analysis nletbods include time domain and
domain techniques. Solutions to harmonics
can be classified as remedial and preventive. Passive and
active filters are widely-used remedial solutions, and
harmonic standards provide the best solution before actual
harmonic problems occur.
References
1. A V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Discrete-Time
Signal Processing, Prentice-Hall, lnc., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1989.
2. R. F. Chu and J. J. Bums, "Impact of Cycloconverter
Harmonics," IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications,
Vol. 25, No.3, May/June 1989, pp. 427435.
3. R. C. Dugan, "Simulation of Arc Fmnace Power
Systems," IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, IA-
16(6), Nov/Dec 1980, pp.813-818.
4. A. E. Emanuel, "Powers in Nonsinusoidal Situations - A
Review of Definitions and Physical Meaning," IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No.3, July 1990,
pp.1377-1389.
5. A. E. Emanuel, "On the Definition of Power Factor and
Apparent Power in Unbalanced Polyphase Circuits,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No.3, JUly
1993, pp.841-852.
6. L. S. Czarnecki, "Misinterpretations of Some Power
Properties of Electric Circuits," IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 9, No.4, October 1994, pp.1760-1769.
7. P. S. Filipski, Y. Baghzouz, and M. D. Cox, "Discussion
of Power Definitions Contained in the IEEE
Dictionary," IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 9,
No.3, July 1994, pp.1237-1244.
8. "Nonsinusoidal Situations: Effects on the Performance
of Meters and Definitions of Power," IEEE Tutorial
Course90 EH0327-7-PWR, IEEE, NewYork, 1990.
9. K. Srinivasan, "Harmonics and Symmetrical
Components," PowerQuality Assurance, Jan/Feb 1997.
10. IEEE Working Group on Nonsinusoidal Situations,
"Practical Definitions for Powers in Systems with
Nonsinusoidal Waveforms and Unbalanced Loads: A
Discussion," IEEE Trans. on P-ower Delivery, Vol. 11,
No.1, January 1996, pp. 79-101.
11. "Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems," IEEE
Standard519-1992, IEEE, NewYork, 1993.
12. J. Arrillaga, D. A Bradley, and P. S. Bodger, Power
System Harmonics, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1985.
13. G. T. Heydt, Electric Power Quality, Stars in a Circle
Publications, West Lafayette, IN, 1991.
14. "IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing
Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal
Load Currents," ANSIllEEE Standard C57.110-1986,
IEEE, NewYork, 1986.
15. W. M. Grady and R. J. Gilleskie, "Harmonics and How
They Relate to Power Factor," Proceedings of PQA93,
San Diego, CA, 1993.
16. Task Force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation,
"Modeling and Simulation of the Propagation of
Harmonics in Electric Power Networks Part I :
Concepts, Models and Simulation Techniques," IEEE
Trans. on PowerDelivery, Vol.l l, No.1, January 1996,
pp. 452-465.
17. E. W. Kimbark. Direct Current Transmission, Vol. 1,
John Wiley& Sons, NewYork, 1971.
18. N. Mohan, T. M. Undeland, and W. P. Robbins, Power
Electronics - Converters, Applications, and Design,
JohnWiley& Sons. New York. 1995.
19. W. M. Grady, M. J. Samotyj, and A H. Noyola, "Survey
of Active Power Line Conditioning Methodologies,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No.3, July
1990,pp.1536-1542.
"limits for Harmonic Current Emmisions," International
Electroteehnical Commission StandardlEe 1000-3-2, March
1995.
14
ClL\.PTER 3
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM AND OTHER ELEMENTS MODELING
Paulo F. Ribeiro
BWXTechnologies, Inc.
Naval Nuclear Fuel Division
Lynchburg, VA 24505-0785
3.1 Introduction
One difficulty in calculating harmonic voltages and
currents throughout a transmission system is the need for an
adequate equivalent to represent the distribution system and
consumers' loads fedradially fromeachbusbar.
It has become evident that the use of equivalents
without a comprehensive check on the effect of all
impedances actually present can lead to inaccurate estimation
of harmonic voltages and currents in the transmission system.
Onthe other hand, it is not practicable to obtain andrepresent
all thesystemdetails.
A detailed analysis of distribution systems, loads and
other system elements is carriedout, models discussed and a
simple but more realistic approach adopted. It consists
basically of representing the dominant characteristics of the
network using altemativeconfigurations andmodels.
Simpler equivalents for extended networks are also
suggested.
the transmission and distribution systems should be
used only for remote points.
(7) For distribution system studies all the elements may
be assumed to be uncoupled three-phase branches
with nomutuals, butallowing unbalanced parameters
per phase.
A distribution system comprises a number of loads
conveniently supplied bycircuits from thenearest distribution
point. The distribution circuit configuration depends on the
particular load requirements. IB general, a considerable
number of loads are located so close together and supplied
from themain distribution point thattRey-can beconsidered as
a whole. For themajority of installations, whether supplying
a small factory, domestic/commercial consumers, or a large
plant, asimple radial systemisused[I]. A typical distribution
network is shown inFigure 3.1
- -..-, .
Figure 3.1. Typical distribution systemconfiguration
- ..........-.-.....----38OkV
I3.StV
69kV
;-T:r
1

13.ski l ~ ~
---.--.- : , , 11
. .
. .
: :: :r
. .
. .
- - ~ I - - - - - - - - - - - 230kV
69kV
............-. : : , 1
1
.
l l lloads p.f,c,
. .. +can.
~
identical circuits
A simplified dominant configuration can be derived as
illustrated in Figure 3.2, basedOD the basic assumptions. This
arrangement would represent the dominant characteristics
(impedances) of the supply circuit fed radially from each
transmission busbar.
(1) Distribution lines and cables (say, 69-33kV, for
example) should be represented by an equivalent pi.
For short lines, estimate the totalcapacitance at each
voltage levelandconnect it at thetermination buses.
(2) Transformers between distribution voltage level
should be represented by anequivalent element
(3) As the active power absorbed by rotating machines
does not correspond to a damping value, the active
and reactive power demand at the fundamental
frequency may not be used straightforwardly.
Alternative models for loadrepresentation should be
used according to their cOmposition and
characteristics.
(4) Powerfactor correction (PFC) capacitance should be
estimated as accurately as possible and allocated at
thecorresponding voltage level.
(5) Other elements, such as transmission line inductors,
tilters and generators should be represented
according to their actual configuration and
composition.
(6) The representation should be more detailed nearer
thepoints of interest. Simpler equivalents, either for
3.2 General Considerations
Although further considerations leading to simpler
equivalents are given later, the basic assumptions used in this
chapter are as follows:
15
230kV
60kV 69kV 13.8k
addition of load can result in either an increase or decrease in
harmonic flow.
Figure 3.2. Dominant arrangement
Transmission
System3-phase
Representation
In order to simplify the manipulation of the distribution
system, load and other element data, the following procedure
based on the configuration of Figure 3.2 is suggested. The
dotted lines in Figure 3.3 mean different possibilities of
connecting the load or other elements such as compensators
tilters, generators, etc.. Thetotal equivalent impedance is then
calculated at each harmonic frequency in star-grounded and
connected to the transmission busbar as a shunt element.
Consequently, there is no alteration of the dimension of the
transmission systemmatrix, See illustration inFigures 3.3 and
3.4. A composition of different arrangements can be
represented at the samebusbar.
..............................................
Load&t
Other
Elemems
Figure 3.3. Distribution system, loadsandothel' elements
3.3 TheModeling ofLoads
In this section, the modeling of individual elements is
discussed in detail. Considering that there is some
disagreement regarding which harmonic models are best for
loads, transformers, generators, etc [2], various proposed
models are discussed. Also simpler equivalents for
disUibution and transmission systems at relJlote points of the
area of interest are discussed.
Consumers' loads playa very important part in the harmonic
network characteristic. They constitute not only the main
element of the damping component but may affect the
resonance conditions, particularly at higher frequencies.
Indeed, measurements [3] have shown that maximum plant
conditions resulted in a lowering of the impedance at the
lower frequencies, butcause an increase at higber frequencies.
Mahmoud and Shultz [4] observed in simulations that the
Distribution system
and other elements
Figure3.4. Overall systemrepresentation
Consequently, an adequate representation of the system loads
is needed. However, it is very hard to obtain detailed
information about this. Moreover, as Ule general loads consist
of an aggregate number of components, it is difficult to
establish a model based ontheoretical analysis.
The necessity of practical measurements on distribution
points, at 13.8kV for example, together with detailed
information of the network: under study, is vital for the
understanding and establishment of a realistic model.
Attempts to deduce a model from measurements have been
made. See Bergea1 et al [5] and Baker [6]. However, more
comprehensive measurements and systemdata are needed.
Although practical experienceis still insufficient toguarantee
the best model, systemstudieshave toproceedwith whatever
information is available. Thus, load characteristics are looked
at in detail and alternativemodels developed-in.the following
sections.
Atypical composition of consumers' plantmaybe as shown in
Table 3.1. From Table 3.1, it seems evident that there are
basically two sorts of loads - resistive and motive. That
would imply a simple combination of resistances and
inductances. However, the difficulty in obtaining detailed
information about composition, power andvariation with time
makes the task very hard. Nevertheless, it is possible to
approach the problem of representing loads for harmonic
studies by using alternative models according to the load
characteristics and infonnationavailable.
3.3.1 Recommended Models
Loads are generally expressed by their active and reactive
power P and Q, respectively, which are used to calculate the
equivalent impedance from load now study results at
fundamental frequency. Hovwever,- at. harmonic frequencies P
and Q cannot be used straightforwardly because the active
power absorbed by a rotating machine does not exactly
16
motive part
R
I
resistive part only
L= V
2
1.2 K ~ K
1
Pm
R= ..1!:-
P(l-K)
The equivalent resistance is estimated as above, but
with an inductance in parallel. This should be
evaluated using an estimation of the number of
motors in service, their installedunitary power (not
demand), and their negative sequence inductance.
However, as precise information on the number of
motors, etc. inuse at anygiventimeisunavailable, a
fraction K of thetotal MW demandmust be used to
represent the motorpart. This is thenmultiplied by a
factor of, for example, 1.2 in order to consider the
installed power which should be used. Tocalculate
theequivalent negative sequence inductance, afactor
K
h
proportional to the severity of the starting
condition should be used. This model is a
combination of common practices proposed by
reference [19]. Therefore, we will have:
resistive
part
R
R
Figure 3.6. LoadmodelB
B.
Figure 3.5. Loadmodel A
correspond to a damping value and so additional information
is necessary. The following alternative models A-D can be
used according to the load characteristics and information
available:
(*)These loads are harmonic producing. Hence, theydo not
exhibit a constant R. L, or C, ie. they are non-linear and
therefore cannot be included in an equivalent network of
impedances. Fortunately, there is every O D to believe they
have insignificant effect (open circuit) on the harmonic
impedance andmaybe neglected.
T bl 3 1 L de a e .. oa omposition
Nature Type of Load Electrical
Characteristics
Domestic Incandescent Lamp Passive Resistive
Compact Non-linear
Fluorescent Passive Inductive
Small Motors Non-linear
Computers Non-linear(*)
Home Electronics
Commercial Incandescent Lamp Passive Resistive
Air Conditioner Passive Inductive
Resistive Heater Passive Resistive
Refrigeration Passive Inductive
Washing Machine Passive Inductive
Fluorescent Lamp Non-linear(*)
(Std) Non-linear(*)
ASDs Non-linear(*)
Fluorescent Non-linear(*)
(Electronics) Non-linear(*)
Computers
OtherElectronic
Lo-ads
Small Fan Passive Inductive
industrial Pump Passive Inductive
Plants Compressor Passive Inductive
(Low Resistive Heater Passive Resistive
Voltage) ArcFurnace Non-linear(*)
ASDs Non-linear(*)
Other Electronic Non-linear(*)
Loads
A. At harmonic frequencies, the reactive power
estimated mayhavea negligible effect in somecases.
Thus, the P is considered equivalent to a resistance
of value R=V
2
/P, V being the nominal voltage at
fundamental frequency (see Figure 3.5). 'Ibis
representation should beused when the motor part
is verysmall, i.e. for commercial anddomestic loads
in which the motive part is so partitioned that the
resistive effect is predominant.
where P =totalMWdemand
K =motorfraction of the totalMW
Ke =electronic controlled loadfraction of
totalMW
K
1
=severity of starting condition
CJ) =radianfrequency
K assumes values around 0.80 for industrial loads andaround
0.15 for conunercial and domestic loads. K
1
assumes values
between 4 and 7. K
E
can assume valuesaround O. It maywell
17
be that it is sufficiently accurate to ignore the resisuve
component of the motor pan. However, an additional
resistance representing the motor damping can beincluded as
Rl=LlK.
2
, where K2 is a fraction of the negative sequence
inductance or locked-rotor inductance. K
2
assumes values
around 0.20.
Figure 3.7. Load model C
L
R
1
motive part
R
resistive
part
resistive
motive part
part \ ---J ',,-__ ~
When the harmonic number increases, it is necessary to use
larger values ofR. As noinformation is yetavailable, a factor
of h
1l2
, where h is the harmonic order, seems a reasonable
value as a first approximation. Pesonen et al [2] bave
suggested a factor of approximately O.6h
lJ1

3.3.2 Other Considerations

figure 3.8. Load model D
With the approach adopted, a composite load model at the
transmission system substation can be represented. The
expected effect is a betterrepresentation of the load. Because
most supplyelectricity companies have Dot thoroughly studied
their own loads, a comprehensive investigation of the load
composition is necessary to enable the engineer to choose a
better model or composition of models-based on anestimate
of the systemload.
This model was developed from experiments
performed on medium voltage outputs using audio-
frequency ripple-control generators at EDF [7]. The
circuit suggested was an inductance in series with a
resistance. This branch was connected in parallel
with anotherinductance. The estimated P and Q are
used in empirical formulae to calculate the
equivalent impedances. Thus, R =V',/P; L
1
=
0.073Rim; L2 =R/(6.7tan(Pbi)-O.74)co; tan(phi) =
QIP (See Figure 3.8). Although this model was
obtained based on two frequencies only, 175 and
495Hz, and the information available is not clear
enough [8] on how the equivalent circuit was
derived, the parameters do not differ substantially
from models B and C. L
2
seems equivalent to the
motor part inductance and RILl to the resistive
circuit.
When a big induction motor or group of motors are
connected directly at Intermediate voltage levels,
which is thecasein industrial plants, themotive part
is better represented by a resistance in series with
the negative sequence inductance of the motor (see
Section 3.5.4bon rotating machines representation).
The model can be assessed as follows: - The
equivalent resistance, the resistive part, and the
negative sequence inductance of the motor is
estimated asin B, andtheseries resistance estimated
by R=CIllJK], where
K
3
=effectiveQof themotor circuit- 8
CJ) =radian fundamental frequency
Alternatively, a seriesinductance L
T
to represent the
equivalent leakage reactance of the distribution
transformers at lower voltage connecting the
resistance load can be incorporated (see
Figure3.7). A value of mLT =O.IRcan be assumed.
c.
D.
The harmonic impedance of distribution systems and loads
bas acmally been measured at a few sites in the U.K. The
results couldnot be satisfactorily reproduced digitally until the
downstream system from 33kV andcapacitance at4lSVwere
represented [9]. Measurements collected by Balcer [6]
showed that there is a strong indication of aneffect of p o ~ u
factor correction capacitance on the harmonic impedance of
11kV, 33kV, and 132kV systems. Therefore, there are
reasons to believe that PFC capacitance should be
represented. The PFC MYAt could beupto half of the~ 1 W
18
numerically, depending on the local PFC policy and system
conditions, i.e. whether maximum or minimum plant. Hence,
the overall loadrepresentation should be as Figure 3.9. The
PFC MYAI should be represented as a fraction of the total
MW estimated.
Figure 3.11. Harmonicimpedance variation (p.u.) with
transf. - linefedloadCapacitive variation -
constant resistance
Figure 3.9. Overall load representation
3.3.3 Sensitivity Tests
r
I

0
3I.U 1
I. 0.50
Figure 3.12. Harmonicimpedancevanatton (p.u.) with
transf.-line fedload Resistive and Capacitive
variation
Z C TP.F.C.,
capacitance
linear
load
3.4 Modeling of Other Elements
3.41 Distribution Lines andCables
Distribution lines and cables are represented by their exact
equivalent pi [11]. An estimated correction factor for skin
effect is applied by increasing the line resistance with
frequency by:
lines
cables
R= R (I + O.646h
2
)
192+O.518h
2
R=R(O.187+O.S32h
1ll
)
3.42 Transformers
Complete representation of transfonners, including
capacitances, is not practical and cannot be justified for
hannonic frequencies. Experience has shown that
capacitances start to have some effect at i.e. well
above the common harmonic frequencies present in power
systems, i.e. 2kHz. Transformer impedance is shown to be
proportional to the lealcage reactance and linear with
frequency. Various impedance representations have been
suggested. The following alternative models can be
represented:
A. A resistance in series with the leakage inductance.
Here a correction factor of h
l
.
IS
can be used [10]
SeeR 3.13).
.
:'l: 20.0 . .
, .
I..a
The examples show considerable variation in the equivalent
impedance for variations of the resistive and reactive
components of theload. For instance, when the resistive part
of the load approximates thesurgeimpedance of theline, the
resonance effect is significantly reduced (see Figure 3.10).
Conversely, changes in the reactive 'part may affect
considerably theequivalent impedance.
These examples do show very clearly the importance of an
accurate estimation and representation of the distribution
system and loads. Although the variations imposed seem
exaggerated, it is verylikely that such deviations between the
estimated and the actual parameters may occur, as the
information is Dot easilyobtainable.
..) MJa: 13Ia'f UM
.:...... .... .....
In orderto illustrate thesensitivity of theequivalent harmonic
impedance with the load level and composition, a set of
examples is shown in Figures 3.10 to 3.12. Typical
parameters for a 69 kV distribution system are used: The
resistive, inductive, and capacitive parts of theload are varied
andtheequivalent impedance calculated.
Figure 3.10. Harmonic impedance variation (p.u.) with
transf.-line fedloadResistive variation
Figure3.13. Transformer model A
19
B.
The leakage reactance in parallel with a resistance.
This is calculated by multiplying a factor times the
reactance. A factor of 80 is suggested in theCEGB
program[11] (See Figure3.14).
R
However, theliterature is not in agreement regarding
appropriate impedances at harmonic frequencies.
Westinghouse [12], Williamson [13], and Pesonen et
al [2] suggest a reactance derived from either the
subtransient or negative sequence inductance:
Figure3.14. Transformer model B
c. Pesonen et al [2] suggested a resistance Rs in series
with an assembly of inductance L in parallel with a
resistance Rop. Resistances R, and Rp are constant
whatever the frequency andanestimate of their value
canbeobtained asprovided byexpressions:
9O<V
2/SRc<110
13<SRplV2<30
with Sbeing theratedpowerof thetransformer (see
Fi e3.15.
Figure 3.15. Transformer model C
3.43 Rotating Machines
(a) Synchronous Generators
When non-linear currents/voltages appear in the
stator of a synchronous machine, the fundamental
component is responsible for the energy conversion
process and sets up a rotating mmf wave which
reacts with the rotor mmf to produce the resultant
fundament3.l mmf gap flux. Conversely, the
harmonic components set up mmf waves rotating at
different frequencies, but there is no armature
reaction. Therefore, the reaction offered to
harmonics is not related to synchronous parameters
but an equivalent impedance which should be a
function of the leakage path. Also, it may be
assumed that synchronous machines produce no
harmonic voltages and theycan be represented by a
shunt equivalent impedance at harmonic frequencies.
(b)
20
Shilling [14] suggests X =X,", while Campbell and
Murray [15] suggest X =Xes'. Fresl [16] suggests X
=112(X
d"+X2
) , where X
2
= 112(X
d
"+Xq").
Westinghouse [12] suggests a correction of the
equivalent inductance. This is because when
frequency increases, a smaller amount of flux
penetrates the rotor. The amount is not known
accurately but normally taken as unity for the
fundamental and0.8at 1000Hz.
When using typical values of synchronous machine
reactance to calculate the equivalent reactance X, it
can be observed that the sabtransient reactance
seems a reasonable value and should be used. A
resistance representing the damping can be
incorporated. Electra 32 [11] suggests a slcin effect
correction factor of hO.
96
Regarding the equivalent
ctrcuit, Personen et al [2] suggest a parallel
combination of R andL. Here a series combination
is more appropriate, as the equivalent circuit of a
synchronous generator can be visualized as an
induction motor for harmonic frequency. However.
regarding practical values, the skin effect
representation and the way to combine the
impedances will not causeany significant difference
on the equivalent impedance. IIr the program, a
series or parallel combination can be used. Skin
effect and inductance correction can be represented
as well. A damping resistance based on the losses
canbe addedfor both series or parallel combination.
Induction Motor
The well known configuration of an equivalent
circuit of an inducting motor is shown in Figw-e
3.21a. The Slip, s, at harmonic frequencies s(h) is
approximately equal to 1as
s(b) =h:(1-s(I)/h) - 1, where s(l) -0.02
With Xm negligible, the equivalent circuit in Figw-e
3.21 is a reasonable approximation. Here L is the
locked-rotor inductance, which can be calculated
from the severity of starting condition. R is the
damping resistance which is derived from themotor
losses. For detailed analysis. seeChalmers [17] and
Klingshirn and Jordan [18]. Induction motors are
generally present as part of the loadandina groupof
different sizes.
higher frequencies is unpredictable as small capacitance may
have a dominant effect producing resonances. Measurements
[3] have shown that in some cases the minimum impedance at
thehigher frequencies occurred at theminimum fault level.
3.5 Supply SystemEguivalent
Figure 3.16. Synchronous generator representation
(a) series combination
(b) parallel combination
There is no typical equivalent that can be used in any system
without question, but measurements have shown similar
characteristics in the harmonic impedance of a transmission
system. A general point is the prominence of the first two
resonance frequencies, i.e. parallel (COp) andseries (IDs). This
can be observed from Figures 3.18 [3] and 3.19 [6].
Inspection of the impedance characteristic shows that a T
circuit can be assumed as in Figure3.20a. This produces an
impedance as in figure 3.20b, which represents the system
impedance more accurately than the fault level inductance
when the necessary data are available. There are reasons to
believe that the inductive part is inversely proportional to the
fault level contribution. Thatis,
The effect of the line capacitance is to reduce the harmonic
impedance for higher frequencies. However, the combined
effect with inductances may cause parallel resonances and
thushave the oppositeeffect.
The net effect of increasing the load is to reduce the
impedance to both fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
The combined effect of increasing generation and load is to
reduce system resonances by increasing system inductive
elements andincreasing the damping by lower resistance paths
toground.
(b)
R
L
(a)
In supergrid studies there is a need for an equivalent of the
transmission system as the representation of the whole
network is not practicable. A simpleinductance based on the
fault level contribution has been used in the past but its
representation is clearly unsatisfactory. The factors
influencing the equivalent impedance are discussed and a
simple but morerealistic model is adopted.
R
L =L
1
+ =(nominal voltage inkV)2
(fault level in MVA)*21tf
Thelinecapacitance is responsible forthecapacitance Cin
thecircuitof Figure3.20a. Thus, theimpedance is given by:
(a)
R L
I\, VV\.-.rY'.
Z{m)=coL
t
-(l/coC)]=
=COLt - [mL,,/( C-l)] (3.1)
L= locked rotor
inductance
'- (b) ......
Figure 3.17. Induction motor representation
(a)Complete representation
(b) Equivalent harmonic model
The harmonic impedance of a transmission system is
determined/affected by factors such as fault level, system
loads, capacitance of lines and cables, compensations, etc. In
general, an increase in fault level reduces the harmonic
impedance at lower frequencies. However, the behavior for
"
E
.2
I
1

J
..
I I I !
! .. !
I
I
Figure 3.18. Harmonic impedance of 132kV system
21
In order to give more flexibility to the model, the parameters
Lt - L2, and Cas a function of COp and Cl)s canbe assessed. That
is because the transmission linesdetermine fundamentally the
behavior of the a.c. network and thus COp and COs could be
estimated from theknowledge of the lines, which would better
approximate thesystem impedance.
Resistances in series with theinductances can be incorporated
to provide a damping component to attenuate resonance peak..
In order to illustrate the accuracy of the model, the measured
impedances of Figures 3.18 and 3.19 are reconstructed in
Figures 3.21 and 3.22. respectively.
Figure 3.21. Calculatedharmonic impedance 132kV system
corr ondin tomeasurementsofFi e3.18

,._--.---
........."wn.=-,--,,l
-..;.;- h-
1

......
.. '. ---- - . _.. t ... __.- --1
1-- ....,. _. _..:...-,1

1.11"---

Figure3.19. Harmonic impedance of 132kVcablesystem
withoutlocal generation, minimumplant
condition
(&)
Figure3.22. Calculatedharmonic impedance 132kV system
corresponding to measurements of Figure 3.19
Figure3.20. Transmission systemequivalent model
L - fault levelinductance - Olp. m. _frequencies ofresonance
Equation (3.1) givenpreviously is a second-order equation.
Therefore, considering thetwo frequencies where theparallel
and series resonances occur, the equations can be solved in
termsof Lit andC.
( b)
.p
3.6 Distribution System Example
A simple but typical 11 kV distribution systemwas modeled
as shown in Figure3.23. In the diagram the consumer has a
connected load of 865 kVA at a power factor of 0.8 lagging
and a power factor correction capacitor of 250 kvar. The
consumer wishes to connect an adjustable speed drive usinga
6-pulse converter at the IIkV busbar. The system fault level
at the busbar, including the transformer, is 30MVA and the
source impedance may be considered as purely inductive.
The maximum harmonic currents (5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th)
injected arespecified andtypical for 6 pulsedrives.
1. Z(COp) = infinite, therefore mp2L'1.C=I
C=1/0>pL2 =I/CDp2(L-Ll)
2. Z(COs) =0, therefore msLl =a>sJ-,J(COs'1.L'1.C-1)
L
1
=L21( ), COs'1.L
2
C=1 =l.JL
1
C =
Comparing C from (I) and (2), it will can be seen that LI =
L( 00p!00s)2 andtheequivalent circuit iscompletely determined.
22
i 3 4 , , 7 i 9 10 U 11 13 It 1$ 14 11 J 19 JI :1 J3 D
1.
..........-.---.....-.._.....-.........
,. I
./ "',
,."...,-..............
I I
JOl-.................... ..................-....I.-....."""--I.........1.,,;,;I
1)) 4 S, 1;
Ii
O.l

.-'.-...-..-....,,-, ...
Figure 3.24. Equivalent 11 kVFrequency Response
Impedance - LoadRepresented by Series Model 1
1"10" ........
::eo
1.
::OIA1(1l) 10
..
......._. )-(',;';..... .
. 1,:.: u .
.. P.J' . . -' .
'. ... : .. :. : . ... 1.. '"
: ::L.:..: .,...,...: ., :
t :
.. .:... .. .. 'ji : j .. ..
: 1 Iii; : ., .. . .. ::: :. .. .
":"-: ,-t:," ,tl
13
... ;- _t . .'
;'r'>'}'; ';r :::1 ..": :::::: :::::::::: ..
.. .: :: :'.:: .,
. . . . .. .. 0.. . . .. .. ..
...: r:. tl: :.
Figure 3.23- SystemSchematic Diagram
Figure 3.25. Equivalent II kVFrequency Response
Impedance - LoadRepresented by Parallel Model 2
In order to illustrate the influence of the load modeling in
harmonic studies, Figures 3.24 to 3.26 show the equivalent
harmonic impedance viewed from the 11 kV bus using
different load models. The dominant parallel resonance
harmonic frequency is estimated commonly by
h=
MVA
sc
MVAr C4p
OJ
.1...............--'--..........e.....l.................. ........--....r......M-........
1 2 J 4 .s , 7 I 9 11 a n 1t is U 11 II 1SJ I 21 :3 1C 15
k
which can be derived by finding the unity power-factor
frequency of thesystem. Thiscalculation assuming noload
indicates that theresonance frequency is around 10.95times
the fundamental frequency. At theresonance frequency the
impedance of the 11kV busbecomes verylargeasit can be
seen on Figure 3.24, when load model 1 is used. Thus,
significant voltage distortion may result at the 11th
harmonic. The high harmonic voltages will alsoresult in
high harmonic currents both in the capacitor bank and the
system reactance. A more detailed agalysis, however,
reveals that I) the resonance frequency varies with the
resistance of the system and the amplitude of equivalent
harmonic impedance, 2) the outputvoltage is not necessarily
maximum at the resonant frequency, and 3) is a function of
the damping (resistance) of the circuit. However because
current is only injected at the 11th harmonic one does not
needto consider other frequencies, but rather remember the
sensitivity of the system harmonic impedance (around the
resonance frequencies) to variations.
Figure 3.26. Equivalent 11kVFrequency Response
Impedance - LoadRepresented by EdFICIGRE Model 7
When the harmonic currents areinjected it can be observed
that at the 11til harmonic theresultant voltage obtained with
a parallel representation(model 2) is 66 V or 1.04%,
whereas with the series representation (model I) the 11th
harmonic voltage on the l1kV bus was 332 V or 3.23%.
Thus, near the parallel resonance frequency the impact of
the load representation can be very significant. Using an
alternative serieslparallelload representation (EdF model 7),
the frequency response of the equivalent impedance is
shown in Figure3.26. Twoimportant facts can be noted.
FU'St the resultant VOltage on the llkV bus is now48 V or
0.69%. Second the resonant frequency shifted slightly
higher (from 11thharmonic to near the 13th harmonic).
Table3.2 shows a summary of thecasessimulated where the
model andloadandcomposition werevaried.
23


25
c-.
JCIII
4 c-.
S c..
4; :-
: c..
CIII YSC'I
to
d s C T bl 3 2 L d M d I' a e .. oa o e Ing and onditions imulate
Case Linear Load Model
Case 1 NoLoad Representation
Case2 P, Q- BasicLoad Flow
Case3 P, Q- BasicLoad Row
Case4 50%Induction Motor
Case5 25 % Induction Motor
Case6 50%Induction Motor
Case7 75%Induction Motor
Case8 90%Induction Motor
Case9 25%Ind. Motor + Skin Effect
Case 10 75%Ind. Motor + Skin Effect
Skin effect was included in cases 9 and 10to account for the
impact on the system impedance of the frequency
dependence of the resistive component of the load. Figure
3.28 illustrates the amplitude of the 5th and 11til harmonic
voltage(%) at the II kVbusfor all models used.
CJV5(r.)
.v,t(,..
Figure 3.29. Harmonic Voltage (%) at the l1kV Bus for
Different Load Models
Modeling loads using just the economic model (P and Q
only) is inadequate for harmonic -studies. No load (case 1)
representation shouldnot be usedfor harmonic studies. The
load models (2 suggested in the litesature can not be used
indiscriminately without a comprehensive check of the
actual load characteristics and composition. The
appropriate representation is particularly crucial near the
parallel resonant frequencies of the system. exactly where an
accurate estimanon of the system behavior is most
necessary. Frequency response of the system impedance is
sensitive to both the methodology (modelingltopology) and
the actual load composition. A comprehensive list of linear
load models for harmonic studies found in the literature is
illustrated in Annex 1
3.7 The Need for a Complete LoadRepresentation
Figure 3.28. Harmonic Voltage (%) forDifferent Load
Model
Figure 3.29 demonstrates more clearly how much the
resultant voltage canvary depending on themodel and load
composition used. When comparing to standards such as
the IEEE 519, it becomes clear that the violation of the
standard may depend on the load model used for the
calculation of theresultant distortion.
General loads in a transmission or distribution system are
generally expressed by theiractive and reactive power P and
Q, respectively, which are used to calculate the equivalent
impedance for load flow studies at the fundamental
frequency, assuming the system voltage is known.
However, at harmonic frequencies P and Q cannot be used
directly because, for example, the power absorbed by
rotating machines does not exactly correspond to a damping
value, neither does the motor equivalent inductance bear
any direct or simple relationship to the reactive power
estimated at the fundamental frequency. In addition a
measurable percentage of any general load nowadays is
electronically controlled and needs to be properly
represented. Electronic loads are harmonic producing and
consequently do not exhibita constant R, Lor C. Therefore,
they cannot be included as part of the passive component
of the equivalent impedance. They should be represented
by a harmonic source at all frequencies of importance.
Withthe proliferation of theutilization of power electronics
a progressive conversion of traditionally linear loads to
electronically controlled will happen.
24
Another component normally overlooked in harmonic
studies is the power factor correction (PFC) capacitance of
distribution systems. Measurements have shown that there
is a strong correlation of the effect of power factor
correction capacitance on the harmonic impedance of
distribution systems. The PFC Mvar could be up to half of
. the MW numerically, depending on the local PFC policy
andsystem conditions.
Therefore, the proposed model shownin Figure 3.30 makes
an attempt to incorporate all these aspects in the general
modeling of loads for harmonic studies and consequently
make the so called general, normal or "linear" load
representation for harmonic studies much more realistic.
Detailed research should be carried out to assess the actual
load composition and determine the proper representation
andparameters of eachloador aggregate of loads.
The equivalent model should consist of a combination of
seriesandparallel combination of resistances, inductances,
capacitances, andharmonic currentsources as indicatedin
Figure3.30.
. . . . .. .. .. . : : . .
oJ lSj"!'ttl!"ft
. . . .. . . . .. . .
. .
.. .. : !" .................._ : .
....................... : .
l.oed . . : . . ?rC.
R2 =XL2
K2
where
v = System vottage
XLl = Transformer Reactance
Cl =Estimated Capacitance of the Load
/1 = Estimated Harmonic Current Source
where
P =Total ActivePower
K=Fraction of Induction Motors
KE =Fraction of Electronic Loads
Rl =Equivalent resistance representing thepurely resistive
component Of theload
=factorfor skin effect correction
XU = Equivalent inductance representing theinduction
motors
R2 =Dampingfactorfor theinduction motor
representation
Kl =Severity of Starting Condition
Km =Installed Motor Factor
K2 =Fraction a/the locked-rotor (ornegative sequence)
inductance
h =Harmonic order
XLI = Leakage inductance of transformers at lower
voltages connecting the resistive load
/1 =Ideal harmonic current source (use typical values
according to typeOf toadfeeder).
Figure3.30. General Load Representation forHarmonic
Studies
This chapterdemonstrates that therepresentation of thepower
system loads and extended networks can be improved by
using alternative models. Thedistribution system, loads, other
The resistance RI is estimated from the actualresistive load
connected to the bus, that is, discounting the induction
motor and electronic load part. The skin effect can be
incorporated in the equivalent resistance ..by choosing an
appropriate factor as indicated. The inductance of the
induction motors should be evaluated usingan estimation of
the fraction of the total load that represents induction motors
and their installed unitary power (not the demand). Also a
factor Kl representing the severity of the starting condition
should be used to calculate the equivalent inductance. R2
represents the damping component of the equivalent
induction motor impedance. Also background distortion
should not be neglected. Harmonic simulation studies will
have to include background distortion if they are to be
become more accurate. Background distortion can increase
or decrease the resultant distortion .depending on phase
relationship. A harmonic current or voltage source
representing the harmonic contribution of the non-linear
component of the load must bemodeled.
3.8 Conclusions
v
2
KmKKlph
XL2
Because the reactive power of the load estimated at the
fundamental frequency has little to do with the equivalent
impedance of the load at harmonic ffequencies, it is
suggested that Q (estimated for the load without any PFC)
should be totally disregarded for the estimation of the
equivalent harmonic impedance of the load. Thus, starting
with the total active power P and additional information
about the load composition the following procedure is
suggested for calculating parameters forharmonic studies.
25
elements and equivalents of extended networks have been
considered in detail. The models developed allow a more
realistic representation of the system and, consequently, a
more accurate assessment of the harmonic currents and
voltages throughout the transmission network. Guidance has
been provided on modeling of individual loads and on typical
load composition. System tests are necessary to provide
verification of the modeling methodology developed, as well
as adding to theknowledge of system loadcharacteristics.
Model 4
Parallel
Combination
FromP and
fraction of
motors
This chapter demonstrates that the representation 0 f linear
elements is very important for harmonic studies and should
not be neglected or representedwithout full consideration of
theloadcharacteristics andcomposition.
Consequences regarding system predictions include wrong
indication of excessively high harmonic distortion. In
addition, utilization of sophisticated harmonic penetration
programs with inaccurate basic tnformanon, and/or
inadequate modeling is a waste of money, and the
consequences of the interpretation of the results might cost
even more. In conclusion, remember that the accuracy of
anycalculation cannot be better than thedata on whichit is
based.
ModelS
SerieslParallei
Combination 1
(CIGREIEclF
Model)
Model 6
SeriesJParallel
Combination 2

. 0.:__ " . 0 I " . 0
'" 1
0
: :- " 0 C " . "
:1 : : .c : .
....... t2" "
H ... :0"1"
""1"' "
.. .
.. .

" . I "..:-".::'- " . .
" .. ...--1:2":..... ..
Fl"'l" 0 ..... }. "
. 01" 0"" .
. . . .
. . . ..
Annex 3.1.Linear LoadModels
Model
Description
Modell
Series
Combination
(Common
Practice)
FromP andQ
Equivalent Circuit
Model 7
SeriesJParallel
Combination 2
FromP,
inductanceof
distributioon
transformers
and induction
motors
Model 2
Parallel
Combination 1
(Common
Practice)
From P andQ
plus skineffect
Model 3
Parallel
Combination 2
FromPand
fraction of
induction
motors
l____---r___-
.. .
.. .
.. .

" .01. 0.
_. a.'
.. ... .
. .. .
26
References
[1] ROLLS,T.B., "PowerDistribution in Industrial
Installations," lEEMonograph Series 10, 1972.
[2] M.A., "Harmonics, Characteristic
Parameters, Methods of Study, Estimatesof Existing Values
in the Network."Electra, Vol. 77, pp. 35-54, 1981.
[3] HUDDART, K.W., andBREWER, OL., "Factors
Influencing the Harmonic Impedance of a Power System."
Conference onHigh Voltage DCTransmission., lEE No. 22,
pp. 4SG-4S2, 1966.
[4] MAHMOUD, A.A. andSHULTZ, RD., "AMethod for
Analyzing Harmonic Distribution in a.c. Power Systems,"
IEEETrans., PAS-IOI, No.6, pp. 1815-1824, 1982.
[5] BERGEAL, J. and MOLLER, t; "Influence des
Chargessur la propagation des perturbations detype
harmoniques principales consequences," Internal Repon
E.D.F., HRl221034, 31.12.80.
[6] BAKER, W.P., "Measured Impedances of Power
Systems," International Conferenceon Harmonics in Power
Systems, UMIST, 1981.
[7] BERGEAL, J. andMOLLER L., "Influence of Load
Characteristic on thePropagation of Disturbances," CIRED
1981.
[8] MEYNAUD, P., E.D.F., Directiondes Etudes et
Recherches, Privatecommunication, 25 Fevrier, 1983.
[9] HOWROYD, D.C., CEBGTechnology Planning and
Research Division, Privatecommunication 29.12.83.
[10] Electra, Vol. 32
[11] HARPO 3 - Harmonic Impedanceand Penetration
Program. CEGB ReportCS/CIP300.
[12] Westinghouse ElectricCorporation, "Electrical
Transmission and Distribution RefrenceBook,"1950.
[13] WILLIAMSON,A.C., 'The Effects of System
Harmonics upon Machines," International Conferenceon
Harmonics in PowerSystems, UMIST, 1981.
[14] SHILLING, WJ., "Exciter armature reaction and
excitation requirements in a brushlessrotating-rectifier
aircraft alternator," TransAm.Inst.Elect.Eng. 1960, 79, pt.
II.
[IS] CAMPBELL, L.C. andMURRAY, N.S., "Harmonic
Penetration into-Power Systems," 5th Universities Power
Engineering Conferences, Swansea, Wales, 1970
[16] FRESL, V.: "Sistermiuzbude generatoraHE'Derap,"
Inf. RadeKONCAR, 1974,60-63, pp. 67-77.
[17]CHALMERS, Bl., "Induction-motorlossesdue to
non-sinusidal supplywaveforms," Proc.1EE, Vol. 115, No.
12, 1968.
[18] KLINGHRIRN, E.A and JORDON, H.E.,"Polyphase
induction motorperformance and losses on nonsinusoidal
voltagesources,"IEEETrans., 1968, PAS-87.
27
Chapter 4
MODELING OF HARMONIC SOURCES
POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS
Gary W.K. Chang
Siemens Power T&0
BrooklynPark, MN, USA
4.1 Introduction
Harmonic problems are not new to electric utility and
industrial power systems. In the past, most harmonic-
relatedproblems werecaused by largenonlinear loads such
as arc furnaces. These types of problems have been
effectively mitigated. However, due to the widespread
proliferation of power electronic controlled devices
nowadays, the problems caused by harmonics are of
increasing importance. Power electronic loads offer a
number of advantages in controlling power flow and in
efficiency, but they perform this by chopping, flatting, or
shaping sinusoidal voltages and currents. Harmonics are
produced inthe process.
Among today's power electronic applications, most of
the harmonic problems are caused by the static power
converters. The staticconverters areused in many types of
industrial applications. The purpose of this chapter is to
present modeling and simulation techniques for power
electronic devices, focusing on the harmonic modeling for
static power converters. First, we briefly review the
commonly seen power electronic type harmonic sources.
Next, a number of major converter harmonic models used
in harmonic simulation will be described. Two converter
models used as harmonic simulation examples are then
presented.
4.2 Review of Power Electronic Hannonic Sources
~ to the advanced technologies in power electronics
development overthe past decade, the application of power
electronics has been widely spread to all types of
industries. Commonly observed examples are..
Line Commutated Converters
The introduction of economic and reliable line
commutated converters has causeda significant increase in
harmonic-generating loads, and they have dispersed over
the entire power system. In most cases, line commutated
converters are the cause of hannonic problems in power
distribution systems. Thesedevices areworkhorsecircuits
for acJdc power conversion. The common application of
static power converters is in adjustable speed drives for
motorcontrol. Another application is in HVDC tenninals.
WilsunXu
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
The device can be operated as a six-pulse converter, as
shownin Figure 4.1, or configured in parallel arrangements
for higher pulse operation. Theoretically, a static power
converter load draws currents from the source system that
consist of positive and negative currents which are equally
separated. The pulse number refers to the number of
"humps" on the de output voltage that are produced during
everyac cycle.
Figure 4.1. Six-Pulse Line Commutated Converter
In Figure 4.1, each pair of thyristors i s ~ ~ g g e r e (firing
angle) and conduct until they are reverse-biased. If a
thyristor is triggered at zerofiring angle. it acts exactlylike a
diode. 1be termline commutated converter refers to the fact
that the load actually turns thyristors off, rather than them
being turned off by external control circuits. The ideal ac
current waveform for a six-pulse converter is on for 120
degrees and off for another 60 degrees. During the on
period, the de load current is assumed constant in the ideal
case due to the assumed existence of a large series dc
inductor. Assuming no commutation overlap and balanced
three-phase operation, it can be shown that the phase a
current is
ia(t) =1:.!!.Sin(hlJt +Ok). (4.1)
h h
whereh =1, S, 7. 11, 13, .... We see that the ac harmonic
currents generated by a six-pulse converter include all odd
harmonics except triplens. Harmonics generated by
converters of any pulse number can be expressed by
h =pn1, where n is any integer and p is thepulsenumber
of the converter. For the ideal case. converter harmonic
current magnitudes decrease according to Ilh rule. Table4.1
28
(4.2)
(4.3)
1. Current injection model.
2. Frequency- or time-domain Norton equivalent circuit
model.
3. Harmonic coupling matrix model.
4. Time- or frequency-domain device model used with
frequency-domain network model.
5. Time-domain model.
Current Injection Model
The mostcommon techniquefor harmonic simulation is
to treat static power converters as known sources of
harmonic currents with or without including phase angle
information. This is due to the fact that the converter acts
as an injection current source to the system in many
operational conditions. Generally, the steady-state
condition is assumed. The following frequency-domain
matrix equations for each harmonic are used to compute
thenetworkharmonic voltages:
1be following sections give a brief overview on the
aforementioned converter models for harmonic simulations.
For the details of these models, please refer to the
correspondingreferences.
4.3 Review of Static Power Converter Models for
Harmonic Simulation
In order to simulate the propagation of harmonics
throughout a network, adequate models for harmonic-
generating loads as well as system components must be
developed. In general, the power electronic devices that
generate harmonic currents can be modeled by using simple
current source models or complicated device-level models.
The harmonic simulation can be in frequency domain, in
time domain, or in both. In this section, an overview of
common harmonic modeling techniques for static power
converters for simulation studies will bedescribed.
Power electronic converters for harmonic analysis can be
simply represented by a harmonic current source or a model
that takes into account the interaction between ac system
network and the converter dc system. When the latter
situation is considered, a more sophisticated converter
analysis for the resulting harmonic currents as a function of
system reactance, delay angle, and commutation angle is
required. Theaccuracy of converter model needs also to be
considered to guarantee the convergence of the simulation.
At present, there are several techniques that have been
developed for modeling of power.e1earonic converters in
harmonic simulation. These techniques can be categorized
as:
Table 4.1. Theoretical and Typical Harmonic Currents for
Six-Pulse Converters.
Pulse-Width Modulated Converters
Other power electronic devices which may generate
harmonics in the power system include static phase
shifters, isolation switches, load transfer switches, and
energystorageand instantaneous backup powersystems as
well as those devices covered under the subjects of or
Aexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) and Custom
PowerSystems (CPS) [2].
gives the fllz-rule and typical harmonic currents (in per unit
of the fundamental component) for six-pulse converters
[1].
The static var compensator is used as a voltage
controller in the power system. 1bis device controls
network voltage by adjusting the amount of reactive power
supplied to or absorbed from the power system. The
applications of theSVC areusuallyforlocal compensation
of reactive power to industrial loads and for regulation of
utility network voltages to improve transfer. capabilities
acrossthetransmission system. Typical configuration of an
SVC consists of shunt capacitors with a thyristor-
controlled reactor (TCR) connected inparallel.
Other Power Electronic Devices
PWMconverters use power electronic devices that can
beturnedoff andturned on. Therefore, voltage andcurrent
waveforms can be shaped more desirably. The switching
components canbe thyristors that areforced off by external
control circuits, or they can be GTOs or power transistors.
The latter devices are usually used because of their fast
switching characteristics are neededfor effective PWM.
In a PWM converter, the switching devices are
controlled to switch on and off to produce a series of
pulses. Thesepulses areto be variedin width to produce a
pulsedthree-phase voltage wave for the load. Dueto their
lowefficiencies, PWMconverters arelimited to lowpower
applications in the several hundredkWor hpranges.
Cycloconverters
Thecycloconverter is a device that converts ac power at
one frequency into ae power at a lower frequency.
Cycloconverters are usually used in low speed and large
horsepower applications. The harmonic frequencies
generated by a cycloconverter depend on the output
frequency, which is varied in operation to control motor
speed. The output frequency of a cycloconverter can be
controlled by precisely timing the firing pulses at its
thyristor gatesthroughcomputer control.
Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
29
Then. superposition is applied to convert the solved
values of each V
h
into (he time domain for each network
busk as follows:
H
(4.4)
11=1
where H is the highest harmonic order under
consideration.
In the current injection model, the magnitudes of
harmonic currents can be determined simply following
the l/h rule as stated in (4.1) or represented by
measurements, as shownin Table 1. The phase angles of
the current sources are functions of the supply voltage
phase angle [3] and can beexpressed as .
6
h
=8h-spec +h( 6
1
- 6
1
-
spec
) , (4.5)
where 6
1
is the phase angle obtained from the load flow
solution for fundamental frequency current component,
and 6h-spec is the typical phase angle of the harmonic
source current spectrum. Many times, especially for
studies involving one converter, the phase angles are
ignored andonly the magnitudes areusedin the harmonic
simulation. Once . the hannonic voltages are known,
harmonic currents through network elements are
determined, and they can be convened to time-domain
currents.
The advantages of the current injection method are
that the solution can always be obtained directly (non-
iterative) and it is computationally efficient Ideally, this
method is able to handle several harmonic sources
simultaneously. The drawback of this method is that
typical harmonic spectra are often used to represent the
harmonic currents generated by the converter which
ignores the interaction between the network and the
converter. This prevents an adequate assessment of cases
involving non-typical operating modes, such as partial
loading, excessive harmonic voltage distortions and
unbalanced network conditions. Reference [4] suggests
that the current injectionmodel should be used carefully
(if at all) when the converter source voltage 1HD is on
the order of 10% or more. More information on the
current injection method and associated models can be
found in [4-6].
The aforementioned drawbacks can be overcome by
using more advanced converter models and harmonic
analyses desaibed in the following sections. The models
generally include the effects of harmonic voltages on the
converter current waveform. Therefore, these advanced
methods couple the converterwith the system admittance
matrix, such as shown in (4.3), or some other more
complicated expression of the power system. Given an
initial estimate of harmonic current injections at the
converter, the network bus harmonic voltages are
determined. A new estimate of the harmonic injection
currents is then obtained from the computed harmonic
voltages. This process is repeated until convergence in the
magnitudeof the harmonic voltages on each network bus is
reached.
Frequency- or Time-Domain Norton Equivalent Circuit
Model
In this model, the converter is represented by a Norton
equivalent circuit, where the Nortonadmittance represents
an approximation of the converter response to variation in
terminal voltage harmonics. A common approach for
m<:>del to h8:ve the converter switching represented by a
SWItching function whose frequency-domain expression is
known [7]. The switching function is used to detennine
the ac side harmonic phasors directly from the dc side
phasors. TIlls model is then iteratively improved
In a frequency-domain networksolutionprocess. nus type
of solution process in harmonic power flow analysis is
usually called iterative harmonic analysis (IRA) [8].
Reference [9] also presents a similarmodel in time domain
with an iterative simulation technique. More information
on this model can be foundin [10] and.[.ll].
The advantages of the Nortonequivalent model are that
the solution process has better convergence characteristics
and that a direct solution for the interaction between the
converter and the networkcan be obtained. However, [12]
reports that the problem with this model is that the
converter is indeed an interface between the ac and dc
systems, with only the ac systemrepresented in the entire
iterative solution process. If the converter controller needs
to be modeled, a separate iterative process is required for
solving the converter interactionwith the dc system at each
iteration.
Hannonic Coupling Matrix Model
In [13] and [14], the authors proposed an efficient
technique by the linearization of the interaction between
the converter de system and the ac network. Then, the
entire system is solved via the harmonic coupling matrix
equation to account for the interaction between the
converter dc system and the ac terminal voltage. Figure
4.2 shows a simplified single- or three-phase converter
model, where the harmonic coupling matrix equation can
expressed as
[
ltlc]=[A BIVac]. (4.6)
V
de
C D Ide
In(4.6), t; and V
oc
can beexpanded to include bothpositive
and negative sequence components, and Ie can beexpanded
to include the firing anglecontrols [13].
30
(de -----
V
ac
lac
---
Figure 4.2. Simplified Converter Model
a complete time-domain solution. The actual periods of
operation within each cycle of converter operation are
described by differential equations. No attempt is made to
convert to the frequency domain. Both balanced and
unbalanced conditions can be handled, and the converter
model can be as detailed as necessary. However, the
solution time and engineering effort increase significantly.
References [19] and [20] also provide other insights for the
time-domain model.
4.4 Case Study
Norton Equivalent Circuit Model
Figure 4.3. Converter Circuit Model of thePWM ASD
t
1
c
R
In this section, we evaluate two converter models used
in harmonic simulation. The two models are current
injection model and harmonic Norton equivalent circuit
model. A commonly seen PWM type adjustable speed
drive (ASD) is chosen for evaluation. An ASD mainly
consists of a converter (rectifier or front-end), a dc link, a
controller, and an inverter. Generally, the harmonics
produced in the inverter part are negligible as seen from
the converter ac side because of the harmonic current path
formedby the dc link capacitor. Therefore, theconverter is
modeledas the only part that injects harmonic currents into
the power system for the PWM type. ASD. Figure 4.3
shows the converter circuit of the AS}), where the inverter
andthe motor load are modeledas a direct current source.
Time- or Frequency-Domain Device Model used with
Frequency-Domain Network Model
In this model, the converter is described in terms of
the actual time-domain differential equations that govern
its performance. Then, convener currents are solved in
the time-domain and converted intothe frequency-domain
by the use of Fouries analyses. Next, the harmonic
currents are injected into the network model and the
harmonic voltages at each network bus are calculated.
The computed voltages are then used to recalculate the
converter currents in the time domain. In Newton-
Raphson or Gauss-Seidel types of harmonic power flow
analysis, this procedure iterates until convergence criteria
are met The HARMFLO and HAR:MFLO+ computer
programs are well-known products that use the
combinations of time- and frequency-domain solutions.
Moredetails aboutthis model canbefound in [15-17].
The harmonic coupling matrix provides a relationship
between the harmonic components of ac side voltage/
current and the de side voltage/current of the converter.
Each element in the matrix is a sub-matrix and is a
function of the converter states and commutating
inductance. This model can be used either in.the time or
the frequency domain with the incorporation of the
iterative approach, and it has been developed for both
single-phase and three-phase converters while ignoring
the effects of converter controls, commutation variations,
and resistance in ac networkimpedance [12].
Reference [18] also presents a frequency-domain
model which formulates a general set of non-linear
equations to describe the converter in steady state. The
formulation convolutes periodicsampled quantities in the
frequency domain with square pulsesampling functions.
The useof sampling functions inthis manner-is similarto
other work using the switching function [7]. The non-
linear equations are then solved using Newton's method
in conjunction with the frequency-domain network
model.
The converter circuit shownin Figure4.3is solvedwith
the harmonic analysis technique described in [7]. The end
result is a delta connected Norton equivalent circuit. The
circi .. is then interfaced with the supply network in an
iterative fashion, as described in [11], to determine the
harmonic current injections from the ASO. Parameters
needed to run the model are 1) the firing angle of the
converter thyristors, a; 2) the direct current flowing into
the inverter, ld; and 3) the delink R, L
t
and C component
values.
Time-Domain Model
Inthe time-domain model, the solution method used is
a time simulation of the entire system (both the converter
and the ac network). These solution methods are the
most mature of harmonic simulations. The programs
such as T P ~ ATP, and EMTDC can be used to obtain
The firing angle of the PWM type ASD is almost zero
because of the use of diodes as the front end. The direct
current flows into the inverter can be estimated from the
motor load as
31
Table 4.3. Typical Harmonic Spectra of PWMType
ASDs
LoadLevel 100% 75% 50%
h-order Mag. Angle Mag. Angle Mag. Angle
1 100.00 0 100.00 0 100.00 0
3 0.35 -159 0.59 -44 0.54 -96
5 60.82 -175 69.75 -174 75.09 -174
7 33.42 -172 47.03 -171 54.61 -171
9 0.50 158 0.32 -96 0.24 -102
11 3.84 166 6.86 17 14.65 16
13 7.74 -177 4.52 -178 1.95 71
15 0.41 135 0.37 -124 0.32 28
17 1.27 32 7.56 9 9.61 10
19 1.54 179 3.81 9 7.66 16
21 0.32 110 0.43 -163 0.43 95
23 1.08 38 259 11 0.94 -8
25 0.16 49 3.70 10 3.78 7
where P is the motor load including the losses, and Vg is
the line to ground voltage of the supply system.
In a typical harmonic study, ex and ld need to be
varied for investigation of the various ASD-motor
operating conditions. Also, representation of the dc link
ts essential for the correct harmonic simulation. If the de
link parameters are not available, a simplified model such
as the current injection model may be proposed.
Current Injection Model
An ASD may be represented as a harmonic current
source. Table 4.3 gives the typical harmonic magnitude
and phase spectra that can be used to model an ASD. The
corresponding waveforms are shown in Figure 4.4.
These data are obtained from the Norton equivalent
model that simulates an actual PWM ASD and are
verified by lab tests. Extensive analytical and numerical
studies indicate that the data is suitable for modeling
PWMtype ASDs.
Itlt 8
- -
"be, Iabc
0.004 Off6 0 0.012 0014 0.016 0 G18
l 1\ III

200 tJ
250 ...:
Time (Me.)
100
150
Model Verification
Figure4.4. Typical Current Waveforms of PWMType
ASDs
200
150
100
Figure 4.5. Lab Test Setupfor ASDHarmonic
Measurement
:Z50 .
Lab tests are conducted to verify the three-phase ASD
model developedin this study. The tests are performed on a
30 hpPWM-typeASD servinga 20 hpinduction motorload.
The lab setup is shown in Figure 4.5. The ASD supply
voltage (line to line), Vs, is 600 V. The motor mechanical
load is varied to simulate different-operating conditions. 13
operating conditions are recorded. For each operating
condition, waveforms of 15 voltage and current quantities
are measured when the system is in steady-state. These
waveform snapshots, including source side voltages and
currents, motor side voltages and currents, de link voltage
and inverter current, are synchronised and sampled at a rate
of 100kHz. In addition to the above operating tests, the dc
link is measured at various frequencies in a standstill test to
determine its component parameters.
(4.7)
P
ld = ,
2. 34V
g
cosa
To use this model, the ASD is first represented as a
constant power load at the fundamental frequency. The real
power load is equal to the ASD/motor load andthe reactive
power load is zero. The network is then solved at the
fundamental frequency. t The ASD current magnitude and
phase angle aredetermined as 160 and9
60
, respectively. The
harmonic current source representing the ASDis calculated
by scaling up the magnitude column of Table 4.3by 160 and
by shifting the phase angle column by h9
60
It can be seen
that the current source model is easy to use and needs less
input effort. The disadvantages are that the model cannot
simulate a wide variety of ASDs and ASD/system
operating conditions.
The ASD equivalent circuit model can be verified by
comparing the measured ASD currents into the supply
systemagainst the calculatedones. Wavefonncomparison is
more desirable than harmonic spectrumcomparison because
the former ensures that both the harmonic magnitudes and
phase angles are checked. A network model representing the
test conditions is constructed. The up-stream supply system
is modelled as mown three-phase harmonic voltage sources
determinedfromthe measured data.
Figure 4.6 gives the comparison for the three-phase ASD
currents between measured and calculated values under one
representative operating condition. In the figure, the
measured waveforms are plotted as solid lines while the
32
4.5 Summary
The common models of power electronic converters used
in harmonic analysis are presented in this chapter. These
models are built either in time-domain or frequency-domain
and in conjunction with the proper power system network
model. Once built. the model is ready for use in a harmonic
0.035 simulation technique such as non-iterative or iterative
analysis.
0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Testl OiRaled S ed 100% Load : Pnase-B CUmnt 10System
1l.()")5 0.01
: ' \(J

f)
SO
100
0
100

<:
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 oms 0.03
References
1. R. P. Stratford, "Analysis and Control of Harmonic
Current in Systems with Static Converters," IEEE
Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. lA-I?, No.1,
JanuarylFebruary 1981, pp. 71-78.
2. IEEE Power Electronics Modeling Task Force & Digital
Simulation Working Group, "Guidelines for Modeling
Power Electronics in Electric Power Engineering
Applications," IEEE Trans. on. Power Delivery, Vol.
12, No.1, January 1997, pp. 505-514.
3. Task Force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation,
' The Modeling and Simulation of the Propagation of
Harmonics in Electric Power Networks Part I: Concepts,
Models and Simulation Techniques," IEEE Trans. on
PowerDelivery. Vol. 11, No.1, January 1996, pp. 452-
465.
4. M. F. McGranaghan, R C. Dugan, and W. L. Sponsler,
"Digital Simulation of Distribution System Frequency-
Response Characteristics," IEEE Trans. on Power
Apparatus and Systems. Vol. PAS-100, No.3, March
1981, pp. 1362-1369.
5. D. J. Pileggi, N. H. Chandra, and A. E. Emanuel,
''Prediction of Harmonic Voltages in Distribution
Systems:' IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and
Systems. Vol. PAS-loo, No.3, March 1981, pp. 1307-
1315.
6. T. H. Ortmeyer, "Harmonic Analysis Methodology,"
IEEEPES Tutorial Course, Course Text 84 EH0221-2-
PWR, February, 1984, pp. 74-84.
7. W. Xu, J. E. Drakos, Y. Mansour, and A. Chang. "A
Three-Phase Converter Model for Harmonic Analysis of
HVDC Systems," IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.
9, No.3, July 1994, pp. 1724-1731.
8. J. Arrillaga and C. 0: Callaghan, ''Three Phase AC-DC
Load and Harmonic Flows,' IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 6, No.1, January 1991, pp. 238-244.
35
oms
30
0.03
IS 20 2S
Frequency (Hannonic Order)
0.015 0.02 0.025
Time (Seconds)
Test I Raled S ed 100% Load : PllaseA CUmnt S m
0.005 0.01

o
IS . ...... .. . . . .. . . . .. . . -:. . ... . . . .- -...... ---- . - . . .... .. . .

<:
Figure 4.6. Comparison of Measured and Calculated
Waveforms
computed waveforms are plotted as dashed lines. Some
discrepancies between the measured and calculated
waveforms are observed. A few factors may have
contributed to the discrepancies. The first factor is that the
size <?f ASD is relatively small. This makes the variations
of thyristor electric characteristics more noticeable in the
waveforms. The high frequency components of de link
current generated by the PWM scheme and inaccuracy of
dc link parameters may.also contribute to discrepancies.
Tests showed that the waveforms obtained with an inductor
added between the drive and the motor are in a closer
agreement with the calculated ones. In addition, it is
noticed that harmonics in the supply voltage have some
impact on the calculated waveforms. Unfortunately,
including more harmonics does not enhance the agreement.
Overall, the agreement between the measured and the
calculated waveforms show that the proposed models are
acceptable.
33
9. J. Usaola and J. G. Mayordomo, --Fast Steady-State
Techniques for Harmonic Analysis," Proceedings of
the 4th International Conference on Harmonics ill
Power Systems (ICHPS IV), Budapest, Hungary,
October 1990, pp. 336-342.
10. B. C. Smith, N. R. Watson, A. R. Wood, and J.
Arrillaga, "A Solution for the Steady-State Interaction
of the AC/DC Converter with Weak AC and DC
Systems," Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power
(ICHQP VII), Las Vegas, NV, October 1996.
11. W. Xu, J. R. Jose and H. W. Donunel, 'A Multiphase
Harmonic Load Row Solution Technique," IEEE
Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. PS-6, February 1991,
pp. 174-182.
12. B. C. Smith, J. Arrillaga, A. R. Wood, and N. R.
Watson, "A Review of Iterative Harmonic Analysis for
AC-DC Power Systems," Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Harmonics and Quality of
Power(ICHQPVII), Las Vegas, NY, October 1996.
13. E. V. Larsen, D. H. Baker, and J. C. McIver, "Low-
Order Harmonic Interactions on AClDe Systems,"
IEEETrans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No.1, January
1989, pp. 493-501.
14. S. G. Jalali and R. H. Lasseter, "A Study of Nonlinear
Harmonic Interaction Between a Single Phase Line-
Commutated Converter and a Power System," IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 9, No.3, July 1994,
pp. 1616-1624.
15. D. Xia and G. T. Heydt, "Harmonic Power. Row
Studies, Part I - Formulation and Solution, Part II -
Implementation and Practical Application", IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-
101, June1982, pp. 1257-1270.
16. V. Sharma, R. J. Fleming, and Niekamp, "An
Iterative Approach for Analysis of Harmonic
Penetration in Power Transmission Networks," IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No.4, October
1991,pp.1698-1706.
17. M. Valcarcel and J. G. Mayordomo, "Harmonic Power
Flow for Unbalanced Systems," IEEETrans. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 8, No.4, October 1993, pp. 2052-2059.
18. B. C. Smith, N. R. Watson, A R Wood, and J.
Arrillaga, "A Newton Solution for the Harmonic
Phasor Analysis of AC/'OC, Converters," iEEE Trans.
on Power Delivery, .Vol, 11, No.2, April 1996, pp.
965-971.
19. B. K. Perkins and M. R. Iravani, "Novel Calculation of
HVDC Converter Harmonics by Linearization in the
Time-Domain," IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.
12, No.2, April 1997, pp. 867-873.
20. M. Grotzbach and Ch. Ried, "Investigation of ACIDC
Converter Harmonics by an Analytical Based Time-
Discrete Approach," IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery,
Vol. 12, No.2, Apri11997, pp. 874-880.
21. W. Xu, 1. R. Marti, and H. W. Dommel, "Harmonic
Analysis of Systems with Static Compensators," IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 6, No.1, February 1991,
pp. 183-190.
22. L. J. Bohmann and R. H. Lasseter, "Harmonic
Interactions in Thyristor Controlled Reactor Circuits,"
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No.3, July
1989,pp.1919-1926.
23. J. Vittek and M. Y. Najjar, "Common Methodology for
Steady State Harmonic Analysis of Inverters," IEEE
Trans. on PowerDelivery, Vol. 10, No.3, July 1995, pp.
1628-1634.
24. J. J. Rico, E. Acha, and T. J. E. Miller, "Harmonic
Domain Modeling of Three Phase Thyristor-Controlled
Reactors by Means of Switching Vectors and Discrete
Convolutions," IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol.
11, No.3, July 1996, pp. 1678-1684.
34
Chapter 5
Modeling of Harmonic Sources - Magnetic Core Saturation
YiluLiu andZhenyuan Wang
Department of Electrical Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute andStateUniversity
Blacksburg, VA24061-0111, USA
Yll..U.LIU@VT.EDU
5.1 Summary
This section introduces the modeling of harmonic sources
due to magnetic coresaturation andseveral casestudies.
Different transformer models have been developed in the
past for steady state and transient analysis of power
systems. Someof these models have nonlinear components
to take into account the magnetic core saturation
characteristics so that harmonic generation can be
simulated. Case studies based on these models are
presented to demonstrate the harmonic generation
behaviors of transformers under different saturation
conditions.
5.2 Introduction
Magnetic core saturation of power transformers and
rotating machines can- generate harmonics. Figure 5.1
illustrates the principle of harmonic generation from
magnetic core saturation [1]. In order to maintain a
sinusoidal voltage, sinusoidal fluxmust be produced by the
magnetizing current. Whenthe amplitude of the voltage (or
flux) is largeenough to enter the nonlinear region of the B-
H curve, the magnetizing current needed will be greatly
distorted fromsinusoidal andcontainharmonics.
..........fII ........... ....
-_..-_.....__..-...
normal steady state operating conditions [2] they can
considerably increase their harmonic contribution under
abnormal conditions when their magnetic cores are
saturated.
5.3 Examples of magneticcore saturation
There are many situations which contribute to magnetic
core saturation. The following are some common
examples.
Normal excitation
Even under normal excitation conditions, the transformer
core may have entered (slightly) the saturation region and
begun to generate some harmonics in the excitation
current. The degree of the saturation depends on the
transformer design.
Overexcitation
Overexcitation is basically caused by overvoltage. This
problem is particularly troublesome in the case of a
transformer connected to large rectifier plant following
load rejection [2].
As in Figure 5.2, overvoltage drives the Reak operation
point of the transformer excitation characteristics up to the
saturation regionso that moreharmonics are generated. In
thiscasethe magnetizing current is often symmetrical.
IB
::-:
... ;"
w.........
--1':'1)
c
OpcnIiClll point ttlOYiD&
mononlinearp \
\

operatioIl pom
Noaml openbClII pom
H/i
Figure 5.2. Principle of overexcitation resulting in
transformer saturation
Figure 5.1. Principleof harmonic generation from
magnetic core saturation
Before converter loads were widely used, one of the
principal harmonic sources in the power system was the
excitation current of power transformers. Although modern
transformers do not generate significant harmonics under
35
Converter load
Converter loads maydrawDC and low frequency currents
from supplying transformers. The transformer cores are
biased by theseload currents anddriven tosaturation.
For example, a cycloconverter with single phase load as in
Figure 5.3 will draw DCcurrents from source transformer
Figure 5.4. GIC entering the transformer windings
5.4 Modelingof magnetic core saturation
Ls __=.. Rs
Lp Ip Rp
Rp, Lp: primary winding resistance and leakage inductance.
Rs, Ls: secondary winding resistance and leakage
inductance..
Rm: core losses (hysteresis loss and eddy current loss).
Lm: nonlinear excitation inductance.
Figure 5.5. A simpleTee model for two-winding
transformers
Duality based models
Duality based models are often used to represent three
phase transformers [20-22]. This may be due to the fact
that the complexcore topology of three phase transformers
can Dot be representedsufficiently by an equivalent circuit
model or conveniently by a matrixmodel. Here nonlinear
inductances areused to model core saturation [21,22] and
the modeling circuits are derived based on the principle of
duality betweenmagneticand electriccircuits..
Figure 5.6 shows four types of duality based three phase
transformer modeling circuits. They have been connected
as WyelWye (YfY), DeltalWye(DIY), WyelZigzag caz:
and DeltafZigzag (DfZ). The models can be used for
harmonic analysis and lowfrequency transient analysis.
GIC saturation models
For a transformer under a severe ole bias which causes
heavy half cycle saturation, it becomes necessary to
account for the fluxpaths in and between core, tankand air
where N is the number of transformer terminals. Vi (i=1.N)
denotes the voltage of terminal i, i
j
U=I ,N) denotes the
current flowing into terminal j, Rij and L
ij
(ie l.N; j=l.N)
denote the resistance and inductance between terminals i
and j, respectively [14]. This model is the type of
transformer model used in all versions of electromagnetic
transient programs.
A simple Tee model
Shown in Figure 5.5 is an equivalent circuit model of a
two-winding transformer. It can be used for teaching
concepts, investigating and demonstrating simple
phenomena, and simulating single phase or three phase
transformer banks. The R
m
can be represented by a
piecewise linear V-I curve [16,19] or a constant value
resistance [18,21,22] .. The Lm is often modeled by a two-
slope linear inductance [14,16] when the saturation B-H
curve has a sharply defined knee, which is usually the case
for grain-oriented steel cores [15], or more precisely by a
multi-slope piecewise curve [15,17,21-23]. The
characteristics of R
m
and Lm are usually found from 00-
loadtests [23].
Load
Three phase
transformer eyeloconverter
f. f.
I 1
VI ill
R
12
R
IN
i
l
'L
Il
L
l 2 LIN
i
1
v2
R
21
R
n
R
2N
i
2
L
21
L
n
L
2N
d i
2
+ .
-
dt
v
N
R
N1
R
N2
R
SN
iN
L
N1
L
N2
L
NN iN
A large amount of workbas beendocumented in literature
on modeling of transformer core nonlinearity. Being the
predominant factor of power transformer nonlinearity,
saturationis the major issue relative to hysteresis and eddy
currents. Hysteresis modeling is important in a transient
study such as switching or fault condition simulations of
transformers [11-13] but is often neglected in harmonic
analysis [14-17].
There are different approaches for transformer modeling
and analysis: the matrixmodels [12-16] use an impedance
or admittance formulation relating terminal voltages and
currents; the equivalent circuit models [11, 17-19] often
use a simplified Tee circuit whose element values are
derived from test data; the duality based models [20-22]
account for core topology and the connection between
electric andmagnetic circuits. Although the latter twotypes
of models can also be presented in matrix format, they are
easier to understand from a circuit point. Due to space
limitations, onlya few model examples will be discussed in
this chapter.
A matrix model
Amatrix modelis written as:
when its output frequency fo andinput frequency f
i
have the
relationship of f
j
= 2nf
o
' where n is an integer [3].
Figure 5.3. A cycloconverter with single phase load
Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GIC)
Geomagnetically induced currents (Ole) flow on the
earth's surface due to geomagnetic disturbances (GMDs).
They typically have a frequency of 0.001 to 0.1 Hz and
could reachpeak values as high as 200A. As inFigure 5.4,
they can enter transformer windings by way of grounded
wye connections and bias the transformer cores to cause
half cycle saturation [4-10].
36
Resistive
load
I
4) ~ 2ClO 100 ~ soc, _
81
(b) Spectrum
OJ
~ ..
0.'
Transformer
Primary
i _
.--------_..--
~
0.02 vUl o.ta \/.. ~
T.-(I)
(a) Waveform
-G.
A
Figure 5.8. Schematic diagram of a three phase
transformer with resistive load
Case #1: Harmonics during normal excitation
Transformers may generate harmonics under rated
operating conditions (rated voltage, no DC bias). Shown in
Figure5.9 are the typical excitation current waveform and
spectrum of phase A of a three phase DIY connected
transformer. It can be seen that, except for fundamental
component, 3
rd
and5
th
harmonics dominate thecurrent
Cases #1 to #3 are based on the system shown in Figure
5.8. The transformer can be either a Y/Y, or a DIY, YIZ,
DIZ connection. DC bias (if any) are injected into
secondary windings by current sources Idea, Ideb and Idee.
Primary windingcurrents are I
wa
, I
Wb
andI
we
Power system
linecurrents areI
sa
, I
Sb
andI
se

5.5 Case studies

An iterative programcan be used to solve the circuitry of
Figure 5.7 so that nonlinear components are considered
properly. Also, the harmonic balance method can be used
to solve the nonlinear time domain circuit and the
frequency dependent linear circuit iteratively [24].
y. -..
x"'---- -.,
(b) yrz and Dflmodels
duality-derived inductances
primaryterminals
secondary terminals
leakagefluxpaths outsidewindings
leakage flux paths between outer and
innerfmtermediate windings
. leakage flux paths between intermediate
and inner windings
major flux paths via transformer cores
(a) YIY and DN models
t; L
bx
, Lx" I.m:
~ B C X Y,Z:
a, b,c:
1...0:
I..m:
x. --.
A :::;J
~
y. ---,
B ~
~
z
gaps. A detailed model based on 3D finite element
calculation may be necessary [9]. Shown in Figure 5.7 is
the equivalent magnetic circuit model of a two-winding
shell type transformer. The model can be used for
harmonic studies of a balanced three phase shell type
transformer bank under GIC bias. The circuit model has
four branches:
Branch 1: Represents the sum of core and air flux all
within the excitation windings, this total flux is
the sumof bothDC(GIC) andACflux.
Branch 2: Represents the fluxpathin the yoke segment.
Branch 3: Represents the sumof flux entering theside leg.
Part af this flux will leavethe sidelegand enter
the tank.
Branch 4: Represents the flux leaving the core from the
center leg. Part of this flux loops back in the air
and the rest flows through the air gaps and the
tank.
Figure 5.6. Duality models forthree-phase transformers
Rc2
Rei
AC
DC
Rc2
Figure 5.7. Theequivalent magnetic circuit model of a
single phase shell type transformer
Figure 5.9. PhaseA excitation current of aDIYconnected
threephasetransformer underrated operating condition
The generated harmonics are different in frequency and
amplitude with different transformer connections. As
shown in Figure 5.10, YIYand YIZ connections have less
harmonics generated than DIY and Dfl connections. (The
connection typeis indicated beforethe current indicator in
the figure. For example YIY_I
wa
means phase A primary
winding current of a YIY connected transfonner.)
Case #2: Harmonics due to overexeitation
Under overvoltage conditions; harmonics increase
amplitudes with respect to excitation voltage. However, the
harmonic spectrum pattern is unchanged (compare Figure
5.1l(b) with Figure5.9(b) ).
37
'"
r-. r,
. -
A r s
,:.!
" :. :1 A .. .oS :<..

Figure 5.10. Current harmonics of three phase
transformers under ratedoperation condition
:- :.; . w.. . ;-:. :.... o
N,
(a) Waveform (b) Spectrum
Figure 5.13. Phase A excitation current of a DIY
connectedthree phase transformer under 10% unbalanced
DC bias
l
;;:il
DOC
,...
!D'"
ioloO
I
...
or>Cl
"
3 5
$ a a a a a a
0-

7".,.(1)
Figure 5.15. Current harmonics of threephase
transformersunder 10% unbalancedDCbias
,-,',--- - - - - - --.
A
M.
(a) Waveform (b) Spectrum
Figure 5.14. Phase Aexcitation current of a DIY
connectedthree phase transformer under 50% unbalanced
DCbias
0'"
.oc
or>Cl
D'"
..
...
I
(b) Spectrum
..
A
.,
.:.(,11 (0,(4
T_I.'
(a) Waveform
......
Figure S.l1. Phase A excitation current of a DIY connection
three phase transformer under 110% overvoltage condition
Again, the generated harmonics are different in frequency
and amplitude with different transformer connections, YN
and YIZ connection have less harmonics generated than
DIY and DIZconnection(Figure5.12).
Figure 5.12. Harmonics of three phase transformers under
110%overvoltagecondition
Case #3: Harmonics due to unbalanced DC bias
Under unbalanced DC bias, harmonics become
significantly higher comparing to the same balanced DC
bias level. For the given DC bias levels (Phase A has a
positive DCbias X%, Phases B and C have equal negative
DC bias -O.5X%), most of the harmonic amplitudes
increase along with the DC bias levels but only a few
decrease (see Figures 5.13 and 5.14). This may be due to
the fact that the excitation point has already entered the
heavysaturation region (see section 5.3 for details).
Underunbalanced DCbias, the YIY connectedtransformer
seems to have less TIID in the source line currents than
other three types when DC bias becomes larger, but the
difference is not significant(see Figures 5.15 and 5.16).

......
Figure 5.16. Current harmonics of threephase
transformersunder 50% unbalancedDCbias
Case #4: Harmonic generation and cancellation of a
transformer-converter-motor system
A transformer-converter-motor system is very common in
modernindustry. It could be a large harmonic source to the
power system and it is important to know its harmonic
generationbehavior.
The block diagram of such. a system is shown in Figure
5.17. The transformers are modeled by circuits of Figure
5.6. Four types of transformer connections and three motor
38
speeds are studied. Results are listed in Table 5.1 and
showngraphically in Figure 5.18.
Hz .. '* .,.
I .1
1M .. Hz .. '. 'HI
(f) sn: system, 15Hz
(h) DfZ. secondary. 15Hz
A
2M ... ~ .. ~ 'HI
(g) DIY. secondary. 15Hz
(e) V/Y. system. 15Hz
I -l
A
Figure 5.17. Block diagram of a transformer-convener-
motor system
Table 5.1. THO of transformer primary winding currents
and power system linecurrents, DC bias insecondary
winding currents
eM MS TIlD (%)
IDe
(pIs) (Hz) Isa Isb Isc Iwa Iwb Iwc (%)
15 18.2 18.1 18.1 56.0 56.1 50.9 11.2
YIY 5 18.0 18.1 17.8 53.7 53.2 53.0 2.33
2.5 24.0 23.9 23.9 58.8 51.8 51.9 0.68
15 17.6 17.6 17.6 55.4 56.3 51.4 11.2
Y!l 5 18.1 17.8 18.0 54.4 53.4 53.6 2.03
2.5 24.0 24.1 24.0 52.0 52.3 51.9 0.29
15 18.4 18.4 18.4 59.9 52.5 58.5 11.0
MY 5 18.3 18.4 18.4 53.4 53.9 54.0 1.78
2.5 23.9 23.9 23.9 52.0 52.3. 52.2 0.26
15 18.6 18.6 18.6 52.9 54.0 59.5 12.2
sn. 5 18.2 18.0 18.4 53.4 53.6 54.0 2.38
2.5 24.0 23.9 24.0 51.9 51.9 52.0 0.26
A
Hz ...- ...
I _I
(1) OfZ.system. 15Hz
~ I I ,I
G) on; primary, 15Hz
Hz .. .- ".
.
..
A.
.
A-
A
Hz ....- '..
, .1
(k) DIY. system. 15Hz
(i) ON. primary. 15Hz
Hz ...- ...
...
"
"
A.
III
A
.
..
..
I
A A
Me -. iii .. ,... ,..
(a) YIY. secondary. 15Hz
- - iii .. ,... ,..
(b) YfZ, secondary, 15Hz
Hz ...
I 1 1
itt -
A
'--Hz"'''''''
A
--jiz"''''''
(m) DfZ. secondary, 5Hz
'.
,.
A
.
(n) OIL. secondary. 2.SHz
..
..
A.
(c) YIY, primary. 15Hz (d) Yrl,primary, 15Hz
Hz .........
1 .I.
Hz - .....
(p) DILprimary, 5Hz (q) Oil, primary. 25Hz
39
Figure 5.18. Frequency spectrumof currents in a
transformer-convener-motor system
As can be seen from Table 5.1, at the same motor speed,
there is no significant THD difference in primary winding
currents amongthe four types of transformers. When motor
speed is half of the rated value(2.5Hz), THDin the power
system line currents are much higher than those at rated
speed(5Hz) and above.
lrJ
-lp.u.
- - .7p.u.
-----.- ....
I ~ l ~ 10
Ole (A-t)
Solid line - normal condition
Dashed line - ole condition
-
s
10
7
C
~
t:
10' ::s
u
=0
10'
-=
:!
.tj
-e
10
4
~
e
.200 '-----"---....------.....---,.......--'--_.6.--J
o 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Time (s)
Figure 5.19. Excitation current waveformof a two-
winding transformer under GIC
1800
1\
"
I \
"
1600
, ,
, \ , \
1400
I
,
f
,
I
\
, ,
\
, ,
1200
,
\
, ,
,
,
\
1000 \
I
\
, ,
,
\
, ,
A-t 800 ~
I
,
,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
\
. 600 I I , I
I
,
,
,
,
\
400
, J ,
,
,
\
,
,
,
\
I
,
200
, \
I
\
\
I
\
I
\
' ... _--
,
,------' '" 0
A "
"
I I
(s) DIZ, system, 2.5Hz
it - .- 'a-
I I
(r) DIl. system. 5Hz.
A "
As can be seen from Figure 5.22, current harmonics in
primary and secondary windings of different transformer
connections are nearly the same (considering the current
ratio), which include those generated by the cycloconverter
and those generated by the transformer due to DC bias.
The majority of the transformer windingcurrent harmonics
are generated by cycloconverters. When motor speed
decreases, these harmonics shrink to oddharmonics except
triplens of power frequency and increase in amplitude so
that the THDs of the systemline currents become higher.
10' 10
1
10
3
10
Gte (A-t)
-1,.11.
- - .7'....
o.o ..................................-................ . . . . ~ ....... . . . . ~ .........
10
1.5
c:
i
u
c 1.0
.S!
S
. ~
.5o.
s
Figure 5.20. Excitation current rms value of a two-
Winding transformer vs. ole at 1 p.u. and 0.7 p.u. AC
voltages
Figure 5.21. THOin excitation currentof a two-winding
transformer vs. ole at 1 p.u. and0.7 p.u. ACvoltages
Case #5: Harmonics due to GIC
GIC may cause extremely large harmonic currents to flow
froma transformer intothe power system andit is essential
to know the size of these currents under different Gle
levelsin order to analyzepower systemresponses [9].
By applying different levels of DC bias to the models
shown in Figure 5.7, the excitation current waveforms are
obtained and two of themareshown in Figure 5.19. The
rms value and THD of excitation current are shown in
Figures 5.20 and 5.21, respectively. Excitation current
harmonicsare plottedin Figure 5.22 againstDCbias level.
Harmonic cancellationis obvious in the power system line
currents, which means that most harmonics find their
circulating path through the other two phases of the same
transformer or through the other two transformers rather
than entering the source (see Figure 5.17 and Figure
5.18(e), (f), (k)9 (1)). These circulating barmonics will
increase the loss of transformers" but will decrease the
.harmonics enteringinto the power system.
40
10':

Engineering Subjects". American Power Conference.
Vo1.49. pp487-492
1. Arrillaga, D. A. Bradley. P. S. Bodger, Power System
Harmonics, pp94-98. John Wiley & Sons. 1985.
Brian R. Pelly, Thristor Phase-Controlled Converters and
Cycloconverters. Operation. Control and Perfonnance.
pp361. John Wiley & Sons. 1971
[4] L. Bolduc, 1. Aubin. "Effects of Direct Currents in Power
Transformers. Part I. A General Approach. Part II.
Simplified Calculations for Large, transformers", Electric
Power System Research. 1. 1978
[3]
[2J
_ _-_ _.._ " -lp.u.
._..... 07 p.u.
lOe6
1 e6 b) 2nd harmonic
$ 5.0c5
10: a) Fundamental component
- Ipu.
07 P u

..-.-.. -_ _ . .=._::':': ....
[5] D. H. Boteler. R. M. Shier, T. Watanabe. R. E. Horita,
"Effects of Geomagnetically Induced Currents in the B.C.
Hydro 500kV System", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery.
Vo1.4. No.l, Jan 1989
[6] J. G. Kappenman, V. D. Albertson. "Bracing for
Geomagnetic Storms", IEEE Spectrum. March 1990.
pp.27-33
[7] J-C. u, V-Po we, "FFf Algrithms for the Harmonic
Analysis of Three Phase Transformer Banks with Magnetic
Saturation", IEEETrans. on Power Delivery, Vo1.6, No.1.
Jan 1991
[8] M. A. S. Masoum, E. F. Fuchs, D. 1. Roesler, "Large
Signal Nonlinear Model of Anisotropic Transformers for
Nonsinusoidal Operation. Part Il: Magnetizing and Core
Loss Currents", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery. Vo1.6.
No.4, Oct 1991
[9] Shu Lu. Yilu ue, Jaime De La Ree, "Harmonics Generated
from a DC Biased Transformer", IEEE trans. on Power
Delivery, veis, No.2, April 1993. pp725-731
[10] W. Xu. T. G. Martinich, 1. H. Sawada, Y. Mansour.
"Harmonics from SVC Transformer Saturation with' Direct
Current Offset", 93 SM PWRD 404-4
[11] E. P. Dick, W. Watson. "Transformer Models .forTransient
Studies Based on Field Measurement", IEEE Trans ..
Vol.PAS-l00, No.1, Jan 1981. pp.409-419
[12] D. N. Ewart, "Digital Computer Simulation Model of a
Steel-Core Transformer", IEEE Trans., Vol.PWRD-I.
No.3, July 1986, pp.l74-182
[13] D. Dolinar, J. Pihler, B. Grear, "Dynamic Model of a
Three-Phase Power Transformer", IEEE Trans.
Vol.PWRD-8, No.4, Oct 1993, pp.1811-1819
[14] V. Brandwajn, H. W. Dommel, I. I. Dommel, "Matrix
Representation of Three-Phase N-Winding Transformers
for Steady-State and Transient Studies", IEEE Trans.
Vol.PAS-lOl, No.6, June 1982. pp.1369-1378
[IS] H. W. Dommel, A Van. Sbi Wei, "Harmonics from
Transformer Saturation", IEEETrans.Vol.PWRD-l. No.Z,
Apr 1986, pp.209-215
[16] A Medina. J. Arrillaga, "Generalised Modeling of Power
Transformers in the Harmonic Domain", 91 SM 406-9
PWRD
[17] Ahsan H. Chowdhury. W. 'Mack Grady, Ewald F. Fuchs.
UAn Investigation of the Harmonic Characteristics of
Transformer Excitation Current under Nonsinusoidal
Supply Voltage", 96 SM 433-3 PWRD
.................
IOJ
Gle (A-t)
SOe.S c) 3rd harmonic
-
1p.u.

--- 0.7 p.u.
0
2.'se.S d) 4th harm"nic
1.2ScS
-lp.u.
-- 07p.u.
0
e) Sthharmonic
i.ces
- lp.u.

0
10')
10
1
References
Figure 5.22. Excitation currentharmonics of a two-
winding transformer vs. GIC at 1 p.u.and 0.7 p.u. AC
voltages
(1] Jason Hess. Chris Richard. Herb Brown. David Smith, Yilu
Liu, "Computer Animations in Teaching Power
The nonlinear magnetizing characteristics of most models
did not account for core loss (hysterssis loss and eddy
current loss) precisely since it uses a constant resistor to
represent the loss. This is acceptable in some situations
where the transformer serves not as a key element of the
simulated system such as in a transformer-converter-motor
system, but notin others where it playsthemajor role such
as in the inrush current calculations. The values of the
model elements in the duality based models are estimated
from special testdata. It maybe desirable tocalculate them
from physical dimensions and material characteristics that
can be obtained from the manufacturer. Also, most models
available are for core type transformers and a limited
number of three phase connections has been modeled.
There is not yet a clear guide on how to model a three
phase transformer with arbitrary connection and core type.
If possible, future works should address these subjects.
5.6 Future work
41
[ 18J 1. David. Charles Gross. "Nonlinear Modeling of
transformers", IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications,
Vo1.24, No.3. May 1988, pp.434-438
(19] Y. Baghzouz, X. D. Gong, "Voltage-Dependent Model for
Teaching Transformer Core Nonlinearity", IEEETrans. on
Power Systems. Vo1.8" No.2. May 1993, pp.746-752
[20) Arun Narang, Russell H. Brierley, "Topology Based
Magnetic Model for Steady-stateand Transient Studies for
Three-Phase core type transformers", IEEE Trans. on
Power Systems" Vo1.9. No.3" Aug 1994, pp.l337-1349
[21] Xusheng Chen, S. S. Venkata, "A Three-Phase Three-
Winding Core-Type Transformer Model for Low-
Frequency Transient Studies", 96 SM 410-1 PWRD
[22] Zhenyuan Wang" Yilu Liu, "Harmonic Analysis of
Transformers under Converter Load with DC and Low
Frequency Bias", Proceedings of the American Power
Conference, Vo1.59" pp449-454
[23] Washington L. A. Neves. Hermann W. Dommel, "On
Modeling Iron Core Nonlinearities",92WM 176-8PWRS
[24] Shu Lu and Yilu Liu, "Harmonics from DC Biased Three-
Phase Transformer Banks", International Journal of Power
and Energy Systems, Vol.17. No.1, 1997
42
Chapter 6
Harmonic Modeling of Networks
Thomas H. Ortmeyer
ECE Dept.
Clarkson University
Potsdam, NY 13699-
5720
M. FayyazAkrarn
Dept. of Elec. Eng.
Univ.ofEngineering
and Technology
Lahore, Pakistan
Takashi Hiyama
Dept. of Electrical
andComputerEng.
Kumamoto
University
Kumamoto, Japan
Abstract: Harmonic modeling for power systems
involves the incorporation of device models into a
power system model. The development of accurate
system models for harmonic studies involves the
selection of thedevices to include in the model as well
as the selection of device models which achieve a
balance between complexity and accuracy for the study
inquestion.
6.1 Introduction
Harmonic propagation studies begin with the
development of a system model which is the group of
device models to be included in the study. In nearly
every study, it is not feasible to include detailed models
of every component of the system. Interconnected
power systems typically include hundreds of generators
andtransmission lines, andeven more distribution lines
and customers. Even stand alone systems have more
loads than canbe modeled individually.
Every harmonic study must begin with a determination
of the frequency range of interest and the selection of
the system components which will be modeled. This
chapter describes procedures which areused to develop
system models for harmonic studies. The chapter is
divided into two major sections which describe system
development for distribution systems and for
transmission systems, respectively.
6.2 Distribution SystemModeling
While distribution systems and transmission systems
have the same components- lines, transformers, and
machines- there are significant practical differences in
developing systems models for the two types of
systems. Distribution systems, in fact, aredivided into
two distinct levels- primarydistribution and secondary
distribution. Secondary distribution is most often
below 600 volts? and is typically owned by the
43
electricity consumer. Primary distribution generally
ranges from 4k:v through 36kv, and is typically utility
owned.
There are two reasons to undertake a distribution
system harmonic study: first, to study-rae impact of a
large new harmonic source and secondly, to examine a
harmonic problem onanexisting system.
Three phase or single phase modeling The first decision
to make in any distribution system harmonic study is
whether a three phase model is required or if a single
phase model will be sufficient. Thethree phase model
isrequired when:
a combination of wye-wye and/or delta-wye
transformers leads toharmonic cancellation
single phase or unbalanced capacitors are
present
ground or residual currents are important in
thestudy
significant unbalanced loading ispresent
As one or more of these cases is present on many
distribution systems, it is often recommended to
implement a three phase model on any distribution
system study. There have, however, been numerous
successful studies which have been single phase in
nature. The typical instances where a single phase
model maybesufficient are:
a single large three phase harmonic source is
thecauseof thestudy
theremaining systemis well balanced
ground currents arenotanissue
Thesingle phase model of thesystem can be attractive
as it is one third the size of the three phase model and
theresults canbe more compact andeasier tointerpret
'Still, it should be employed only when it is clear that it
will besufficient forthestudy being undertaken.
Supplying transmission line
The final modeling aspect to be aware of is that the
transmission system can be a major source of
harmonics for the distribution system. The only way to
determine if this is thecase is through measurements on
the transformer secondary. In most cases, these
measurements can be made on the existing current and
voltage transformers. The measurements should be
made with an instrument that will provide phase angle
information as well as magnitude information. The
length of timeover which the measurements are needed
must be determined on a case bycasebasis.
For a study of harmonic propagation on the primary
system, the components of the system should be
modeled as appropriate for the frequency range of the
study. Typically, the capacitance of overheadlines and
transformers does not need to be included in studies
involving the lower order harmonics. The interaction
of power factor capacitors and the line and source
inductances is the primary driver of the harmonic
impedance at the lower order theseneed
to be modeled with care. The increase in line
resistance due to the skin effect provides increased
damping at the systemresonance points and should be
incorporated into the model.
Tl'1IIISIIIission
soarce
)
... :
Load!
Harmonic
Source
)
(
Tnmsm1sslon
S0111"Ce
Figure 6.1. The one line diagram of a typical
primary distribution system.
The extent of the system model Most distribution
systems aretiedintothe interconnected power network.
The exceptions are certain stand-alone systems such as
are encountered on oil-drilling platforms. In stand-
alone systems, it can be feasible to model the entire
power system. In other cases, however, the system is
too large tofully model. A decision must be made as to
which components to model in detail, andwhich areas
of the system can be modeled with a network
equivalent.
A common primary distribution system is shown in
Figure 6.1. The system is radial, with energy supplied
to the system through a stepdown transformer fromthe
transmission netwqrk. In many cases, it is sufficiently
accurate to represent the transmission network by it's
60 Hz short circuit equivalent resistance and
inductance. There should beconsideration of the fact
that the short circuit strength of the supplying system
will change depending on the system configuration. A
more detailed model is needed when power factor
correction capacitors are present on the transmission
system nearthe step down transformer.
The final component of the distribution systemmodel is
the load. Load modeling is difficult, as it is not
possibleor desirableto identifyexactly what theload is
at any givenpoint in time. The loadmodel is therefore
somewhat empirical in nature, anddifferent methods of
determiningload models arein use.
As indicated in Figure 6.1, most if not all system loads
generate harmonic currents to some degree. Every
systemwill have somebackground harmonic leveleven
when no large harmonic sources are present. A
generic load model therefore includes both a harmonic
source and a harmonic impedance. An example load
model is shown in Figure 6.2. The series impedance is
often taken to include the effect of the distribution
transformer. Several differentmethods have been used
to select the shunt impedance values for a given
load[1,2]. One method is to model motor load
separately fromthe other load. Thepassive loadMYA
is converted to an equivalent parallel R-L impedance.
The motor load is modeled as a single lumped
induction motor with appropriate leakage reactances
and stator androtor resistances.
Another issue in model development is load
aggregation, as it is not necessary or feasible to model
each load individually. Load "ggregapon was studied
in [3], where it was shown that feeder loads can be
aggregated into fairly large groups without excessive
44
oll-Site
geJl.eratioll
LUt.
Load
ASD
T1IJIed
filter
Utility
source
loss of accuracy. For the feeders involved in that study,
the loadwasgrouped intoapproximately 10equivalents
per feeder.
Zseries
Many harmonic studies involve a small number of large
harmonic sources. In these studies, the background
harmonic level is often ignored in the study, and
considered separately as a source of error. The
background harmonic level, however, is important tor
several reasons, including in the design of harmonic
filters. At present, the only way of determining
background levels on a given system is through
measurement. An-efficient measurement andmodeling
procedure is described in [4]. A procedure which
combines measurement and modeling is generally
required in performing harmonic studies on primary
distribution systems.
Figure 6.2. Generic per phase load model
Figure 6.3. Industrial plant one line diagram.
istribution harmonic stu LYe

: :::::(:: ::::
",
transfonner Actualturns ratio,
connection diagram, shortcircuit
impedance
overhead phaseand neutral conductor size,
lines, cables layout,length, or short circuit
impedances; capacitance (when
needed)
capacitorbank voltagerating, var rating, configuration
!( wye, grd wye, or delta)
tuned filter tuned frequency,
volt, var rating, configuration
generatorl subtransient impedance, configuration
large motor
load, linear watts, power factor, composition,
balance
load, expected level of harmonic current
nonlinear injection, maznitude andphase angle
Table 6.1. Summaryof typical dataneeded for a
d d
Data preparation At present, most studies are
performed with one of the several commercial
harmonics analysis software packages which are
available. The device data entry and model synthesis
using these packages is convenient once the data has
been gathered. Typical data which is needed for
studies is summarized inTable 6.1.
Secondary distribution systems Studies of secondary
distribution systems involve studies of a single plant or
commercial installation. Many of the modeling
characteristics of primary distribution systems alsohold
for secondary systems. The one line diagram for a
typical industrial system is shown in Figure 6.3. The
plantmodel is likely to include several different voltage
levels and likely will have fewer capacitors, but more
of the capacitors will be installed with tuning coils for
filtering purposes. Line and transformer capacitances
are typically negligible, as is also the case for short
cableruns. In many cases, measurements -are easier to
perform on secondary systems, and load data may be
more readily available.
45
6.3 Transmission System Modeling
Figure 6.4. Representative transmission system for
a harmonic propagation study.
Remote system eguivalencing. There are 2 basic
equivalencing methods. The first and simplest is the
use of the fundamental frequency short circuit
impedance (here, short circuit impedance is taken to
meanR+jIDL, whereRand L are constant as frequency
changes)[6]. This approach has the advantage of
simplicity. Some studies have used open circuits or
short circuits in place of the short circuit impedance-
and haveused the sensitivity of the results to these two
models tojudge the feasibility of usinga lumped model
at that bus.
The second approach involves the use of a frequency
response curve which represents the changes in
impedance of the remote system with respect to
frequency variations [11]. Thismethod is moreflexible
than the previous method, and has the capability of
yielding accurate results with a smaller system model.
It is particularly useful in time domain studies where
system size can be more severely limited. It is,
however, difficult to perform switching studies
involving components in the equivalenced network. In
these cases, it is preferable to build a larger system
model which includes component models of all
equipment whichwill be involved ina switching study.
A second weakness of most frequency response
Model size selection. The sizing of the system to be
modeled in detail- the local system- has been
approached in three basic ways.
1. Engineering experience. The engineer
conducting the study decides what parts of the
system are to be modeled based on previous
experience [ ~ 6 ] This experience is based on
previous studies- preferably harmonic studies- and
identification of keycomponents such as capacitor
banks, large generators, etc.. This method can
work well, but also can fail when the study is
outside the range 0 f the experience 0 f the engineer
doing the study.
2. Distance methods. Distance from the source
bus is often used as a modeling criteria-geographic
distance, series line impedance, and number of
buses distant fromthesourcehave each been used
[7]. In order to get sufficient accuracy when strictly
applied, these methods can result in modeling
unimportant systemsegments which are a similar
distance (fromthe source bus) as Important system
components.
3. Sensitivity methods. More rigorous
approaches to system model development involve
theuse of one or more network sensitivity tooIs.[S-
10] Two examples of sensitivity methods are as
follows.
harmonic
source
local
network
critical
bus
remote systems
Transmission system modeling is somewhat different
than distribution system modeling for a number of
reasons. The level of capacitance of lines and, in some
cases, transformers, is such that these capacitances
must be included in the models. Transmission systems
have higher X/R ratios than distribution systems, so
that harmonics can propagate for much longer
distances- and distant components can have a
significant impact on harmonic propagation. The third
aspect of transmission system modeling is that the
interconnected system of generators and transmission
lines will typically take on a much wider range of
operating configurations than is observed in most
distribution systems.
A representative transmission system is shown in
Figure 6.4. For convenience, only a singlesource and
critical bus are shown, although theremaybe more than
one of either of these. A transmission system harmonic
study begins with the identification of a local system
whichmust be modeled in detail- Le., each component
modeled individually with an accuracy appropriate for
the study. Due to size and time constraints, distant
portions of the system must be represented as lumped
equivalents. There is a third, intermediate area where
systemrepresentationis needed for accuracy. The key
to transmission system model development lies in
accurately and efficiently selecting the boundaries of
the intermediate system and selecting appropriate
lumped models for the remote system representations.
This can be a difficult task, and there exist several
differentmethods for making theseselections.
46
Summary
Fagure 5. RX diagram showingsensitiveregions
for remote equivalent impeclaDces.
This chapter desaibes methods which can be used to
develop system models for harmonic studies. The
chapter covers modeling techniques for both
distribution and transmission level barmonic studies.
Theo development of an effective systemmodel depends
ontheaccurate determination of whichsystemelements
to model in detail. The second aspect of system
modeling is to use the appropriate device model which
will provide accurateresults witboutundue complexity.
R
jX
or
region where error
exceeds -5%
...,
J ~
..,,"
region where
exceeds +5%
~
where T(O) is the transfer impedance when branch
impedance Z = 0 while T( 00) corresponds to the
transfer impedance when Z =00. Zxin is the input
impedance looking into the network from the nodes of
Z. In order to assess the modeling accuracy at a tie
bus at some harmonic frequency, T(O), T(00) and
Zxin are determined through three respective network
solutions. The bilinear formula can then be used to
determine the transfer impedance T for any value of
Z . A typical result of the bilinear analysis is shown in
Figure 6.5, which shows the impedance regions where
largeerrorswill occurin a given transfer impedance. If
the actual system impedance will not enter these
regions, a simple equivalent can be used. In the case
shown in Figure 6.5, the positive error will never
exceed 5% as this sensitivity does not occur in the
positive resistance region.
Bilinear Theorem: The large variations which can
occur in an external system impedance cannot be
reliably predictedby usingsmall signal analysis. Large
changes in the traDSfer impedance of a network to
cbanges in an element Z (in this case the remote
system equivalent impedance) can be assessed by
pulling that element Z out of the networi. effectively
forming a three port network [9]. For the transfer
impedance V%. the following general equation is
obtained:
T _ _V2 _ _Z..... xin....._T_(O_}+_Z__T_<00_)
- I} - Z+Z.xin
methods is the inability to model coupling between
remote networks- thesystems 1-5 of Figure 6.4.
Sensitivity Analysis Method: The adjoint network
analysis can be used to efficiently determine the
sensitivity of the system response to component
parameter variations [10]. The transmission network
N and its adjoint network N can be used to
determine the sensitivity of the system response to
parameter variations. The transfer impedance T is
defined as the harmonic voltage at the bus of primary
interest divided by the injectedharmonic current. The
network N is excited by a unit current "source at the
harmonic source bus to get network branch currents
II .,12 ,-.. , In The adjoint network N9 which has
the sametopology as theoriginal network, is excitedby
a unit current source from the output to get adjoint
network branch currents ii , ~ ,.. ,Tn. The
sensitivity of a transfer impedance T with respect to
any parameter x (R, L, or C), at frequency OJ,
denoted by Sr. is dermed as
sI= ~ ;
Thesesensitivities canbe calculated using
aT -
-_= I(x)[ (x)
ox
where l(x) and I (x) are the x element branch
currents fromthe analysis of N and N respectively.
The calculation of the transfer impedance sensitivity is
efficient Its effectiveness is limited to small parameter
variations as it involves partial differentiation.
47
References
1. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, and H. W.
Beaty. Electrical Power Systems Quality,
McGraw-Hill, New r ~ 1996.
2. "Modeling and Simulation of the Propagation of
Harmonics in Electric Power Networks, Part I:
Concepts, Models, and Simulation Techniques"
(Task Force Report), IEEETransactions onPower
Delivery, Vol. 11, No.1 (Jan., 1996), pp.452-465.
3. T. Hiyama, M. S. A. A. Hammam and T. H.
Ortmeyer. "Distribution System Modeling with
DistributedHarmonic Sources. IEEE Transactions
on Power Delivery, Vol. 4, No.2 (April, 1989),
pp. 1297-1304.
4. T. H. Ortmeyer and T. Hiyama. "Distribution
System Harmonic Filter Planning," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No.4
(Oct. 1996), pp. 2005-2012.
5. B. R Shperling andL. Mennemenlis-Hopkins,
"Generation and Distribution of Current
Harmonics on EHVSystems," Proc. of the 3
M
lnt,
Cont. on Harmonics in Power Systems, Nashville,
IN, Sepl 1988. pp. 149-154.
6. o. Bergault and G. Morin. "Analysis of a
Harmonic Overvoltage due to Transformer
Saturation following Load Shedding on Hydro-
Quebec-NYPA 765 lev Interconnecuon," IEEE
Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. S., No.1 (Jan,
1990). pp. 397-405.
7. R. S. lballam, "Harmonic Propagation and
Amplification in a 115 lev network," Proc. Of the
411. Int. Cont. On Harmonics in Power Systems.,
Budapest, Hungary, oe, 1990. pp. 148-153.
8. M. G. Wiclcramasekara and D. Lubkeman,
"Application of Sensitivity Factors for the
Harmonic Analysis of Distribution System
Rec()ntiguratioD andCapacitorProblems," Proc. of
the 3
M
Int Cont. on Harmonics in Power Systems,
Nashville,IN, Sept. 1988.pp. 141-148.
9. M. F. ~ T. H. Ortmeyer, and J. A.
Svoboda. "External System Modeling for Power
Transmission System Harmonic Analysis usingthe
Bilinear lbeorem." Electric Machines and Power
Systems, Vol. 23(1995). pp. 141-147.
10. M.'F. Alaam, T. H. Ortmeyel, J. A. Svoboda.
..An Improved Harmonic Modeling Technique for
Transmission NetWork," IEEE Trans. on Power
Delivery, Vol. 9, No. 3 (July, 1994), pp. IS10-
1516.
11. N. R. Watson and J. Arillaga, "Frequency-
Dependent AC System Equivalents for Harmonic
Studies and Transient Converter Simulations."
48
IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No.3,
(JUly, 1988).
Chapter 7
Frequency-Domain Harmonic Analysis Methods
s. Mark Halpin" PauloF. Ribeiro
2
, and J.J. Dai
3
'Mississippi State University, Starkville.. MS
2awx Technologies, Inc., Lynchburg, VA
30peration Technology Inc., Irvine, CA
Abstract: There are a large number offrequency-domain
analysis methods that are in widespreaduse. The most
popular of these are frequency scans, harmonic
penetration, and harmonic power flow. Each of these
techniques can beemployedon a "per-phase" (positive or
zerosequence) or "multi-phase" basis andeach technique
utilizes an admittance matrix system model developed
from individual component-level models connected
according to system topology. The development of this
admittance matrix system model and the frequency-
domain harmonic analysis algorithms that make use of it
are thesubjects of this chapter.
II Yu Yli Ylj YIN VI
y.
Yil Yii Yij YiN V
1
=
,
(7.1)
y.
Yjl Yji Yjj YjN V
J J
IN YNI YNi YNj _YNN V
N
The complex admittances b ~ . o n a knO\\l1
frequency) in (7.1) can be determined from the
definitions of admittance parametersas shownin (7.2).
7.1. Introduction
(7.2)
The methodology employed in the development of
admittance matrix models is based on multi-port network
theory. Positive sequence admittance matrix models are
developed from device-level two-port admittance (y)
parameters. Multi-phase models are similarly developed
from multi-port admittance parameters. Figure 7.1
shows a general multi-port model with appropriate
terminal parameter definitions.
i
1
IN
- N-port
-
I .
I
VI
I
network
J
V
N
+
~
v
v.

J
'-------+_- - - - - - - - t'--__-J
Figure 7.1. N-port Network
The arbitrary network of Figure 7.1 should, for
simplicity, belimited to passive elements. It is possible,
however, to include certain dependent sources provided
that the dependence can be cast in an admittance
relationship. Equation 7.1 describes thegeneral network
of Figure 7.1.
49
For cases where a common node voltage reference point
is available (as represented by the dashed line through
the network in Figure 7.1), an advantageous
simplification to (7.2) can be developed. The rules I and
2 as follows can be used to define lOy. complex
admittance Yij in (7.1).
1: Yij = - L(all admittances connectedbetween i andj )
2: Yii =L(all admittancesconnectedto i )
These well-known proceduresform the backbone of most
admittance matrix formulation algorithms because the)"
can be applied directly to a completesystem. Fonnation
of component-level admittance models is not required
[1,2J.
In some admittance matrix building algorithms. an
incidence matrix [Q] is used to represent network
connectivity. In this approach, a triple matrixproduct is
used to. form the system admittance matrix model as
shown in (7.3) where the complex matrix [Ypnm] consists
of component-level admittance matrix models formed
accordingto (7.2) or the simplifying rules I and 2.
(7.3)
It should be noted that the procedurebased on rules I and
2 is appropriate only when the common node voltage
reference point is present. In general, this is true for
either balanced or radial systems. Unbalanced nonradial
systems should incorporate more generalized admittance
matrix modeling techniques as described in [31.
As previously described.. the modeling approach can
be applied to either single-phase or multi-phase systems.
For multi-phase systems, the rules 1 and 2 given
previously must beconsidered to apply to 3x3admittance
matrices. The subscripts i and j, therefore, must be
expanded to represent i+O, i+1, andi+2andj+O, j+I, and
j+2, respectively. The summations given in the roles
apply so as to sum entries in the system admittance
matrix with those in the 3x3 component-level models. If
the approach of (7.3) is employed, the primitive
admittance matrix will consist of 6x6 blocks provided
that two or more components are not mutually coupled.
The incidence matrix [Q] must be modified accordingly.
References [4) and [5] provideimplementation details for
balanced or radial systems and more general unbalanced
nonradial systems, respectively.
For harmonic analysis, the admittance matrix must
befonnulated at each frequency of interest. The matrix
must be re-built from scratch; direct modifications to
convert the system matrix from one frequency to another
are notusually possible. In general, the matrix is re-built
from the component level RLC parameters for circuit
models for lines, transformers, and other power delivery
equipment The actual matrix construction procedures
described in the previous paragraphs apply without
modification.
(A or pu), the values of the determined voltages represent
the driving point and transfer impedances as seen at node
i. Because the Ybus model contains only linear elements"
linearity can be applied to scale the results obtained for
the l/Qo (A or pu) to any desired value. This scalability
can be applied to estimate the harmonic voltagesthat will
be produced at any network bus when a load that draws
nonsinusoidal current is connected at the .... injection"
node. This technique is often used when assessing the
potential impacts of new ASO or other harmonic-
producing load and is very useful for identifying series
and parallel resonances.
Varying the frequency used in the implementation
and solution of 7.1 yields a series of impedance
magnitudes and angles covering the range of frequency
fo-f
F
A plot of this series provides excellent visual
indication of resonance conditions. Parallel resonances.
which are associated with high impedances to current
flows, appear as "peaks" in the plot. Series resonances,
which are associated with low impedances to harmonic
current flows, appear as "valleys" in the plot A sample
frequency scan is shownin Figure7.2. _".
Sequence Drivinq Point Impedance
40.,.--__


12
Freguency (M pa)
II
7.2 Frequency Scan Analysis
Figure7.2. TypicalFrequency (Impedance) Scan
Two types of frequency scans are commonly
performed. The first type is based on a single "current
injection" into the power delivery system Ybus model
followedby a solution of (7.1).. Assuming this injection
takes place at node i in Figure 7.1, (7.1) can be solved to
determine the voltages that are produced at each system
node. If the current injectionis assigneda value of l/Qo
Frequency scananalyses are used to characterize the
response of a power delivery system as a function of
frequency. The term "scan" arises from the systematic
variation of frequency from some initial value10 to some
final value f
F
The frequency scan analysis is conducted
through repeated solutions of (7.1) with the admittance
matrix formed for each frequency of interest. Equation
(7.4) provides a clear "frequency-dependent" yersion of
(7.1) where h is used to denote the harmonic frequency
(in either Hz, radls, or PQ).
I(h) =[Y(h>JV<h>
(7.4)
50
The second type of scan is conducted in the same
manner as described previously, except that a l/Qo
voltage 01 or pu) is connected to one node in the
network. Equation (7.1) is then solved for all other
voltages in the network. The resultingvoltagesrepresent
the voltage transfer functions to all other nodes in the
system model. While similar in technique to the
previously described frequency scan, the procedure of
applyinga 1/2
0
voltagesource is more typically calleda
"voltage transfer function" analysis to allow the term
"frequency scan" to beassociated with driving point and
transfer impedances determined by injecting a known
current into a node.
The voltage transfer function analysis is useful for
investigating the effects of background hannonics. The
terminology harmonics" refers to the
harmonic voltage distortion that may be present at the
terminals of any network equivalent. As with the
impedance (frequency) scan. a plot of the voltage transfer
function as a function of frequency can be used to reveal
7.3 CurreDt SourceMethods
potential problems. Peaks in the plot indicate
frequencies at which voltages will be amplified and
valleys indicate frequencies at which voltages will be
attenuated. An example plot of a voltage transfer
function is shown in Figure 7.3.
As previously mentioned, the admittance matrix
system model can be formed based onsequence networks
or phase-variable networks. Multiphase systems can be
handled without modification. Because the frequency
scans described previously (both types) are only
modifications of this admittance model, the procedures
are equally applicable to sequence- and phase-variable
models. It should be noted, however, that the phase
angles of the voltage or current injections are important
In phase variables, a three-phase positive sequence scan
would beconducted by injecting a current vector of [1/Qo
11-120 1/120
0
)T (A or pu) into a three-phase bus. A
zero sequence scan would be conducted in the same
mannerexceptall phase angles would. be equal (typically
0). Of course, a single-phasescan would involve onlyan
injection into one node of a three-phase bus. The
appropriate injections into sequence variable-based
admittance models can be determined by applying the
symmetrical component transformation to the values
givenfor the phase-variableinjections.
Step3. Solve (7.1) to determine the voltages at all
network buses. The frequency associated with
these phasor voltages is the same as that used in
the construction of the admittance model.
The steps 1-3 begin at the lowest frequency
represented in any of the load Ct1lTeQt:bannonic vectors
and repeat for each frequency in all of the nonlinear load
models. It should be clear that not all nodes will posses
harmonic load current injections at all frequencies; some
loads inject 5
th
, 7
th
, 11
th
.. 13
th
, etc., while others inject 3
rd
,
5
th
, 7
th
, 9
th
, etc. For the case where a nonlinear load does
not injecta current at a particular frequency (butanother
nonlinear load does), it is a simple matter to force the
injection to a zerovalueat that loadbus andcontinue the
solution of (7.1) at the frequency of interest.
The results of an analysis conducted using the
current injection method is a collection (again, often
referred to as a vector) of harmonic voltageslor eachbus
in the system. Due to the linear nature of the problem
(all nonlinearities have been represented as current
injections), superposition can be applied. Theretore, the
terms in each voltage vector correspond to the Fourier
coefficients of the time-domain voltage. These spectra
(magnitude only; phase is usually not shown) are often
shown graphically as in Figure 7.4. If desired. the time-
domain wavefonn can be easily constructed from the
voltage spectrum at eachnetworkbus.
Step 2. Construct the current injection vector in (7.1) by
extracting the tenn of the appropriate frequency
(which must match the frequency used in the
admittance matrix model construction) from
each nonlinear load harmonic current vector.
Step 1. Formulate the system admittance matrix model
of the power delivery system including
contributions for all sources and linear loads.
The frequency should be consistent with one of
those in the Fourier series current vectors for the
nonlinear loads.
harmonic of interest) known for each load, the analysis
approach proceeds along the following series of steps:
I
I
.. I
Voltage Transfer Funct.ion (lV@t.he substat.ion)
Figure 7.3. Voltage Transfer Function Plot
1\ I
/ \
i
/ \
.'
\ A.
\
:
/ \
\
\\
V
-.
~ ~
t'---
,
I I
I
1.00
o.n
O. 7 ~
I 0.00
I 0
1 1 . ~
I
IL.!O
I 1 2 ~
Figure 7.4. Example Voltage Magnitude Spectrum
i
i
i
I I
I
1
i
1
t
-
.
4000
f .000

o
zooo
Currentsource (or current injection) methods arethe
most popular forms of harmonic analyses. The methods
all make use of the admittance model as described in
section 7.1. The analysis procedure is similar to the
frequency scan analysis for current injections in that
nonlinear loads are represented using harmonic current
spectra of known magnitude and phase. More
specifically, nonlinear loads are represented using a
summation of currents where each entry in the sum
corresponds to a termof known frequency in the Fourier
series representation of the load current Taken
collectively, this sum is.often referred to as a "vector."
With these spectral vectors (magnitude and angle at each
51
The preceding paragraphs have described the
procedure in general terms, In practice, there are a
number of modifications that are used and that can" in
some circumstance, produce markedly improved results.
The most pronounced modification to the general
procedure is the use of phase information in each
nonlinearloadharmonic current vector.
In studies where only a single nonlinear load is
present (or a single nonlinear loaddominants all others).
the phase angles for each harmonic current phasor are
not important. In systems with multiple nonlinear loads,
however, neglecting harmonic current phase angles in
load models can lead to inaccurate results. For systems
with multiple nonlinear loads, harmonic currents at each
frequency may be additive or subtractive. so voltage
harmonics determined using steps 1-3 could be either
over-or under-conservative for any particular harmonic.
Another enhancement that is often made is to
include theeffects of the fundamental frequency terminal
voltage on the hannonic currents generated by a
nonlinear load [6]. As an example, consider the voltage
and current waveforms shown in Figure 7.5. For the
voltage given in (7.5), the load current is as given in
(7.6).
1
'" 0.8
:;
ci. 0.6
i 0.4
0.2
a 0
4td ..0.2
fa
5 -0.4
..0.6
-0.8 t
-I
ADgle(deg)
Figure 7.5. Example Voltage and Nonlinear Load
Current Waveforms
i.(t) = 2./3
7t
2..{j co-'Scot)
S7t (7.6)
2..{j

7'1t
However, there can be significant differences in
fundamental frequency bus voltage pbase angles in actual
systems. Modifying (7.5) to include an arbitrary pbase
angle 6 as shown in (7.7) leads to the modification of
(7.6) as shown in (7.8). Notice that the fundamental
52
voltage angle is multiplied by "n" in the Fourier series of
the current waveform, where n is the harmonic order of
each term.
. 2./3 J
1,(t) =
1t
2/3
+ SO) (7.8)
51t .
2/3
+-co(7rot +76)
71C
Note that this same corrective actionof n6 is thebasis for
the use of 12 pulse (and higher) drives. In these higher-
order drive systems, significant harmonic Cancellation
can be obtainedfor certain harmonics due only to the no
correction.
One limitation of the current source method is the
validity of the hannonic current vector-representation of
the nonlinear loads. Past experience has shown that this
representationis valid for most nonlinear loadsupto the
point where the load terminal voltage distortion exceeds
lOOA.. However, ongoing research in this field indicates a
clear impact of terminal voltage distortion on certain
nonlinear load harmonics, especially those produced by
popular ASDs [7].
In addition, the current source method is limited to
"snapshot" scenarios where the harmonic current source
vectors represent very specific load patterns. It is well
known that many nonlinear loads, including ASDs.
produce markedly different harmonic currents depending
on load level. Figures 7.6 (a) and (b) show the line
current waveforms (and the associated harmonic
magnitude spectra) drawn by a 2S0hp dc drive for (a)
light load (spinning) and (b) fully loaded. It is difficult
to capture the range of harmonics associated with these
two line current conditions (and all loading points in
between) without a large number of simulations using
the current source methods. Further complicating the
problem is the variation in fundamental frequency
termiDal voltage phase angle that accompanies changing
load conditioDS.
Amps
10
2.08 417 6.25 8.34
mSec
are required for each frequency included in (7.8)" to form
a complete mathematical model of the system. The
entire set of equations is then solved iteratively using
either Newton or Gaussian methods. Linear loads may
be represented with a combination of impedances or with
a constant power(p+jQ) model.
Amps
rms 1f2J
Hannonic
(7.9)
Figure7.6(a). Lightly-Loaded DCDriveLineCurrent
200
100
Amps 0 -:-
1+ -100
-200
mSec
Harmonic
Figure 7.6(b). Fully-Loaded DC DriveLineCurrent
7.4 Harmonic Power Flow
The deficiencies in the current source method can be
partiallyovercome using a technique that bas come to be
known as "harmonic power flow" or HPF. HPF
algorithms combinethe current sourcemethodology with
a conventional power flow algorithm. There are two
basic variations of HPFs that find widespread use, and
theyare described as follows:
1. A fundamental frequency power flow solution is
executed using a linear model for all power delivery
equipment and loads, and the resultant fundamental
frequency load tenninal voltages are used to "adjust"
nonlinear load harmonic current vectors (as shown in
(7.8 automatically without additional user action. The
harmonic current vector-tis still required to be knownfor
each load (as was the case for the current source
methods).
2. All (or some) nonlinear load harmonic current
spectra are represented in the fonn of (7.9) where
C), ...,C
M
represent M control variables that are used to
control various load parameters (such as shaft speed in a
motor drive) and the phasor voltages V.,...,V
N
represent
the harmonic voltage pbasors at the load tenninals.
Nonlinear load representations of this fonn are used in
conjunction with where specific instances of (7. 1)
S3
The first HPF version is a relatively simple extension
of the current source method. The same limitations
apply, and the only advantage is the automatic
"correction" for fundamental frequency terminal voltage.
Due to this relatively minor improvement, this first
improvement is considered bymanynottobea true HPF.
The second HPF version is an extremely complex
and powerful technique. The system model is formed as
described for the current source method, but the loads
can be modeled in an almost manner
depending on the amount of detail required to obtain the
level of accuracy desired. When a closed-form solution
for the nonlinear loadcurrent harmonics canbe obtained
as a function of voltage (including voltage harmonics)
and control parameters, it is possible to represent the load
harmonics directly in the frequency domain as shown in
(7.9). In many cases, this closed-form solution can not
be obtained and a combination time- and frequency-
domaintechniqueis employed.
The so-called hybrid HPFs utilize a power delivery
systemmodel in the fonn of (7.1) for eachharmonic, but
represent the nonlinear loads with
differential equations (8]. Given an initial estimate of
the network voltages, the load models are simulated (they
can be decoupled if necessary) until steady-state is
reached. A newharmonic current vector is thencreated
from the steady-state current for each nonlinear load.
These current injections are then used as described for
the current source method to obtainan updated terminal
voltage (including bannonics). The procedure continues
until the frequency domain network model converges
with all nonlinear loadmodels in steady-state.
The hybrid methods are by far the most powerful" but
they are also the mostcomplex. It is possible to represent
converter controls, for example" in great detail so as to
account for virtually every possible harmonic scenario.
With this capability, however, comes the requirement
that the user must havethe data and expertise required.
More often than not, this is not the case. Detailed
harmonicstudiesinvolving complex converter controls or
widely-varying load patterns, therefore, are often best
analyzed using complete time-domain models that are
simulated usinga transient analysis program suchas the
EMTP.
7.5 Conclusions
In this chapter. the most popular frequency-domain
harmonic analysis methods have been presented. While
the approach presented here concentrates on admittance
matrix modeling, it is equally possibleto utilizeadvance
impedance matrix models in conjunction with each
analysis type presented. Each of the methods has found
significant practical application as illustrated in the case
studies found throughout this tutorial. It is, however,
always up to the analyst to weigh the costs (improved
complexity) and benefits (increased accuracy) of any
given method for the problemat hand.
7.6 References
[1) W.D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power System
Analysis, 4th ed., McGraw Hill, 1982.
[2] C.A. Gross, Power System Analysis, John Wiley &
Sons, 1986.
(3) M. A. D. L. Allen, and L. L. Grigsby,
"Techniques for the Steady State Representation of
Unbalanced Power Systems: Part I. A Systematic
Building Block Approach to Network Modeling," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-I04, No. 10, October, 1985.
(4) J. Arrillaga, D.A. BracUey, and P.S. Bodger, Power
System Harmonics.. John Wiley 8 Sons, 1985.
(5) S.M. Halpin, A. and C.R Dickinson,
"Calculation of Hannonic Current Flowsin Single-Phase
Power Distribution Systems.." Proceedings of the 7th
IEEE International Conference on Harmonics and the
Quality ofPower. pp. 516-521, October, 1996.
[6] Task Force on Harmonics Modeling and
"The Modeling and Simualtion of the Propagation of
Harmonics in Electric Power Networks Part I: Concepts,
Models, and Simulation Techniques," IEEETransactions
on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No.1, January 1996.
[7] D.E. Rice, "A Detailed ADalysis of Six-Pulse
.Converter Harmonic Currents," IEEE Transactions on
Industry Applications, March/April, 1994.
(8) B.K. Perkins and MR Irvani, "Novel Calculation of
HVDC Converter Harmonics by Linearization in the
Time Domain," IEEE Transactions on Power'Delivery,
Vol. 12, No.2, April 1997.
54
Chapter 8
TIME DOMAIN METHODS FOR THE CALCULATION OF
HARMONIC PROPAGATION AND DISTORTION
By
e.l. Hatziadoniu
Department of Electrical Engineering
Southern illinoisUniversity
Carbondale, IL62901-6603
hatz @siu.edu
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Numerical methods for the computation of harmonic
propagation and distortion differ in the manner in
which they represent the harmonic sources and the
system impedance. Iterative methods (e.g. harmonic
load flow) use a phasor representation of these
parameters. Time domain methods, on the other hand,
use a time representation of the system elements and
the harmonic sources. Thus, they are generally more
accurate than the iterative methods.
The simplest system modeling for harmonic
calculations considers rigid harmonic sources and
linearsystemimpedance [1-3]. A rigid harmonic source
produces harmonics of only characteristic orders with a
pre-detined and constant magnitude and phase. The
linear impedance is the result of mainly transmission
lines and compensation devices. A model which
includes rigid harmonic sources and linear elements can
be solved by an iterative method with the same
accuracy as a timedomain simulation. This is because a
linear model has a phasor representation and the
principle of superposition is applicable.
The presence of non-linear and time varying
elements in the system model can significantly change
the manner by which harmonic currents and voltages
propagate through andinteract with thenetwork. Some
of the effects that
t
may appear and which are better
studiedby time simulation are [3-7):
a) Under ideal conditions, harmonic devices
(converters, transformers, etc.) produce harmonics of
characteristic orders. For example, in symmetric
saturation a transformer produces all odd orders, if its
terminal voltage is near sinusoidal. An ac/dc 6-pulse
converter produces orders such as 1,5,7,11,13.., if its
terminal voltage is nearlysinusoidal and balanced and
its de current is nearly free of ripple. Most of these
55
devices will produce uncharacteristic .orders if their
terminal conditions are not ideal. Examples are the
inrushcurrent ina transformer andconverters operating
withunbalanced voltages.
b) The switching function of power converters is
equivalent to a modulation\demodulation between ac
and de quantities [8,9]. This results in interactions
between harmonics of different order. Such interactions
arenot predictableby linear timeinvariant models. The
study of this phenomenon is important, especially in
systems likely to have significant barmonic distortion
because a path is provided through me converter for
unrelated harmonics to interact.
c) The gate control of power converters may
interact with harmonics on the system through the
synchronizing loop. This interaction in combination
with the modulation\demodulation property of power
converters canprovide a feedback loopwith significant
gain for the amplification of harmonics. Extreme
pbenomena that can result from these interactions
includelimit cycles and harmonic instability.
The following sections summarize the methods for
the simulation in the time domain of non-linear and
time varying systems. The methods discussed are
suitable for widely usedprograms suchas EM'11>.
8.2 REPRESENTATION OF SYSTEM IMPEDANCE
There are two approaches for the representation of the
system harmonic impedance that are used in time
simulations. The first approach requires the detailed
representation of the network devices, which are
primarily responsible for the impedance properties. The
second approach uses the dynamic equivalent of the
impedance.
A Detailed Modeling. Detailed modeling of the
network involves 3-pbase models of the network
The driving point and transfer impedances can be
calculated either frommeasurements or from frequency
scans of the complete network model. SUbsequently,
the values of equivalent RLC branches between the
selected buses are calculated. Usually, several series
RLC branches are connected in parallel to approximate
the multiple resonances of the system impedance. The
resulting model is a linear, tumped, 3-phase circuit and
it contains the system resonant frequencies and their
B. Dynamic Equivalent Modeling. This approach yields
a network model whichretains onlya selected groupof
the buses (those of interest to the study). SUbsequently,
lumped RLC branches areused to represent the driving
point and transfer impedances of theselected buses.
The driving point impedance is equivalent to the
Thevenin impedance of a systembus. Physically, the
driving point impedance shows the effect of the bus
harmonic current injections on the bus voltage, as in
(8.1).
With reference to (8.2) the transfer impedance
between twobuses, k andm, shows the effect of current
injections into bus m on the voltage of bus k and vice
versa.
devices. The following is a summary of the modeling
approach for various devices. A detailed description of
network modeling is presented in a previous chapter
[2,3].
The classification of transmission line length is
determined by the wave length of the highest harmonic
frequency of interest. Long transmission lines are
represented by distributed parameter models. Medium
lines can be represented by cascaded Pi-equivalents.
Short transmission linesareusually represented by their
sequence impedance using lumped RLC branches. In
some distribution systems the capacitance may be
neglected for the overhead lines. Mutual inductance
may be included for medium and short lines to reflect
coupling between the phases.
Saturation and hysteresis modeling is required for
transformers, if significant overvoltage is anticipated at
the transformer terminals.
Compensation andharmonic filters aremodeled by
lumped RLC branches.
System load contributes significantly to the
damping around resonant frequencies. Normally, a
parallel RL representation is used based on the
aggregate power of theload.
-0_
CD CD
=-c
.so
CD:E
c
Figure8.1. SimuiatiOll of largeaetworDusingthedetailed aDd
dyaamic equivalent approaches
A. Rigid Harmonic Sources. The generation of
harmonics by commercial loads has a distributed
nature. An aggregate model can be constructed for such
loads using ideal circuit sources (usually current
sources) [1]. The equivalent source is composed of the
harmonic spectrum of the load and does not change
according to the networkresponse(i.e. a rigidsource).
The value of the rigid harmonic source is given in
8.3 REPRESENTATION OF HARMONIC SOURCES
There are three approaches for representing harmonic
sources in a time domain simutanon by voltage or
current injection through a rigid source, by the
switching function of the converter! or by a detailed
model of the converter.
c
.2
o
CD (I)
C CD
C .(1)
o :::::s
u.Q
~
CD
...
..5
uc:
.- CD
E-
a s ~
c::.-
~ s
CO-
W
c. Simulation of Large Networks. With reference to
Figure 8.1, large networks are modeled by a
combination of the two approaches. A detailed network
model is obtained for the part of the network that is of
immediate interest. The remaining network is
approximated by its dynamic equivalent at the
interconnection buses.
This modeling philosophy effectivelydecreases the
size and length of a time domain simulation. Routines
that assemble the network dynamic equivalent are
available in programs such as EMTP [10].
damping for thedesiredrangeof frequencies. Inclusion
of non-linear elements is doneexternallyto the model.
(8.1)
(8.2)
v = z ~ ~
11
k
- Zlcm 1
m
II - II 11
S6
time according to (8.3) for the desired number, N, of
studied harmonics. The magnitude of the fundamental
can be obtained from the aggregate power of the load.
The magnitude of the harmonics can be obtained from
measurements.
to (8.5). The time function of the current the TCR
injects intothe systemis found from (8.6).
N
i(t) =1\o cas(4l+ 8\ )+ 2/
h
ocos(hiIJ+8h)
2
(8.3)
Thephase angleof the fundamental in (8.3) is obtained
from the system load flow and the load power factor.
The phase angles of the harmonics are not critical for
the calculation of distortion in models containing one
harmonic source. In the presence of multiple sources,
harmonics of the same order may be amplified or
attenuated according to theirrelative phases. Therefore,
the correct estimation of the harmonic phase angle
should be used in (8.3). If the harmonic source has odd
symmetry with respect to its fundamental, the harmonic
phaseangle canbe computed directly from thephase of
the fundamental, according to (84).
An expression in the form of (8.3) is included in the
time step loop of the simulation for each phase. The
expression is evaluated at each integration step and the
corresponding network sourceis updated. In ATP [12]
this can be done by coding (8.3) into MODELS and
using a controlled source in the network. In
PSCAD\EMTDC the network source of (8.3) can be
directly written in FORTRAN as a user defined model
[11]. Modeling is possible using TACS controlled
sources in conjunction with "FORTRAN" statements.
However, this is not an efficient method if a large
number of harmonics is simulated.
B. The Switching Function. Theterminal characteristics
of many converters can be approximated in the time
domain by the converter switching function [1,8,9].
Two typical applications are presented for the
definition of theswitching tuncuon.
al Thyristor Controlled Reactors. With- reference to
Figure 8.2, the switching function of the TCR (for 1
phase) equals 1 when the phase thyristors are
conducting and 0 when the phase thyristors are turned
off. At steady state, the switching function of the TCR
is symmetric around the voltage zero crossing as is
evidentinFigure 8.2. Under steady state conditions, the
voltage across the inductor of the TCR is shown in
Figure8.3. It can be written as theproduct between the
bus voltage and the TCRs ~ t h i n function according
(8.6)
(8.5)
NETWORK
V(t)
S(t)
TCR
I
m(t) =J\TCR0
o
Vn::R = V.rys S(I)
Figure 8.2. Definition of theswitching functionof a TCR
Figure 8.4. Tunedomain simulation of the TeR throughits
switching function
Figure 8.3. The steady state voltageaaoss the inductor of theTCR.
(8.4)
It
8h =h81 +(h+l)-
2
57
Figure8.6. nme domainsimulatioDof the six-pulseac\dc converter
appropriate switching function. The representation of a
converter with its switching function allows interaction
between the converter input and output quantities. It is,
thus, more realistic than the representation by a rigid
source. Some of the phenomena that can be studied
through the switching function and that cannot be
studied by the rigid source representation are: the
modulation\demodulation properties of the converter,
which account for interaction between different
harmonic orders; the generation of non-characteristic
harmonics; the propagation of de harmonics in the ac
side; and operation under unbalanced voltage or
current.
The switching function is primarily a steady state
concept. Thus, it is assumed that the control system
delivers the ignition pulses at regular intervals and
uninterruptedly. It is also assumed that line
commutation is completed successfully. Therefore,
detailedrepresentation of the converter,control system
is not required. Some types of interactions between the
network harmonics and the converter controls (such as
the onset of harmonic instability) ciDbe detected.
however, by introducing some detail in the
representation of thesynchronizing loop[9].
Figure 8.7 shows a possible simulation in the
EMTPof the synchronizing loop of anae/dcconverter
in conjunction with its switching function. With
reference to this figure, the switching function is
represented by a user defined point-by-point function.
Its x-axis corresponds to the equivalent of one period.
A ramp is used to scan the switching function. The
ramp is synchronized with the commutatiDg voltage of
the corresponding phase. A circuit detects the voltage
zero crossings and resets the ramp. The phase-tag with
thelinevoltagecanbe obtained by comparing the ramp
with theconverterdelayangle.
The model of Figure 8.7 allows for interaction
between voltage harmonics andthe gate control. In the
constant current operating mode of the converter, the
use of a voltage controlled oscillator (VeO)
desensitizes the synchronizing loop from the system
voltage waveform [8]. This model, therefore, couldbe
more appropriate for inverter operation, sincethe firing
pulses are then moresusceptible to jitter by harmonics
in the line voltage. Thus, certain phenomena resulting
fromthis interaction, such as harmonic instability, can
be detected without using a complex model of the
convener.
Another systemstudy that can be conducted with
the switching function is the harmonic interaction
between two or more converters in near proximity. The
network is represented by its dynamic equivalent This
may include only the buses of. the interacting
conveners. such as inFigure8.1. Eachconverter is then
represented by its switching function and its

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t
t
I
~ - - ~ - - - - - - - - - -
I
I
I
I
I
I
8(1)
ACiX
CONVERTER
1-------------
~ :. --------. AC
Network

I
1
....,...----....--------------,
"'--_--.. :
1
I
~ ~ v l t _ ~
Figure 8.6 shows the time simulation of the converter.
The device appears as a current sourcefromthe ac side
and as a voltage source from thede side.
i
4
(1) =idc(I) S(J,(I)
i(J,(t) =idc(t) Sb(t)
ic(t) =idc(t) Sc(t) (8.7)
Figure8.5. DetiaitiOD of theswitching functionof a six-pulseac\dc
CODverter
Other converters, such as the forced commutated
voltage source inverter. can be represented by an
Figure 8.4 depicts the simulation of a TCR by its
switching function. The device appears as a current
source to thesystem.
bl ACIDC Converter. The switching function of
the line commutated ac/dc converter is shown for one
phase in Figure 8.5. It is 1, when the de current flows
into the phase in the positive direction. It is -lone,
when the de current flows in the negative direction and
zero otherwise. The switching functions of the three
phases are symmetric and balanced. At steady state,
they lag the system voltage by the convener delay
angle. Equations (8.7) describe the ac current output of
the converter. The dc voltage at the converter de
terminals is given by (8.8).
58
synchronizing loop. A time simulation of the system
canpredict with fair accuracy thechanges in the system
harmonic propagation and distortion as result of the
interaction among theconverters.
a
1-----' Lou S(t)
[/1 /1 /'

Figure8.7. Timedomainrepresentation of thesynchronizing loop
in conjunction with the switchingfunction of a converter
c. DetailedSimulation of the Converter. This requires
thedetailed representation of the converter controls and
the converter circuit [1,4-7]. Simulation of a detailed
converter model is time consuming. Theretore, this
model is not recommended for a general purpose
harmonic study. It is more suitable for verifying the
design of the converter control and studying its
response totransient phenomena.
8.4 TIME SOLUTION OF THE SYSTEMMODEL
There are three stages in obtaining a time solution of
thesystemmodel.
A Steady State. Most transient simulation programs,
such as EMTP, cancalculate thesystemsteady state for
thelinear part of the network excited by the sinusoidal
sources only. Some non-linear elements in the system
model must be initialized separately. The flux of non-
linear inductors is one of the variables that must be
initialized in this manner, so that symmetric saturation
can be observed. If the nux is not initialized properly,
the ensuing transient from the inrush current may last
for several seconds. In some programs, initialization of
the non-linear inductor is obtained approximately by
involving the element's unsaturated inductance in the
steady statesolution. Inthis manner, thede offset of the
flux is minimized and the duration of the transient is
reduced.
The part of the system model that involves the
simulation of the -converter synchronizing loop and
switching function requires separate initialization. This
can be done approximately as follows: FIrSt a steady
state solution is obtained by representing the converter
as an independent source at fundamental frequency.
The source can be calculated from the converter's
power andpower factor. SUbsequently, the steady state
solution at the converter terminals can be used to
initialize thephase of its switching function along with
theothervariables in thesynchronizing loop.
59
B. System Run. Start-up of the simulation is followed
by atransient interval. There aretwo distinct causes for
this: The excitation of the network natural frequencies
and the interaction of the system current and VOltage
with the converter controls. The latter occurs at low
frequencies and maylast for a few seconds. The former
lasts for a fewfundamental cycles. The transient can be
as short as one or two fundamental cycles, if the system
model is properly initialized.
Usually, a run of ten fundamental cycles is
obtained. At the end of the run the system steady state
is verified. Verification of steady state for non-linear
inductors could be done by checking the symmetry of
the current and flux. Verification of steadystate for an
ac\dc converter represented by its switching function
could be done by checking of its average dc current.
The average de current can be observed from a low
pass filter. At steadystate, this current is constant.
C. Derivationof Frequency Response. The last stage of
the solution is to obtain the frequency-somponents of
the desired voltages and currents and evaluate their
distortion. This is done for the last fundamental cycle
of thesystemresponse obtained fromthe timesolution.
Most programs, including EMTP and
PSCAD\EMTDC, have appropriate utilities for this
purpose [10yl1].
8.5 SUMMARY
Harmonic load flowand linear time domain simulation
are widely used methods for the preliminary study of
harmonics. They represent the system by rigid
harmonic injection sources. They are successful in
systems with low voltage and current distortion. In
thesesystems the effects of non-linearity and converter
modulation'demodulation are not pronounced and they
do not significantly alter the harmonic profile of the
currents andvoltages.
Weak systems can produce significant harmonic
distortion. Then, a detail representation of system non-
linearity and power converters is required to accurately
assess the harmonic profile of the system. Non-linear
time domain simulation is more appropriate for this
purpose. This can be conducted in programs such as
EM'IP and PSCAD\EMTDC.
Non-linear time domain simulation is time
consuming and it is not, therefore, the most desirable
means .of study. Some savings in complexity can be
gained by these two modeling approaches. The useof
dynamic equivalents of the network can significantly
reducethe systemcomplexity. Therepresentation ofthe
converters by their switching function provides good
accuracy with less complexity compared to thedetailed
modeling of the converter.
8.6 REFERENCES
(I) Power System Harmonics", IEEE tutorial course. 84
EH0221-2-PWR. by the Power Engineering Society.
(2) Task force 00 Harmooics Modeling and Simulation. The
modeling and simulation of the propagationof harmonics in
electric power networks Part I: Concepts, models and
simulation techniques", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery,
Vol. 11. No.1. Jan. 1996. pp. 452-465.
(3) Task force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation. to The
modeling and simulation of the propagationof harmonics in
electric power networks Part D: Sample systems and
examples", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 11, No. 1,
Jan. 1996. pp. 466-474.
(4] Hatziadoniu, C., Galanos, G.D. and Milias-Argitis, J., "An
Incremental Transformer Model for Smdy of Harmonic
Overvoltages in WealcACJDCSystems," IEEE Transactions
on Power Systems. Vol. 3, No.3, July 1988.
(5] Milias-Argitis, 1. and Zacharias, Th., HatliadODiu. C.
Galanos, G.D., "Transient Simulation of Integrated ACIDC
Systems, Part I: Converter ModeliJlg and Simulation," IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 3, No.1, February
1988.
(6] HatziadoDiu, C., GalaDos, G.D., Miliu-Argitis, I. and
Zacharias, Th., "Transient SimulatioD of Integrated
Systems, Part n: System Modeling and Simulation." IEEE
Trapsactiogs on Power Systems, VoL 3, No 1, February
1988.
(7) Milias-Argitis, J. and Zadwiu, Th., HatDadODiu, C;
GalaDos, G.D., "An Algorithmfar Transient Simulation of
Power Electronics Systems," IEEE Transactioas on Circuits
and Systems, VoL CAS-34, No.8.
(8) HatDadoaiu, C. and GalaDos, G.D., "lDteractiou Between
the AC Voltages and DC Cmreat in Weak ACIDC
IntereODDecUoDS," IEEE Transaetiops on Power Delivery,
Vol 3. No.4, October 1988.
(9) G.D. Breuer eL aL "HVDC-ACharlncEc iDtenctioDs Puts
1 and 2", IEEE Traas. PAS-lOt No. 3, March 1982, pp.
709-718.
(10) DommeL "Electromagnetic Traasients Program. Referea.ce
manual". Department of E1ecUical Eqiaecring UDiveaity of
British Colombia. Aug. 1986.
(11) PSCAD\EMTDC Power System Simulation Software user's
maaual.Maaitoba HVDCResearch Conler, 1"4.
(12) A1temaUve TraasielllS Program. User'sMaaual. DPA, 1996.
60
Chapter 9
Analysis of Unbalanced Harmonic Propagation
in Multiphase Power Systems
W.Xu
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
9.1 Introduction
Harmonics relatedconcerns wereinitially centered at a few
large harmonic-producing devices until the early 1980s.
Because these devices, such as HVDC and SVC, and their
supplysystems are wellbalanced among threephases, harmonic
analysis based on positive sequence network representations
was generally sufficient The situation has changed significantly
in recent years. More and more harmonic-producing loads are
being connected to systems which are unbalanced. The effects
of single phase harmonic-producing loads are also becoming
important. The need to investigate harmonic propagation in
unbalanced systems with unbalanced harmonic excitations has
emerged.
Unbalanced harmonic analysis seeks to assess the
propagation of harmonics in each phase of a power system.
Sometimes, the harmonic currents in the neutral or ground
conductors may also need to be calculated. In all cases, full
phase representation of a network is required. As such, many
unique component modeling and network solution issues must
be addressed. Thanks to the pioneering work documented in
references [1-4], methodologies for modeling and simulating
unbalanced harmonic propagation have been established. The
purpose .of this paper is to summarize theprogress achieved in
this area. The key issues of multiphase harmonic power flow
solutions are discussed.. Samplecases are presented to illustrate
the features of unbalanced harmonic analysis.
9.2 The Need for Multiphase Harmonic Analys.
In this paper; the term multiphase harmonic analysis is
usedto describe harmonic simulations which arebasedon a full
phase representation of a system. The system and its loads can
be balanced (a special case) or unbalanced. The term three-
phaseharmonic analysis is not usedhere because the full phase
representation of a system often requires certain network
components (such as transformers) be treated as multiphase
components. Typical cases that require multiphase harmonic
analysis aresummarized as follows:
1. Utilization system harmonic analysis. Sample utilization
systems are utility secondary distribution systems,
commercial building distribution systems, and aircraft
power systems. These systems may contain many single-
phase harmonic sources. The networks are unbalanced as
well. Sample needs of harmonic analysis are the assessment
of harmonic currents in neutral conductors, the evaluation
of harmonic mitigation devices and the de-rating of supply
transformers.
SJ. Ranade
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, NM, USA
2. Distribution system harmonic analysis. Most utility
distribution systems are unbalanced in both network
structures and connected loads. Even if the harmonic
sources of interest are three-phase, unbalanced harmonic
analysis is often required. Themain interest of such analysis
includes the determination of harmonic resonance
conditions, the assessment of harmonic-telephone
interference, andthe verification of customer power quality
levels.
3. Analysis of harmonic problems in balanced systems. For
balanced systems, the majority o!. harmonic related
problems can be investigated using 'the one-phase based
methods. However, cases do arise that need unbalanced
analysis. These typically relate to the generation of
unbalanced harmonic currents from specific loads or
operating conditions.
4. Special Cases. The nature of some harmonic caused
problems may warrant multiphase harmonic analysis. For
example, residual (zero sequence) harmonic currents which
are of primary concern for telephone interference needto be
determined using such analysis. The generation of non-
characteristic harmonics is another example.
9.3 Modeling Considerations
9.3.1 LinearComponents andNetworks
Linear components are those components that do not
produce harmonic voltages or currents. The generic model of
linear components is a multiphase coupled [Z(h)] or [Y(h)]
matrix, where h is theharmonic number.
Lines and Cables: The basic model is a per-unit length
multiphase series [Z(h)] and shunt [C] matrices that includeall
phase and ground conductors of the component A line model
can then be constructed either as a lumped parameter 1t circuit
(for short lines) or a distributed parameter 1t circuit (for long
lines). Inclusion of ground conductors in the model helps to
determine the neutralor grounding currents.
Transformers: The main difficulty in modeling transformers is
the variety of transformer connections and the resultant phase
shift effects. The phase shift effects must be simulated because
they are an important means of harmonic mitigation.
Experience shows that the best approach is to model
transformers as coupled windings that have no pre-determined
connection forms. The coupling is represented by a [Z(h)] or
[Y(h)] matrix with transformation ratios included [3]. A
particular transformer connection is specified in the input data
by renaming the winding terminal nodes in a way similar to the
61
actual .transforrner connections (Figure 9.1). Thus any
transformer configurations can be simulated. Although the
model can include linear magnetizing branches, the effects of
the branches are insignificant for most harmonic cases.
harmonic excitations are known, a three-phase harmonic load
model can be constructed using a coupled 3 by 3 [Z(h) matrix
as
A
B
c
Y-connection
a
N
b
c
.1-connection
I[Z,,+2Z, Z,,-Z, Z,,-Z,]
[Z(h)]='3 Z,,-Z, Z,,+2Z, Z,,-Z,
Z,,-Z, Z,,-Z, Z,,+2Z,
where Zp(h) may be determined from the CIGRE load model.
Few works are known that investigated the determination of
Zo(h)data. Due to lack of data, it may be assumed that Zo(h) is
about I to 5 times of Zp(h). The ratio of 1 corresponds to cases
where the load has no mutual coupling. The ratio of 5
corresponds to cases where the load consists of a large percent
of three-phase rotating loads or loads with ungrounded star
points. The third issue is unsolved and needs considerable
research. Present practice is to ignore the harmonic currents if
they are small or to represent the entire load as three-phase
harmonic current sources if they are significant. The current
sources are typically determined from field measurements.
Figure 9.1. Transformer model example: connection of three
two-winding transformers to form a Y-D three-phase
transformer by node renaming
Rotating Machines: These include induction and synchronous
machines. They can be modeled as a three-phase, balanced
fundamental frequency voltage source behind a three-phase
harmonic impedance matrix (Figure 9.2). Again, no motor
connections such as Y or Ii are specified in the model. The
voltage source is determined from the fundamental frequency
load flow solution. The impedance matrixcan be determined as
External Networks: Due to its multiphase modeling capability,
the representation of external networks. _is=easier in multiphase
harmonic analysis than in the one-phase based analysis. The
reason is that each interface between the external and study
networks can be treated as one phase of a multiphase network
equivalence (Figure 9.3). The data can be determined from
frequency scanning of the external network one phase at a time
across all interface phases. The results are a frequency
dependent multiphase [Z(h)] or [Y(h)] matrix in series with
nmltiphase fundamental frequency voltage sources. The
voltage sources are the open circuit voltages of the external
networks:
where Za=Rn+jhXa is the locked rotor (negative sequence)
impedance of the machine when h=1. Zo is highlydependent on
the machine armature winding pitch design and typical values
are not available.
k
A
B
C
ZO-ZII
z; +2Z"
ZO-ZII

I-- external
external
I-- network 1
r
network 2
[Y(h)]9x9 t-0-Jh
9-phasesource
Figure 9.3. Example of external network equivalence. Since
there are three three-phase lines connected to the study
network, the equivalence is a 9 phase system
Figure 9.2. Model for three-phase rotatingmachines
General Loads: General loads refer to the aggregate form of
various individual loads. Modeling of general loads must
address three critical issues. The first issue is the load's
response to harmonic excitations. The second is its response to
unbalanced excitations. The third is that the load may contain
harmonic currents. The first issue has not been fullysolved. But
some preliminary results, such as the ClORE harmonic load
model, are available [5]. Series R and L elements determined
from 60Hz are used as harmonic load models in some cases as
well. Reference [4] analyzed the second issue. The main idea is
that if the load's responses to the positive and zero sequence
62
3.2 Nonlinear or Harmonic-Producing Components
There are no major differences between the multipbase or
one-phase based harmonic analyses in terms of modeling
nonlinear components. Previous chapters provide a good
summary of the most important aspects of this subject The
purpose of this section is to highlight the unique characteristics
of harmonic source representation under unbalanced conditioDS.
1) Single-phase harmonic sources connected in different
phases of a system can only interact with each other through
the system. Therefore, each source can be modeled
95 Case Study I
This study illustrates how uncharacteristic harmonics can
arise and require a multiphase analysis in an apparently
balanced system. A ::t150MVar static var compensator is to be
installed at a substation of B.C. Hydro. The SVC is connected
to a 138 kV bus and consists of one thyristor-Switched
capacitor (TSC) and three thyristor-switched reactors (TSR). It
is commonly believed that theTSR-type SVC is harmonic free.
A TSR is essentially a reactor in series with an anti-parallel
thyristor pair. These thyristors are randomly selected. Each
thyristor has a deviation of voltage dropabout %.0.07 V when it
is conducting. As a result, one stack of series-connected
thyristors will have a slightly different total forward voltage
drop than the anti-parallel one. This voltage difference is
effectively a direct voltage across the TSR branch. Since the
resistance of the TSR branches and the SVC transformer
windings is generally very small, a small direct voltage can
result in a relatively large direct current This current will
circulate through the secondary winding of the SVC
transformer and can cause a DC-offset saturation of the
transformer (Figure 9.4). As typical power transformers need
little magnetizing current, a small amount of direct current is
sufficient to cause significant saturation and harmonic
generation.
modeled as simple individual-phase current sources. The
current source magnitudes and angles are determined, for
example, from measured harmonic spectra. It must be
emphasized that the phase angles of a three-phase harmonic
current sources are seldom 120
0
apart among three phases.
Even with a slight unbalance at the fundamental frequency,
the phase angle unbalance at harmonic frequencies can be
significant. Therefore, the harmonic spectra should be
determined for eachphase.
3. Harmonic Analysis Considering Fundamental Frequency
Power Flow Results: The main problem of current source
based analysis is the lack of fundamental frequency load
flow information. As a result, the magnitudes and phase
angles of the current sources cannot be determined
adequately. In this improved analysis, a multiphase power
flow is first solved. The harmonic currents injected are
determined using the power flow voltages and "typical"
source spectra.
4. Harmonic Power Row Solutions: In this analysis, the
harmonic sources are also represented as current sources.
However, their magnitudes andphases are updated using an
iterative scheme based on detailed (voltage-dependent)
harmonic source models. Inter-phase coupling of the
harmonic-sources can be modeled witH'good accuracy. The
harmonic iteration scheme solves thenetwork onefrequency
at a time. The calculated nodal voltages are then used to
update the currentsourcemodel [4]. In theory, simultaneous
solutions of all harmonic orders like those used in the
HARMFLO program [6] can also be developed for the
multiphase analysis, but the algorithm would be extremely
complex.
Due to the availability and widespread use in other
analyses, time-domain simulation tools such as the Alternative
Transients Program(ATP) are alsousedfor studying harmonic
propagation in unbalanced systems. The key problem in such
usage is to identify when steady state conditions have been
achieved.
where each rowof the [Yh] matrix represents one node of the
system. The node can be anyphaseof a three-phase bus. It can
alsobea neutral connection point such asthestar point of a Y-
connected transformer. Complicated transformer connections
are included in this matrix through the node-renaming
mechanism [4]. The right hand side is the harmonic current
sources representing theharmonic producing devices.
Floating sub-networks such as delta connected subsystems
and ungrounded motors could be encountered in multiphase
analysis. Because there is no reference voltage for such
networks, part of the [YIII matrix is singular. These structures
can be accommodated by adding appropriate impedances to
ground or by modifying factorization algorithms.
Once this matrix is established, the various network
harmonic solution methods developed for the' one-pbase based
representations can be extended to the multiphase frame. As
described in previous chapters, four types of harmonic analysis
are normally performed:
I. Frequency Scan Analysis: In these studies, the network
frequency response seen at any phase of a bus can be
determined. The positive, negative and zero sequence
frequency responses seen at a bus can also be determined.
In this case, three-phase harmonic currents, in positive,
negative or zero sequences respectively, are injected into
the study bus. Multiphase frequency scans are useful, for
example, to determine harmonic resonance caused by
single-phase capacitor banks. In general, frequency scans
are difficult to use in the multipbase case because of the
largenumber of nodes that mustbeconsidered.
2. Harmonic Analysis Using Simple Current Source Models:
In these studies, the harmonic-producing devices are
63
The unbalanced harmonic propagation in a power system
can besimulated using a multiphase admittance matrix equation
as follows:
separately. Models of such sources can take the forms of
either harmonic current sources Of detailed iteratively-
improved device models.
2) A three-phase harmonic source, particularly the power
electronics types, can have interactions among three phases
thatcan influence theoutput of harmonic currents from each
phase. Non-characteristic harmonics which wouldn't exist if
the supply is balanced can be produced. A salient pole
synchronous machine can become a harmonic source when
unbalanced voltages are applied at the terminals as well. If
the effects of non-characteristic harmonics need to be
assessed, thesources must be modeled indetail. The models
based on typical current spectra are nolonger valid.
3) For those sources that have a nonlinear voltage-current
relationship such as magnetizing branches of transformers,
it is also a good practice to model them with a detailed
model because "typical'' harmonic spectra for such devices
do not exist. For multiphase harmonic analysis, the
placement of nonlinear magnetizing branches in an
equivalent circuit depends on thetransformer designs [3].
9.4 Simulation Methods
Statistical analysis showed that the direct current injected
into the SVC transformer has a normal distribution. At the
confidence level of 95%, the expected direct current can be as
high as 19.2 ampere. This is a verylarge DCcurrent for regular
power transformers. It is therefore considered necessary to
analyze the resultant harmonics. The objective is to find the
highest direct current level that can be tolerated from a
harmonic distortion point of view[7].

):t V - V I
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.035
11m. (S.c.)
Table 9.1. Harmonic current distortion at theSVC bus
9.5.3 Sample Results
A number of possibleSVC operation modes was analyzed.
Table 9.1 provides harmonic current distortions (worst phase)
under the condition that the SVC is operating in the fully
inductive mode and with a 1.15pu 138 kV bus voltage. This
mode has the largest DC current generation and the TSCs are
not sinking harmonic currents from the transformer. Current
distortions are listed in both ampere values and percentage
values with respect to the nominal SVCcurrent of 560A. The
spectra of the currents injected into- the 138 kV system are
shown in Figure 9.6. This figure indicates that only the lower
orderharmonics areof concern.
Figure 9.5. Harmonics from DC offset saturation of
transformers
s
Q.)
....
f'-)

f'-)
>

00

,..
phase-c
....

('f")
I

. I

"
Cf.)
Eo-
phase-b phase-a
sve
Transformer
9.' Case Study n
w G 0 - w G 0 0
_ _ - - - - - - - - w
HarmonicNo.
Figure9.7. Harmonic currents injected intothesupply system
Harmonics mitigation ina utilization system is investigated
in this case. The system, shown in Figure 9.7, represents a
simplified commercial building distribution system operated at
a 120Vlevel. The singlephase loads contain harmonic sources
such as switcbed mode power supplied devices (PC, printer
etc.) and fluorescent lights. In order to reduce the neutral
current and associated neutral VOltage rise, a zero sequence
.Phase-A
1
.Phase-B
aPhase-C
lit
I.e
I
n..... ___
......-.-
Max. 12 13 ITIID 12 13 ITH
DC(A) (A) (A) (A) (%) (%) D
(%)
14 1.78 1.49 2.76 0.32 0.27 0.49
18 236 1.96 3.65 0.42 035 0.65
20 2.66 2.21 4.14 0.48 039 0.74
25 3.43 2.86 5.38 0.61 0.51 0.96
30 4.17 3.45 6.46 0.74 0.62 1.15
40 5.66 4.63 8.57 1.01 0.83 1.53
50 7.14 5.76 10.7 1.28 1.03 1.92
0.5
0.0
2.5
3.0
c
=2.0
i
t:

u 1.5
o
C
1.0

:
Figure 9.4. SVC system andthe flow of TSRdirect currents
9.5.1 Modeling Sources
The directcurrent into the SVC transformer is unbalanced.
The worst case is that one phase serves as the return path for
other two phases (Figure 9.4). This leads to the generation of
unbalanced harmonics which contain positive, negative and
zero sequence components. Moreover" because the transformer
is saturated with a direct current both even and odd
harmonics are generated. The grounded primary allows the
penetration of zero sequence harmonics intothesupplysystem.
Theycouldinterfere with telephone circuits.
In this investigation, the TSR branches are represented as
impedances in series with DCvoltage sources. The magnitudes
and polarities of the DC sources were determined from the
statistical analysis. A harmonic equivalent circuit is used to
mode} the saturated transformer magnetizing branch. The
harmonic iteration scheme is used to determine the harmonic
currents generated [8]. Iterations are needed because the strong
dependency of generated harmonic currents on supply voltage
harmonics. Sample waveforms areshownin Figure 9.5.
9.5.2 Modeling of Supply System
Thenature of theproblem requires multiphase modeling of the
supply system. A network model of the system near the SVC
bus was developed (about 300 nodes). It facilitates the
simulation of various network operating conditions. In the
second approach, the supply system is modeled as a 60 Hz
sinusoidal voltage sourceat the 138kV SVC bus. It effectively
assumes that thesupply systemharmonic impedance is zero.
64
- .
,
\ : _. y..()eftal :
20 ,-l .
-ee _ ._ _. _ . ._ ..J
and conductor neutral currents CA)
w-i W-2 W-3 W-4 W-5 W-6
II 80.5 93.0 75.8 9.8 9.8 9.8
Y-D I
boflllS
53.8 53.8 53.6 50.0 50.0 50.0
Isms
96.9 107.4 92.8 50.9 50.9 50.9
II 26.8 37.9 21.6 37.9 21.6 26.7
Zigzag
I..ofIIIS
53.6 53.6 53.6 53.6 53.6 53.6
I
DDS
59.9 65.6 57.8 65.6 57.8 59.9
No harmonic source 38.2
Neutral With a-source but no trapper 187.0
current with Y-/1trapper 21.8
(RMS) with Zigzag trapper 23.5
1l1M1n_
Figure 9.9 shows the waveforms of the neutral voltage at
the receptacle panel. The waveform obtained without harmonic
trapper is also displayed in the figure for comparison purposes.
It can be seen from the figure that the neutral voltage can be
quite high (about 20V RMS) if no mitigation measures are
taken. The harmonic trappers can reduce the voltage to as little
as 3V RMS. The neutral voltage is dominated by the 3
rd
harmonic component. The results also shown that 6.-Y and
zigzag configurations have almost the same effect in terms of
reducing the neutral voltage (the waveforms are
indistinguishable in Figure 9.9).
Figure 9.9. Neutral voltage at the receptacle panel
Table 9.2. Harmonic trapper winding currents
excitations. The actual trapper configurations are represented
using node renaming in the input data.
Table 9.2 lists the loading conditions. in the form of
winding currents, associated with both configurations. It can be
seen from the table that the zigzag configuration results in
smaller RMS winding currents. The Y-/1 configuration is
therefore less desirable in terms of losses and device
overheating. The neutral conductor currents in RMS values
were also calculated for various configurations and are shown
in the same table. The entry of "No harmonic source" is the
current obtained with the assumption that loads do not contain
harmonic sources. The results suggest that the increase of
neutral current is mainly due to the harmonic currents from the
loads. Due to space limitations. other important issues such as
65
C N
Iph load
Iph load
Iphload
120V
A B
A multiphase harmonic analysis is used for this case. The
loads are modeled as constant power loads at the fundamental
frequencies and current sources at harmonic frequencies. Phase
angles and magnitudes of the current sources are determined
using the load flow results and harmonic source spectra. The
single-phase loads are assumed to contain two types of
harmonic producing loads. switched mode power supply type
loads. dominated by Pes. and composite type dominated
by fluorescent lights. The three-phase loads consist of motors
and adjustable speed drives. The supply system is modeled as
balanced voltage sources behind a system fault impedance.
Models for the harmonic trapper which has a core-type design
should be developed with care. One of the main concerns is that
the model should be able to correctly simulate the circulation of
the zero sequence flux. The core-type design forces a large
amount of zero sequence flux to circulate outside the magnetic
core. To simulate these effects. a six-phase coupled [Z] matrix
is used with each phase representing one winding. Data of the
[Z] matrix are calculated from the short and open circuit
impedances determined with both positive and zero sequence
480V supply
Figure 9.7. Simplified utilization system for case II
Figure 9.8. A six winding trapper and zigzag configuration
current trapper would be connected to the receptacle panel. The
current trapper. like a transformer . is made up of six coupled.
equal turn ratio windings. The windings can be configured into
either a zigzag form (Figure 9.8) or a delta-Y form. In the delta-
Y configuration. the star point of the Y windings is connected
to the neutral conductor. Both configurations are capable of
trapping zero sequence fundamental frequency and harmonic
currents. The objective of this study is to determine which
configuration is more effective and what are the winding
loading conditions.
transformer de-rating and harmonic injections into the supply
system are not discussed. They can be easily investigated using
thesame systemmodel and analysis tool.
9.7 Case Study III
This hypothetical study illustrates harmonic propagation in
a utilitydistribution system. The system, shown in Figure 9.10,
is discussed in detail in the chapter of case studies. Voltage
unbalance in this systemranges from2-4 %. Harmonic sources
are single-phase sources typical of residential and small
commercial loadareas.
46
Figure9.10. A unbalanced utility distribution system
A case of adding a three-phase 110 HP adjustable speed
drive is studied. The front end of this drive was modeled in
ATP as a 6.-Y transformer feeding a rectifier bridge with a
capacitive tilter and a resistive load. The ATP time simulation
is used to determinesteady-stateharmoniccurrent injections of
thedrive. Figure 9.11 shows the spectra of the current drawn by
thedrive and thespectrumunder ideal balanced conditions.
Although the changes in characteristic harmonic
magnitudes are small, one can notice that a significant third
harmonic appears in the unbalanced case. As discussed in
Chapter 1, harmonics are not associated with a specific
sequence in unbalanced systems. Thus, for example, third
harmonic currents will flow in ungrounded capacitors and
filters. Thus detailed multiphase modeling is warranted for
utilitydistribution systems
9.8 Summary
In this paper, important aspects of unbalanced harmonic
analysis for multiphase power systems are reviewed. The need
for multipbase analysis is mainly due to three considetations:
the unbalanced system, the unbalanced sources and the
propagation nature of harmonics. Although considerable
progress has been made in the area of multiphase harmonic
analysis, there are still problemsto be solvedand improvements
to be made. For example, some of the future workin this areas
includes:
I) Quantification of the effects of various load models on the
propagation of harmonics in a power system with
subsequentrefinement of multiphase harmonic load models.
2) Development of analysis methods that can assess the
collective effects of a large number of randomly operating
harmonic sources in a utilization system.
3) Improvement of models and associated solution algorithms
for harmonic-producing devices. The models should be
practical but provide more accurate results.
1i 30.-------------;=====
E
E25
as
-g 20

'0 15
it
i 10
.;2
5
as
:E 0 ...... ...... ...
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29
Hanmnic#
Figure9.11. ASDcurrent spectra (fundamental omitted)
9.9 References
[I] I. Densem, P.S. Bodger, and J. Arrillaga, "Three-phase
Transmission System Modeling for Harmonic Penetration
Studies", IEEE Trans. on PAS, vol. PAS-I03, no.2, Feb.
1984,pp. 256-263.
[2] M. Miller, W. Price, M. Lebow, and A. Mahmoud, "A
Computer Program for Multiphase Harmonic Modeling,"
Proc. ICHPS-I, Worcester, 1984.
[3] H.W. Dommel, "Electromagnetic Transients Program
Reference Manual (EMTP Theory Book)", Prepared for
Bonneville Power Administration, Dept. of Electrical
Engineering,Universityof BritishColumbia, Aug. 1986.
[4] w. J.R. Jose and H.W. Dommel, .."A Multiphase
Harmonic Load Flow SolutionTechnique", IEEE Trans. on
Power Systems, vol. PS-6, Feb. 1991,pp. 174-182.
[5] ClORE Working Group 36-05, "Harmonics, Characteristic
Parameters, Methodsof Study, Estimates of Existing Values
in the Network",Electra, no. 77, July 1981, pp. 35-54.
[6] D. Xia and G.T. Heydt, "Harmonic Power Flow Studies,
Part I - Formulation and Solution, Part n - Implementation
and Practical Application", IEEETrans. on PAS, vol. PAS-
101,June 1982,pp. 1257-1270.
[7] W. Xu, T.G. Martinicb, J.H. Sawada and Y. Mansour,
"Harmonics from SVC Transformer Saturation with Direct
Current Offset", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 8,
No.2, July 1994,pp. 1502-1509.
[8] H.W. Dommel, A. Van and S. Wei, "Harmonics from
Transformer Saturanon", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems,
vol. PWRD-l, April 1986,pp. 209-214.
66
Chapter I()
Harmonic Limit Compliance Evaluations Using IEEE 519-1992
s. Mark Halpin' and Reuben F. Burch, Iy2
'Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS
2A1abama Power Company, Birmingham, AL
Abstract: The end-use applicationof harmonic simulation
studies usually involves an assessment of limit
compliance. This chapter of the tutorial is devoted to
various limit evaluations using the procedures in IEEE
519-1992 and the proposed IEEE 519A, the "application
guide" for 519. The procedures are demonstrated based
on a sample system with typical nonlinear load
characteristics. It is assumed that the reader is familiar
with the harmonic study method details presented in the
previous sections of this tutorial.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Notealso that there are a number of appropriate footnotes
that govern the application of the limit values given. The
reader is strongly encouraged to consult the Standard for
this additional information.
Table 10.1. CurrentDistortion Limits (in % of I
L
) for
General Distribution Systems (120-69,000 V) [1]
IsdIL <11 17Sb<23 TOD
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20-50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50-100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100-1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Table 10.4. Voltage Distortion Limits (in%of V1) [1]
PCC Voltage Individual Harmonic THDv (%)
Magnitude (%)
Table 10.3. CurrentDistortion Limits (in%of I
L
) for
GeneralTransmission Systems (>161,000 V) [I]
IsdIL <11 11:sJ1<17 17Sh<23 TOD
<50 2.0 1.0 0.75 0.3 0.15 2.5
3.0 1.5 1.15 0.45 0.22 3.75
5.0
2.5
1.5
3.0
1.5
1.0
S69kV
69-161 kV
kV
The thought processes behind thesetables are that 1)
the customer should be responsible for limiting harmonic
currents in accordance with Tables 10.1-10.3 and 2) the
utility should be responsible for limiting harmonic
voltages in accordance with Table 10.4. The numerical
values in the voltage and current tables are not
independent however. The values in Table 10.4 can be
Table 10.2. CurrentDistortion Limits (in% of I
L
) for
General Subtransmission Systems (69,001-161,000 V) [1]
IsdIL <11 TOD
<20 2.0 1.0 0.75 0.3 0.15 2.5
20-50 3.5 1.75 1.25 0.5 0.25 4.0
50-100 5.0 2.25 2.0 0.75 0.35 6.0
100-1000 6.0 2.75 2.5 1.0 0.5 7.5
>1000 7.5 3.5 3.0 1.25 0.7 10.0
There are two distinct thought processes that can be
applied to limit the amount of harmonics that are present
in power systems. The frrst, favored by the International
Electrotechnical Commission (lEe), is a series of limits
that is appropriate for application at the terminals of any
particular nonlinear load. The second, favored by the
IEEE and the basis for IEEE 519-1992 [1], is a series of
limits that is appropriate for application at a single more
central point of supplyto multiple nonlinear loads.
The philosophy of the IEC limits is based on the
presumption that limiting harmonic production fromevery
piece of equipment will effectively limit any combined
effects. While conceptually effective, the assumptions
made in developing the actual limits are quite different
from those in IEEE 519-1992 and it has been shown that
the IEEE limits are somewhat more restrictive due the use
ofbothvoltage andcurrent harmonic limits.
The IEEE limits for voltage and current harmonics
shown in Tables 10.1-10.4 are dependent on several
variables and concepts definedas follows:
PCC: Point of common coupling. This pointis defined as
the point in the utility service to a particular
customer where another customer could be
connected.
I
sc
: Available short circuit current.
I
L
: IS or 30 minute(average) maximumdemand current.
TOD: Total demanddistortion. TOOis identical to THD
except I
L
(as defined previously) is used instead of
the fundamental current component.
67
derived from those in Tables 10.1-10.3 by assuming that
the Isell t ratio speci fies an equivalent inductivereactance.
Before beginning the case study examples
demonstrating the use of these tables. it must be stressed
that are intended as guides and may require
rnodlncauon to fit the particulars of a given situation. In
practice, there are a number of "gray" areas where
discretionis required andconcessions from both theutility
and the customer may be necessary.
10.2 GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR APPLYING
HARMONIC LIMITS
The following series of steps outlines a general
procedurefor applyingharmoniclimits:
Step I: Choose thepointof common coupling,
Step2: Characterizethe harmonic-producing loads,
Step3: Assesspower factor correction needs,
Step 4: Calculateexpectedharmonicsat the PCC,
Step 5: Designand implementsolutions (if needed), and
Step 6: Verifyperformancewith measurements.
As the case study examples will show, it is not necessarily
required that a complete and detail harmonic study be
conducted. The concept of "automatic acceptance" is
sufficient for the majorityof smallerutility customers and
can oftenserve to eliminate the need for a comprehensive
simulation. The "automatic acceptance" procedure
requires completion of only the first three steps while a
simulation often covers the first five steps.
While not a simulation issue, result verification via
measured data is always recommended especially if
equipment additions were required to correct a limit
violation.
10.3 AUTOMATICACCEPrANCE
As previously described, there are many cases
involving smaller customers where a complete harmonic
study is not required. It is possible to evaluate limit
compliance issues at Pee without detailed studies
provided that the short-circuit kVA is much greater than a
weighted sum total of the nonlinear load tVA sUpplied
from the PCC. The following series of four stepsoutlines
the procedure for "automatic" verification of limit
compliance:
Step 1: Determine Sse (short-circuit kVA) at the PeC.
Step 2: Determine the size and type of nonlinear load
served.
68
Step 3: Evaluate Sow =LSD, .. Wi' where SOi is
i
(kVA) demandof the i
dl
nonlinear load.
Step4: Accept automatically (limits will be met) if
Sow
-S- *100% < 0.1%.
sc
The weighting factors Wi are given in Table 10.5 for
various common nonlinear loads. In general, the weight is
larger for nonlinear loads that produce a more distorted ac
current.
Table 10.5. Weighting Factors for Automatic Acceptance
Procedures
TyPe of Load Wi
Single Phase SMPS 2.5
Semiconverter 2.5
. 6 pulse converter, nochoke 2.0
6 pulse converter, >3%choke _ 1.0
6 pulse converter, large series L 0.8
12pulse converter 0.5
10.4 COMPREHENSIVE LIMIT COMPLIANCE
EVALUATIONS
Theprevious chapters of this tutorial haveconsidered
the modeling and analysis requirements for a harmonic
study in detail. In general. the analyst is free to choose
their own analysis procedure, but the following
capabilities areessential forlimit compliance evaluations:
I. Modeling of network components such as overhead
lines, cables, transformers, etc. (The analyst has some
flexibility in selecting the level of detail needed;
sensitivity studies should be considered to determine
which degrees of detail can be avoided in any
particular study.)
2. Modeling of various nonlinear loads including pre-
defined models and the capability for user-defined
modelsbased onmeasured or typical data. (It is left to
the analyst to determine what degree of sophistication
is required, especially if time-domain simulation
techniques are to be used.)
3. Modelingof power factor correction capacitors should
be "built in" to any software being considered. (The
representation of the equivalent capacitanceis the most
imponant requirement; other details are somewhat
insignificant for limit complianceevaluations.)
4. Modeling of utility system equivalents should be
straightforward. (In an advanced study, the analyst
should consider the -capability to represent the
frequency dependence of network equivalents.)
Table 10.6. Harmonic Current Spectra for Nonlinear
Loads
The nonlinear loads are known to be 50 kVAof small
PWM motor drives (no choke) and 100 kVA of small
PWM drives (with 3% inductive choke). The harmonic
current spectra for these two loads are shown in Table
10.6. Note that it is important to use the provided
harmonic current phase angles to account for possible
harmoniccurrent cancellation at the PCC.
Automatic Acceptance Evaluation
The data given in Figure 10.1 and Tables 10.5 and
10.6 can be used to make quick limit compliance
evaluations. Based on the descriptions of the load, the
weighting factors in Table 10.6, and the short-circuit
MVA at the PCC, the following calculation demonstrates
that automatic acceptanceis notrecommended.
Fortunately, there are a great number of computer
packages available that easily meet (and exceed) these
requirements. A key point is that the level of accuracy
available in the program should match 1) the level of
accuracy available in the data and 2) the level of accuracy
required in the results. It is up to the analyst to make this
determination for each compliance issue to be
investigated.
The end'result of the detailed harmonic analysis must
be the voltages and currents at the PCC. (Note that
similar values at other systemlocations may be of interest
in a given study but they are not relevant to limit
compliance evaluation.) Given these values, the system
strength (as indicated by the available short-circuit at the
PCe), and the average maximumdemand current at the
pce, a simple comparison to the limit values given in
Tables 10.1-10.4is all that is required.
10.5 CASE STUDIES
The following case studies demonstrate limit
compliance based on both the automatic acceptance
criteria and the detailed harmonic analysis procedures
described previously. Figure 10.1 shows the single-line
diagram of the example system. As is typical, only
positive sequence data is used in these studies due to the
assumed balanced nature of the system. Theshort circuit
MVA, Sse, and the average maximumdemand, SAVG,.MAX,
at thePCC are total (three-phase) values.
h
1
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25
50 kVA Load
(no choke)
I
h
(%) 8
h
(0)
100.00 -7.40
72.46 -219.03
51.03 -56.20
13.75 -285.10
5.02 -172.22
5.27 -113.89
3.51 -334.00
2.21 -288.60
2.17 -153.11
l00kVALoad
(3% choke)
I
h
(%) 8
h
(0)
100.00 -15.50
34.81 -268.72
10.76 -176.84
6.30 -149.36
3.24 -118.55
2.48 -53.90
1.89 -36.00
1.16 -332.30
1.12 -309.20
Detailed Harmonic Study
Thedata given in Figure 10.1 and Table 10.6can be
used to conduct a detailed harmonic study using anyone
of a number of available computer programs. Based on an
equivalent impedance of 2.286+j5.151 Qlphase seen
looking from the PCC to the subtransmission system,
This result is not a true indicator that harmonic limits
will be violated due to the fact that the resultant 0.71% is
only slightly greater than the 0.1% required for automatic
acceptance. However, the fact that the 0.71% is not low
enough for automatic acceptance indicates that a detailed
harmonic study should be conducted to evaluate the true
nature of the harmonic voltages and currents at the PCC
before a limit violation is declared. Unfortunately, there
is nowayto correlate (for the general case) the amount by
which the 0.71% result exceeds the 0.1% criteria with
whether or not a detailed study will indicate limit
violations. Values slightly greater than 0.1% could lead to
violations if strong system resonances are present at
frequencies near those generated by the load(s) in
question.
SDW =50*2+ 100*1 *100% =0.71%
Sse 28,000
12kV: 480 V
46kV: 12kV
46kV
SubtransmissioD
Figure 10.1. Example Systemfor Limit Compliance Case
Studies
Pee
Ssc=28 MYA @ Pee,
SAVG.MAX=2100 tVA
12kVfeeder
480 V plant bus ...------....
69
Table 10.7 gives the harmonic current magnitudes
calculated at the pee in both amperes and in percent of
the average maximum demand current (=97.22 A).
The final step in the process is the comparison of the
first rowin Table 10.1 (based on theratio I
scIIL=13.3)
and
the third column of Table 10.7. This comparison is given
in Table 10.8 and shows that limit compliance is not a
problem for this example case study (the more accurate
calculation approach should overrule the more
approximate "automanc acceptance" criteria).
Table 10.7. PCCCurrents forLimit Compliance
Evaluation
Currents @ PCC
h I
h
(A) I
h
(% of I
L
)
1 95.44 98.16
5 3.52 3.62.
7 2.24 2.30
11 0.47 0.49
13 0.43 0.44
17 0.32 0.33
19 0.20 0.21
23 0.12 0.12
25 0.02 0.02
Table 10.8. Evaluation of SimulatedResultswith IEEE
519-1992 Limits
Currents @ PCC
h Limit (% of I
L
) I
h
(% of I
L
)
5 4n ~
7 4 ~ 230
11 2.0 0.49
13 2.0 0.44
17 1.5 0.33
19 1.5 0.21
23 0.6 0.12
25 0.6 0.02
roD 5.0% 4.44%
The reader should be cautioned that using different
software packages may produce results different from
those shown in Tables 10.7 and 10.8. It is, therefore,
important for the 1alyst to bave a complete
understanding of both the harmonic theory and the
particular techniques used and assumptions made by the
software being used.
10.6 REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard 519-1992, Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical
Power Systems, The Instituteof Electrical andElectronics
Engineers, 1993.
70
Chapter 11
Test Systems for Harmonics Modeling and Simulation
TaskForce on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation*
Transmission & Distribution Committee
IEEE PowerEngineering Society
Abstract This paper presents three harmonic simulation test
systems. The purpose is to demonstrate guidelines for the
preparation and analysis of harmonic problems through case
studies and simulation examples. The systems can also be used
as benchmark systems for the development of new harmonic
simulation methods and for the evaluation of existing harmonic
analysis software.
11.1 Introduction
Harmonic studies have become an important aspect of
power system analysis and design in recent years. Harmonic
simulations are used to quantify the distortion in voltage and
current waveforms in a power system and to determine the
existence and mitigation of resonant conditions. Many digital
computer programs are available for harmonic analysis. New
analysis techniques are being developed. With a widevariety of
solution methods and" modeling assumptions implemented in
many different programs, there is a need for benchmark test
systems so that the features and results of the programs can be
evaluated and compared.
This paper presents the complete data for three harmonic
simulation test systems. The purpose is todemonstrate guidelines
for the preparation and analysis of harmonic problems through
case studies and simulation examples. Several aspects that can
impact the accuracy of results such as modeling of components
and solution methods are illustrated. The benchmark infoimation
provided in the paper is alsouseful for thedevelopment of new
harmonic simulation methods and for the evaluation of existing
harmonic analysis software. The test systems represent the most
common harmonic study scenarios encountered in industry.
Sample results are provided' in the paper. More information on
the test systems and results can be obtained at
http://www.ee.ualberta.caJpwrsyslharmonics.html.
11.2 Test SystemNo.1: A 14-B05 Balanced Transmission
System
Because the system has balanced bus loads and the
transmission lines are transposed, a balanced harmonic analysis
is generally sufficient for determining harmonic distortion levels
in this case. Main harmonic analysis issues to be demonstrated
by this test systemare:
1. The need to solve fundamental frequency load flows for
harmonic analysis. The loadflow results affect the magnitudes
and phase angles of the harmonic current injected from
harmonic sources. Correct representation of the phase angles
are important for systems with multiple harmonic sources [1].
The harmonic filters can have a large impact ontheload flow
results.
2. 1be harmonic cancellation effects due to YY and Y-Delta
transformer connections (at the HWC terminal) and the
impact of otherharmonic sources (theSVC). For this purpose,
the HVDC terminal is modeled as two six-pulse harmonic
sources.
3. The effects of using different line models such as the
distributed-parameter model and the lumped pi-circuit model
in harmonic resonance assessment.
.. 13
G 1
Figure 11.1. Test System1- 14BusTransmission System
This test system contains two harmonic sources. One is a
twelve-pulse HVDC terminai at bus 3 andthe otheris a SVCat
bus 8(Figure 11.1 andFigure11.2).
Task force members and contributors are: R. Abu-hashim, R.
Burch, G. Chang, M. Grady, E. Gunther, M. Halpin, C.
Hatziadoniu, Y. Lin, M. Man, T. Ortmeyer, V. s.
Ranade, P. Ribeiro (vicechair), T. Sims, W.Xu(chair, editor).
-
-
HYDe svc
71
Figure 11.2. HarmonicSources inTestSystem 1
Lump.d PI Line Model
Sub-
transient
Table 11.3:Generator Data forS stem 1
Voltage P Q
:;: setUng gen. gen.
Branch Left IRight I! R1 X1 81
Type i Bus' Bu, ,: lpu) ! (pu) lpu)
7. The SVC consists of harmonic filters and a delta-connected
TCR. The TCRwas modeled using themodel of reference [1].
The firing angle is about 120 degrees. To facilitate the
solution of thecase using programs witbout a TCR model, the
equivalent load andharmonic spectra of theTCRare listed in
this paper, With this information, the TCRcan be represented
as a constant reactive power load in load flow solution and a
harmonic current source in harmonic analysis. Because the
SVC is relativelysmall as compared to the HVDC, its impact
on overall systemharmonic distortion is not significant.
Xfmr(V-Y) i 4 7 0.20900
Xfmr(V-Y) i 4 9 0.55618
Xfmr(V-Y) I 5 6 0.25020
Line 6 11 0.09495 0.19887
Line 6 12 0.12285 0.25575
.
. Line ! 6 13 0.06613 0.13024
I
i Xfrnr (V-Delta) I 7 8 0.17615
Xfmr (V-Y) 7 9 0.11000
Line I 9 10 0.03181 0.08448
i Une 9 14 0.0127'() 0.27033
! Line I 10 11 0.08203 0.19202
: Line I 12 13 0.22087 0.19985
Line 13 14 0.17081 0.34795
! Capacitor@9 I 9 0
i Line 1 2 0.01937 0.05916
Line 1 5 0.05402 0.22300
Line 2 3 0,04697 0.19794
! Line 2 4 0.05810 0.17628
Une 2 5 0.05693 0.17384 0.03386i
i Line 3 4 0.06700 0.17099 O.0346oi
i Line 4 5 0.01335 0,04209
I Rltsr08:2nd 8 0 0.52510 8.31233
I Filter@8:5th 8 0 0.52510 1.32635 0.0301Sl
I Filter08:7th 8 0 0.52510 0.67307
I FiterOS:11th 8 0 0.52510 0.27515
I Filter03:11th 3 0 0.00136 0.02772 0.24916i
! Filter@3:11th I 3 0 0.00136 0.b2772
I Xfmr(Y-Y) I 3 301 0.02800
t 1
_J..___ ._9,QQ2Q9j
6. The HVDe terminal is modeled as two six-pulse bridge
rectifiers according to the model of reference [3]. Because
voltage distortion at the HYDe terminal is small, sensitivity
studies showed that the terminal can be modeled as two
harmonic current sources. The source spectra is provided in
Table 11.4. It must be noted that the magnitudes and phase
angles should be scaled and shifted according to the load flow
results [1]. The HVDC terminal is modeled as a constant
power load in the loadflow solution,
Table 11.2: Branch Data for S stem 1 Based on lOOMVA
'I a. ,.
Harmonic Ord.r
---Oistributed Parameter Lin. Mod.,
ooo..... ...... .......-----....
.
1. All transmission lines are modeled using a distributed-
parameter line model. Long line effects are included in the
model. Figure 11.3 shows the effects of using different line
models. The curves are the frequency scan results seen at the
HVDe bus (bus 3). The results suggest that the long-line
effects should be included for long distance transmission lines.
Complete data for this system are shown in Tables 11.1 to
I 1.4. Key modeling andsimulation features for this caseare:
Figure 11.3. Effectsof using differentline models
T bill 1 8 D d Resul ti S I
2. The generators are modeled aseither slackorPVbuses forthe
fundamental frequency load flow solutions and as sub-
transient reactance for the harmonic The sub-
transient reactances are0.25 per-unit.
3. Transformers are modeled using short-circuit impedances.
The winding connections ire represented in the model so that
thepbase-shifting effects onharmonic currents areincluded. If
harmonics from transformer saturation are of interest, the
magnetizing branches with saturation characteristics should be
modeled. The off-Dominal tapratios of all transformers are 1.0
per-unit inthisparticular case.
4. The loads are modeled as constant power loads for load flow
solutions and as impedances for harmonic solutions. The
harmonic impedances are determined according to the 3
rd
model recommended in reference [2].
5. Harmonic filters are modeled as shunt harmonic impedances.
All filters are the single-tuned type.
a e .. us ataan ts or .ystem
Bus
j Nominal I
P
Q
LF LF
THD
,
i voltage Load Load Vonag. Angl.
(%)
(kV) I (KW) (KVaf) (pu) (deg)
1 230 0 0 1.0600 0.00 1.767
2 230 0 0 1.0450 -5.68 2.177
3 230 0 0 1.0427 -15.30 1.516
301 35.4 59,505 3,363 1.0417 . -16.18 9.169
302 35.4 59.505 3.363 1.0417 -16.18 9.169
4 230 47,790 -3,900 1.0282 -11.41 0.755
5 230 7,599 1,599 1.0337 -9.82 1.462
6 230 0 0 1.0700 -15.87 0.468
7 230 0 0 1.0193 -14.47 0.423
8 13.8
2
12,900 1.0209 -14.49 0.522
9 115 29,499 16,599 1.0147 -16.09 0.482
10 115 9,000 5,799 1.0168 -16.33 0.421
11 115 3,501
',800
1.0394 -16.21 0.394
12 115 6,099 1,599 1.0528 -16.72 0.391
13 115 13,500 5,799 1.0458 -16.73 0.376
14 115 14901 5001 1,0154 -17.39 0.343
72
H-order
1
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1S 16 17
Hannonic.
~ ~ ~
i
i
3
Table 11.5. VoltazeTHO(Fundamental Freouencv Component)
Node# PhaseA PhaseB PhaseC
32 1.96 1.034 1.76 1.038) 1.69 1.007
33 1.96 1.034 1.76 1.038 1.6 1.007
34 0.96 1.018 0.96 1.030 1.0 1.022
71 3.23 1.010 2.76 1.045 2.8 0.969
75 3.35 1.003 2.82 1.048 2.950.967
52 3.30 1.008
911 3.()()(0.965)
Figure11.5. Harmonic Voltage Distortion Spectrum at Node71
Modeling andsimulation features for thiscaseare:
1. Conventional loadsweremodeled as constant RLimpedances
obtained from the givenkVA at 60Hz.
As demonstrated in [1], relatively moderate variations in the
models can have a significant impacton results. The test system
is specified in a way that highlights all of these issues. The
Alternative Transients Program was uses-to calculate harmonic
propagation in the system [5,6]. paIiiif results are shown in
Table U.5 andFigure 11.5.
1. It is difficult to identify or specify harmonic-producing loads.
In general, several loads are served fromone point and the
harmonic currents represent the aggregate response of several
harmonic producing devices.
2. Many distribution systems tend to contain capacitors.
Frequency scan analysis can be helpful to verify if resonance
conditions exist. Due to a large number of possible harmonic
source locations, however, it is difficult to determine the
frequency scanbuses. .
3. Thecommonly assumed properties under balanced conditions
such as the zero-sequence nature of triple harmonics no
longer hold. Harmonic producing devices at the distribution
level can generate uncharacteristic harmonics.
4. Loadand transformer connections can have large impacts on
harmonic propagation. The subject of load modeling for
distribution system harmonic analysis still needs considerable
research [1].
phase-domain representation. The following items must be
considered in the analysis of unbalanced distribution systems:
Figure 11.4. Test System1- Unbalanced Distribution System
The feeder, shown in Figure 11.4, contains voltage
regulators, three and single phase line configurations, shunt
capacitors, and spot and distributed loads. Phase-ground and
phase-phase connected loads areincluded. For harmonic studies,
load compositions are specified to include harmonic producing
loads. Complete data are provided in the Appendix A. Current
spectra for the three load types, namelyfluorescent light banks,
adjustable speed drives. and composite ("other") residential
loads. are given for test purposes. The analysis of harmonic
propagation in distribution systems must necessarily utilize a
11.2 Test System No.2: A 13-Bus Unbalanced Utility
Distribution System
This system is based on the IEEE 13bus radial distribution
test feeder [4]. The system is unbalanced and serves as a
benchmark system for unbalanced harmonic propagation studies.
The system was used in [1] for illustrative purposes and, with
additional modifications, is proposed here as a harmonics test
system.
8. The harmonic distortion results were obtained using the
harmonic iteration method described in reference [1) . Because
the results showed that the voltage distortions at the harmonic
source buses are small and the equivalent harmonic current
injections from the HVDe andSVC are made available in this
paper, a non-iterative harmonic solution method which models
harmonic sources as harmonic current injections should give
the samesolution results.
73
Additional data used to conduct a harmonic analysis of the
exampleindustrial system include the following:
Table 11.6. Per-Unit Line and C ~ e Impedance Data
(base values: 13.8kV, 10,000kVA)
1. System equivalent impedance. For this study, the system
impedance was determined fromthe fault MVAand XlR ratio
at the utility connection point. These values are 1000 MVA
and 22.2, respectively. Driving point impedance (as a
function of frequency) at the connection point was not
available, but shouldbe usedwheneverpossible.
2. The local (in-plant) generator was represented as a simple
Thevenin equivalent. The internal voltage, determined from
the converged power flow solution, is 13.98/-1.52 kV. The
equivalent impedance is the sub-transient impedance which is
O.0366+j 1.36510.
3. The plant power factor correction capacitors are rated at 6000
kvar. As is typicallydone, leakageand seriesresistance of the
bank are neglectedin this study.
4. The displacement power factor for the drive load is 0.97
lagging. This high power factor is typical of drives operated
at or near full load.
2. Harmonic producing loads were modeled as current sources
with the specifiedspectra usingthe 'Models' capability of the
AT? Magnitudes were scaled based on the fundamental
component of load current and phase angles were adjusted
based on the phase angle of the voltage across the load
obtainedfromthe fundamental frequency solution.
3. The motor and the capacitor at node 34 were assumed out of
service. For harmonic frequencies, the motor should be
modeled using its sub-transient impedance (or locked rotor
impedance).
4. The voltage regulator was not modeled. Rather, the
substation transformer secondary taps on the three-phases
wereset at +15,+10and+13, respectively.
5. Lines were modeledas mutually coupled1t branches.
For the case studied, the voltage distortion levels are low.
This is because several loads are connected phase-phase and
harmonic phase angles are modeled. As described in reference
[I], significantlydifferent results are obtaineddepending on the
choice of load models and harmonic current source models. It is
noted that in the examples in [1], all loads were assumed to be
connected phase-ground, the motor and capacitor at node 34 are
in service and harmonic source spectra were different from the
onesused here.
From To R x
11.4 Test System No.3: A 13-805 Balanced Industrial
Distribution System
49o
RECT
'J:.. T. 29:T11 sfr T T
T ~ : T SEC T 11:T4sJ l';9:T7SEC
ASD
Figure 11.6. Test System3 - ABalanced Industrial System
0.00296
0.00243
0.00063
0.00131
0.00091
kVA %R %X
15000 0.4698 7.9862
1500 0.9593 5.6694
1250 0.7398 4.4388
1725 0.7442 5.9537
1500. 0.8743 5.6831
1500 0.8363 5.4360
3750 0.4568 5.4810
Tap
69
13.45
13.45
13.11
13.45
13.8
13.11
01:69-1 l}:OOI39
50:GEN-I 0.00122
05:FDRF 0.00075
26:FDRG 0.00157
06:FDRH 0.00109
Table 11.7. TransformerData
100:UTIL-69
03:Mll.L-l
03:Mll..L-l
03:Mll..L-l
03:Mll..L-l
Table 11.8. Generation, Load, and Bus Voltage Data
(frompower flowstudyresults)
Bus Vma 0 PIS QRtD P
IGId <ltC*l
(p.u.) (deg) kW kvar kW kvar
100:lJTll..,-69 1.000 0.00 7450 S40
01:69-1 0.999 -0.13
03:MIll-l 0.994 -2.40 2240 2000
50:GENl 0.995 -2.39 2000 1910
51:Aux 0.995 -3.53 600 530
05:FDRF 0.994 -2.40
49:RECT 0.980 -4.72 1150 290
39:T3SEC 0.996 -4.85 1310 1130
26:FDRG 0.994 -2.40
06:FDRH 0.994 -2.40
II:T4 SEC 0.979 -3.08 370 330
19: T7 SEC 1.001 -4.69 2800 2500
29:TII SEC 0.981 -4.16 810 800
From To Voltage
01:69-1 03:Mll.L-l 69:13.8
50:GENl 51:AUX 13.8:0.48
05:FDRF 49:RECT 13.8:0.48
05:FDRF 39:T3SEC 13.8:4.16
26:FDRG 29:Tl1 SEC 13.8:0.48
06:FDRH 11:T4SEC 13.8:0.48
06:FDRH 19:17 SEC 13.8:2.4
03:MILL-l
l00:tJTII,69
01:69-1
26:FDRG
~ Sl:AUX
SO:GEN-l
OS:FDRF
This test case consists of 13 buses and is representative of a
medium-sized industrial plant. The system is extracted from a
common system that is being used in many of the calculations
and examples in the IEEEColor Book series [7]. The plant is
fed froma utility supply at 69 kV andthe local plant distribution
systemoperates at 13.8 kV. The system is shown in Figure 11.6
and described by the data in Tables 11.6-11.9. Due to the
balanced nature of this example, onlypositive sequence data is
provided. Capacitance of the short overhead line and all cables
are neglected.
74
11.5 ConclusioDS
Table 11.9. Harmonic Source Data
Complete data for three harmonic test systems has been
presented inthischapter. The systems canbe usedas benchmark
systems for the development of newharmonic analysis methods
and for the evaluation of existing harmonic software.
Researchers, developers and users of harmonic analysis
programs are encouraged to use these systems to test their
programs andreport their comments to theIEEEPES Harmonics
Modeling andSimulation TaskForce.
Specific issues related to modeling for harmonic analysis
must also be considered if the results presented here are to be
obtained using different analysis programs. Modeling
considerations applicable to this example include:
1. All loads are modeled as series RL circuits. This approach is
taken instead of parallel RL modeling to more accurately
represent the limited harmonic damping offered by typical
induction motors without resorting to extremely detailed
motor models.
2. Frequency dependence of model resistance is neglected. This
is done mainly because of the significant discrepancies that
exist among various programs available. In addition,
neglecting frequency effects on resistance. leads to over
conservative results (which areoften preferred).
3. Transformer magnetizing branch effects are neglected. In
addition, increasing winding losses asa function of frequency
are also neglected. As discussed in 2 previously, thisis done
to avoid problems when comparing theresults presented here
with those obtained using other analysis programs.
The results of a harmonic analysis of the system of Figure
~ 6 are given in Table 11.10. Fundamental, fifth, and seventh
voltage harmonic amplitudes andTHDv aregiven foreachof the
system buses. These. results, along with those obtained from a
fundamental frequency power flow study (shown in Table 11.8),
give an accurate descnpnon of the voltage profiles in the plant
0.28
0.37
1.93
1.87
1.81
1.94
8.02
1.80
1.93
1.93
1.90
1.81
1.84
104.23
135.14
138.13
133.51
4.40
138.35
12.83
37.21
138.04
137.91
4.59
21.78
4.36
40.37
52.36
53.51
51.72
1.72
54.07
12.79
14.83
53.48
53.43
1.78
8.58
1.71
39645.70
39538.00
7712.77
7726.55
262.74
7709.24
269.89
2240.05
7709.07
7703.35
260.40
1302.74
256.29
lOO:UTIL-69
01:69-1
03:MILL-l
50:GENl
51:Aux
05:FDRF
49:RECT
39:T3SEC
26:FDRG
06:FDRH
11:T4SEC
19:T7 SEC
29:Tl1 SEC
Bus VI v, V, THD
(V
LN
) (VL'l) (VLa'l) v
(%)
7. IEEE Standard 399-1990, "IEEE Recommended Practice for
Industrial and Commercial Power System Analysis", IEEE,
NewYork. 1990.
6. H.W. Dommel, "Electromagnetic Transients Program
Reference Manual (EMTP Theory Book)", Prepared for
Bonneville Power Administration, Dept. of Electrical
Engineering, University of British Columbia, Aug. 1986.
11.7 References
Table 3.5: Plant Harmonic Voltage Distortion Summary.
1. IEEE Task Force on Harmonics Modeling and Simulation,
"Modeling and Simulation of the Propagation of Harmonics
in Electric Power Networks, Part 1 & 2", IEEE Trans. on
Power DeliVery, Vol. 11, No.1 January 1996,pp. 452-474.
2. ClORE Working Group 36-05, "Harmonics, Characteristic
Parameters, Methods of Study, Estimates of Existing Values
in theNetwork", Electra, no.77, July 1981,pp.35-54.
3. W. Xu, I.E. Drakos, Y. Mansour, A. Chang, "AThree-Phase
Converter Model for Harmonic Analysis of HVDC Systems",
IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 9, No.3, July 1994,
pp.1724-1731.
4. IEEE Distribution Planning Working Group Report," Radial
Distribution Test System," IEEE Trans. on Power Systems,
Vol. 6, No.3, Aug.1991, pp.97S-98S.
5. Canadian/American EMTP User's Group "Alternative
Transients Program(ATP) Rule Book" , Portland, OR, 1995.
11.6 Acknowledgment
The Task Force would like to acknowledge the support of the
IEEEPES Harmonics Working Group chaired byMr. T. Gentile.
Case 1was prepared byW. Xu, Case2- b y ~ S J Ranade, andCase
3 by M. Halpin. Results were verified by R. Burch, M. Halpin,
CJ. Hatziadoniu, andT.H. Ortmeyer.
0.00
-55.68
-84.11
-143.56
-175.58
111.39
68.30
-24.61
-67.64
-145.46
176.83
97.40
54.36
Relative Angle
100.00
18.24
11.90
5.73
4.01
1.93
1.39
0.94
0.86
0.71
0.62
0.44
0.38
Percent
1
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25
29
31
35
37
Harmonic#
75
Appendix A: Data for Test System 2
Source System: Node 50.
Short circuit MVA 1100at 82 degrees lagging. Balanced.
Substation: Node 50-31
Transformer: 5 MVA, 115 kVdelta -4.16kV wye grounded
Impedance z= 1+j 8 % at 60 Hz.
Voltage Regulators: Connected at node 31
individual phase control. Wye connected, PT Rati0=20, cr
Rating=700 A, R+ jX=3+j9Q, voltage level =122 V
Transformers: Node33 - Node 34
500KV 4160 delta- 480, wye volts, Z = 1.1+ j 2.0%
Linephasing and60 Hzimpedance matrices
Allconductors ACSR. Linegeometry is available from theInternet
site. Upper triangle of phasedomain impedance (Zabc ohms/mile)
and admittance (Yabc J.1S/mile) matrices are shown. For non-
existent phases , matrices have beenpadded withzeros.
ID501:
Phasing BACN, Phaseconductor 556,500 26n, Neutra1410 6/1.
Zabc= 0.3477+j 1.0141, 0.1565+j 0.4n7 0.1586+j 0.4361
0.3375+jl.0478 0.153S+j 0.3849
0.3414+j 1.0348
Y
abc
= j6.2450 -jl.7664 -jl.3951
j5.8271 -jO.7461
j5.6985
ID502:
Phasing CABN, phaseconductor 4/06/1, neutral 410 6/1
0.7538+jl.1775 0.1586+jO.43619
0.7475+j 1.1983, O.1535+j 0.3849
O.7436+j 1.2112
Y
abc
= j5.6587, -jl.1943 -jl.5024
j5.2262 -jO.6626
j5.3220
10503:
Phasing CBN,phaseconductor 1/0, neutral 1/0
= . O.OOOO+j O.OOOO+j O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
1.3294+jl.3471 0.2066+jO.4591
1.3238+jl.3569
Y
abc
=
j4.7097 -jO.8999
j4.6658
ID504: phasing ACN
9
conductor 110, neutral 110
Zuc= 1.3238+jl.3569 OJlOOO+jO.OOOO O.2066+jO.4591
O.OOOO+jO.OOOO O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
1.3294+jl.3471
Y
abc
= j4.6658 -jO.8999

j4.7097
76
10 505: Phasing C N, conductor 1/0, Neutral 1/0
= O.OOOO+jO.oooo O.OOOO+jO.oooo O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
O.OOOO+jO.oooo O.OOOO+jO.oooo
1.3395+j1.3295
Yabc =

j4.6178
ID 508: Three-phase URO concentric netural 250 MCM AI...
cables, 6" apart on horizontal plane40 II belowground . Neutral is
13 #14 Cu. OD over neutral is 1.28..
Zatx:= O.8506+jO.4037 0.3191+jO.0325 O.3191+jO.0325
O.8597+jO.4458 O.2848+j-o.0145
O.8597+jO.4458
Yabe = j94.6212
j94.6212
j94.6212
ID 509: Single-phase UROtape shield; I/O copper tape shielded
conductor with separate I/o copper bare neutral on I
t1
spacing; 40"
deep.
= O.9806+jO.5146 O.OOOO+jO.OOCXl O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
O.OOOO+jO.OOOO O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
O.OOOO+jO.OOOO
Y
Ibc
= jO.3915


IDe onnecnvttv ta:
Node-I Node-J LenRtb (ft) ID
32 45 500 S03
33 32 500 S02
45 46 300 503
31 32 2000 501
52 84 800 S09
71 32 2000 501
71 84 800 504
71 150 1000 501
7S 92 500 508
84 911 300 505
71 92 switch
Shunt canacitors (kVara:
Node Connection Ph-A Ph-B Pb-C
75
y
200 200 200
34 Y 125 125 125
911 0 0 100
Motorloads: Node34
500 HP three-phase induction motor; running power factor 0.8,
efficiency 90%; lockedrotor 3000KVA at 0.4 power factor lag.
Loads:
The following model codes are used: D-delta or phase-phase
connection , Y- wye or phase-ground connection. S-constant
kVA fundamental frequency model. Z-constant impedance
fundamental frequency model, I-constant current fundamental
frequencymodel.
Node Model Ph-A Ph-A Ph-B Ph-B Ph-C Ph-C
No. kW levar kw kvar kw kvar
34 Y-PQ 42.63 20.18 0 0 0 0
Harmonic load: None
45 V-PO 0 0 170.53 125.09 0 0
Harmonic load: 60% other (composite) types
46 D-Z 0 0 230.22 131.97 0 0
20%fluerescent, 20%ASD, 20%others.
Note: this load is connected between phase B&C.
52 y-z 127.90 85.79 0 0 0 0
10%fluorescent, 10%ASD, 20%others
71 D-PQ 383.70 219.95 383.70 219.95 383.70 213.95
30%fluorescent, 60%others.
75 Y-PQ 486.02 189.07 68.21 60.55 289.91 212.65
15%fluorescent, 20%ASD, 15%others.
92 D-I 0 0 0 0 170.53 151.38
15% 20%ASD, 15%others.
Note: theloadis connected betweenphases C&A.
911 Y-I 0 0 0 0 170.53 80.74
15%fluorescent, 20%ASD, 15%others.
32 Y-PQ 16.48 9.45 66.40 38.06 116.97 97.05
71 Note: this is a distributed loadbetween nodes 32 & 71
Current spectra of harmonic loads:
Phase angles arewith respect to thefundamental frequency
1 d votageIn ezrees.
H Fluorescent ASD Other
order Mag. Phase Mag. Phase Mag. Phase
1 1 -41.2 1 -1.5 1 -35.0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0.2 273.4 0.542 0.7 0.007 -105.8
4 0 0 0 0 0.095 -167.4
5 0.107 339.0 0.152 110.8 0.002 -275.5
6 0 0 0 0 0.083 -42.6
7 0.021 137.7 0.069 151.9 0 0
8 0 0 0 0 0.005 -247.8
9 0.014 263.2 0.043 -95.0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 0 0
11 0.009 39.8 0.036 -13.9 0 0
12 0 0 0 0 .0 0
13 0.006 182.4 0.029 95.2 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 0.005 287.0 0.025 -182.7 0 0
77
Conclusions
This tutorial has coveredmanyof the aspects of power system harmonic analysis. While much
has been accomplished in the field over the last few years, there are still many challenging problems
without solutions. Given the projected increases of nonlinear loads in power systems, these solutions can
not come toosoon.
Significant areas of concern related to harmonic modeling and simulation include 1) load
modeling, 2) network equivalents, and 3) hybrid solution algorithms. Significantadvances in these areas
are still needed. It is important that these concepts be developed considering not only the needs and
positions of electric utilities, but those of the end-users of electrical energy as well. Only a closely
coordinatedeffort will producethe bestsolutions.
The area of load modeling offers a number of avenues for future research. In particular, the
development of effective aggregationprocedures is needed. As pointed out throughout this tutorial, load
modeling is essential for accurate results, but it is often impossible to represent all loads in the detailed
manner needed to obtain accurate results. At this time, aggregation methods that are effective for the
general case are not available.
The area of network equivalents suffers from the same deficiencies as load modeling. At present,
a generic network reductionprocedure is not feasible. This lack of capability often forces the-aDalyst into
a compromising position betweenaccuracy and feasibility. The need for network equivalents is clear;
every harmonic study will most likelyrequire one or more. There is, however, muchwork remaining to
bedone to properlyaddress this complex issue.
The conventional harmonic simulation methods (current injections, harmonic power flow.. etc.)
are well-suited for the analysis of a numberof harmonic-related problems. As nonlinear loads continueto
grow in size and complexity, however, many more operating conditions are likely to emerge.
Unfortunately, it is very difficult to study advanced nonlinear loads with the more conventional methods.
The hybrid methods offer great promisedue to their oatural ability to accept device models in an almost
arbitrary form. Muchwork remains, however, to take this promising avenue froma research topic to a
commercially available product
In conclusion, I would like to thank each of the contributing authors for their bard work and
dedication that was required to put this material together. Dr. Wilsun who organizedthis tutorial and
assisted in every phase of its development, deserves special recognition. In addition, Dr. M E. EI-
Hawary, Chair of the PES Lifelong Learning Subcommittee, is recognized for providingvaluable direction
and advice throughout the development of this document
Mark Halpin
78
Author Biographies
Reuben F. Burch, IV (M 70) was bornin Eastman, GA, on August5, 1948. He received his BEEdegree
from Auburn University in 1970. He is a Principal Engineer in Enhanced Power Quality at Alabama
PowerCo. in Birmingham. AL where he mainlyperforms voltage flicker and harmonic analyses. He is a
member of IEEE, PES, and IASandis a registered professional engineer inAlabama andGeorgia.
Gary W. K. Chang, (M'94), received his Electrical Engineering Diploma from National Taipei Institute of
Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, in 1982, and the MSEE and PhD degrees from National Tsing Hua
University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, andthe University of Texas at Austin in 1988 and 1994, respectively. Dr.
Chang is currentlywith Siemens Power Systems Control, a Division of Siemens Power Transmission &
Distribution, LLC. His areas of interest include power systems optimization, harmonics, and power
quality. Dr. Chang is a member of Tau Beta Pi and a registered professional engineer in the state of
Minnesota.
J.J. Dai (S86, M94) received his Ph.D. degreefromthe University of Toledo, Ohio in 1995, in Electrical
Engineering. Since 1992, he hasbeen associated with Operation Technology, Inc., where he is involved in
the development of computer software for power system modeling and simulation studies, and currently
serves as Vice President of Advanced Technology. His interests and experience include power system
stability studyand improvement, power systemharmonic analysis and correction, industrial power system
conceptual design, and computermodeling and simulation of powersystem operation andcontrol. Dr. Dai
is a member of IEEE-PES and IEEE-lAS where he serves as secretary of the Power System Analysis
Subcommittee and the Chair of the Low-Order Harmonics Task Force of the lAS Harmonics Working
Group.
s.Mark Halpin (M 93) received hisBEE, MS, and Ph.D. degrees fromAuburn University in 1988, 1989,
and 1993, respectively. He is currently an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering at Mississippi State University. His teaching interests include power systems,
control systems, and network analysis. His research interests are in the areasof modeling and simulation
techniques for large-scale power systems, power system transients and harmonics, and computer
algorithms. He is active in the IEEE PowerEngineering Societyand Industry Applications Society, where
he servesas chairmanof the IEEE-lAS Working Groupon Harmonics.
C.J. Hatziadoniu (M 97) received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering from West Virginia University in
1987. He is currently an associate professor with the department of electrical engineering at Southern
Illinois University. His interests include power electronics, HVDC, and modeling andsimulation of power
systems.
Takashi Hiyama received his B.E., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees all in Electrical Engineering from Kyoto
University, Japan, in 1969, 1971, and1980,respectively. HejoinedKumamoto University in 1971, andhe
currently is a Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science. Duringthe period of June 1985
throughSeptember 1986, he was at Clarkson University, and was involved with powersystem harmonics
research. His current interests include intelligent control of electric power systems using fuzzy logic
control and neural networks, measurement and real time control of photovoltaic systems, and harmonic
analysis of distribution systems. He is a senior member of IEEE, and a member of lEE of Japan, SICE of
Japan, and the Japan Solar Energy Society.
Dr. Yilu Liu is and AssistantProfessor of Electrical Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University. She received the BS degree from Xian JiatongUniversity, China, in 1978, and MS and PhD
degrees from The Ohio State University in 1985 and 1989, respectively. Dr. Liu is the recipient of the
1993 National Science Foundation Young Investigator Award and the 1994 Presidential Faculty Fellow
Award.
79
Thomas Ortmeyer receivedhis B.S.E.E. in 1972, the M.S.E.E. in 1977 and the Ph.D. in 1980, all from
Iowa State University. From 1972 through 1976, he worked in the Operational Analysis Department,
Commonwealth Edison Company, Chicago, Illinois. Since 1979, he has been at Clarkson University,
where he is Professorof Electrical Engineering. Duringthe 1993-1994 year, he was Guest Professor of the
Advanced Technology of Electrical Engineering Chair, Kumamoto University. His current interests
includepower systemharmonics, power electronics, machine control, and power systemprotection. He is
a senior member of IEEE, anda member of EtaKappaNu, Phi KappaPhi, and SigmaXi.
Satisb J. Ranade (SM) received his BE degree fromthe IndianInstituteof Technology, the MSEE from
New Mexico State University, andthe Ph.D. from the University of Florida. He is currentlya professor at
NewMexico State University. Histeaching andresearch interests are in power systems, machinery, power
electronics, and AI applications in operation andcontrol. He is a member of Eta Kappa Nu and Tau Beta
Pi, and serves as the counselor forthestudent branch at NMSU.
Dr. Paulo Ribeiro receiveda BSinElectrical Engineering fromthe Universidade Federal de Pernambuco,
Recife, Brazil (1975), completed the Electric Power Systems Engineering Course with Power
Technologies, Inc. (pTI)-1979, and received the Ph.D. from the University of Manchester - UMIST,
England, 1985. He is a registered Professional Engineer (PE) in the USA, a registeredEuropean Engineer
(Eur Ing), and a CharteredEngineer (UK). Dr. Ribeiro is a Senior Member of the IEEE, Member of the
IEE(UK), and CIGREand active inseveralpower qualityrelatedtechnicalworking groups such as Power
Electronics Simulations, IEEE 519a Guidelines for Harmonic Limits Application, Harmonics,
Interharmonics, Probabilistic Harmonics, Power Quality, FACTS and Custom Power. Dr. Ribeiro has
extensive experience in power system studies, design, and system integration. Presently, He is with
Babcock & Wilcox - Product Development Department - Naval Nuclear Fuel Division as the Chief
Engineer for the Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Program.
Wilsun Xu obtained his Ph.D. from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, in 1989.
From 1990to 1996, be was withPowerTech Labs Inc. andB.C. Hydroas an electrical engineer. Hejoined
the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, as an Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering in
September 1996. Dr. Xu's research interests are in the areas of power quality and harmonics, voltage
stability, and distribution automation.
80