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The major parts of Power Plant as indicated in the schematic above are as follows:
1. Cooling Tower
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2. Cooling Water Pum
3. Transmission Lin
4. Transform
5. Electric Generat
6. Low Pressure Turbi
7. Condensate Pressure Pum
8. Condens
9. Intermediate Pressure Turbi
10. Steam Governor Val
11. High Pressure Turbi
12. De-aerat
13. Feed Hea
14. Coal Convey
15. Coal Hopp
16. Coal Mi
17. Boiler Dru
18. Bottom Ash Hopp
19. Super-hea
20. Forced Draft F
21. Re-hea
22. Air Inta
23. Economiz
24. Air Pre-Hea
25. Electrostatic Precipita
26. Induced Draft F
27. Chimney Sta
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1.1.4 Bituminous It is high carbon coal with carbon content ranging from 60 to 80%, high calorific
value of around 24 to 33MJ/kg and a low moisture content of just around 3%. Ash content varies
between 15 and 35% Due to these characteristics it is widely used in power generation plants and also in
making metallurgical coke.
1.1.5 Anthracite It is the highest rank coal. With nearly 92 to 98% carbon, it has a high heat content
of nearly 35MJ/kg.
S. No. Name of Coal
Field/Colliery
GCV of
Coal
Proximate Analysis HGI
Kcal/kg Moisture (%) Ash (%) Volatile (%)
1 Raniganj 4900 - 5300 4 - 9 10 - 25 30 - 40 40 - 50
2 Talcher 4600 - 4900 7 - 9 28 - 38 27 - 31 60 - 66
3 Singrauli 4450 - 4800 9 - 10 21 - 24 28 - 29 50 - 65
4 Singareni 4000 - 4400 7 - 10 28 - 42 25 - 35 44 - 60
5 Neyveli 2900 - 3300 30 - 60 2 - 15 20 - 26
Table 1.1 Analysis of different types of Indian coals
1.2 Boiler Ash
Boiler ash is a generic term applied to many types of ash produced by the burning of various materials.
They are 4 general types of boiler ash commonly available, each with its own chemical and
environmental characteristics:
Incinerator Ash produced from burning MSW (Municipal Solid Waste, i.e. Garbage) as a
waste disposal method
Tire Ash produced from burning shredded tires for fuel in power generating plants
Wood Ash from boilers where wood (or bark) is used as a heating source.
Coal Ash from coal powered electrical generating power plants, actually two forms,
bottom ash and fly ash
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1.2.1 Coal Ash This type of ash is produced from burning coal for electrical power generation and
is the waste product that results. There are two primary forms, bottom ash and fly ash. Bottom ash
accumulates at the bottom of the burner while fly ash is collected in Air pre-heater hoppers, Duct
Hoppers, Electrostatic Precipitator Hoppers and stack hoppers. They have very different chemical and
physical properties and are the inorganic constituents of the burned fuel that are not completely
combusted.
For coal based thermal power plant, the quantity of ash varies from 12% to 46% of the total coal burned
depending largely on the quality of coal used.
1.2.1. a. Bottom Ash It is the non combustible components of coal which end up as ash or form
clinkers which stick to the hot walls of coal burning furnace during its operation. Bottom ash
accounts for nearly 12 to 15% of the total ash generated.
Fig. 1.2 SEM Images of Bottom Ash
1.2.1. b. Fly Ash The finer particles of ash which are carried away with the flue gases and
collected by Electrostatic Precipitators is termed as Fly Ash. Fly ash accounts for nearly 75 to 80%
of the total ash generated. The particle size varies between 10 to 76 microns.
Fig. 1.3 SEM Images of Fly Ash
Rest of the ash is collected in economizer, air pre-heater, duct and stack hoppers.
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The major components/equipments which form a part of hydraulic bottom ash system include:
2.1.1. a. Water Impounded Bottom Ash (BA) Hopper Water impounded bottom ash hopper
is the heart of bottom ash handling system. BA hoppers are made of refractory lined heavy steel
plates and are generally of V, double V/W or triple V shape. The hoppers are generally sized
for 6 to 8 hours active storage capacity.
The hot, burning bottom ash clinkers that fall from the furnace are quenched and fractured when
they come in contact with the cool water. Twice in a shift of every 8 hours, the bottom ash discharge
system is put into operation for typical 500/600 MW plant. The collected ash is discharge through a
feed gate located at the sloping portion of each V section. Below each feed gate, a crusher is
provided to grind the oversize clinkers prior to entering the jet pump. A jetpulsion pump is used to
convey the resulting slurry of ash and water through pipeline to slurry sump for further conveying to
a distant pond.
Fig. 2.2 Water Impounded Bottom Ash Hopper
The major components/systems which form a part of BA Hopper are:
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Seal Water Trough Conventional boilers operate at a certain negative pressure. In order
to maintain the negative pressure, BA hoppers are provided with a seal water trough which
acts as a sealing arrangement for the boiler. It is provided at the top of BA hopper to prevent
ingress of air. A typical view of seal water trough is shown in above picture.
Fig. 2.3 BA Hopper Discharge
Poke Holes & Inspection Windows Poke holes are provided on the side of each V
section of the hopper. It facilitates in removal of the erstwhile hot clinkers which get stuck to
the sides of hopper. Inspection windows enable to monitor the interior of bottom ash hopper.
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Refractory Cooling Water System Cooling water is continuously circulated around the
refractory lining provided inside the bottom ash hopper to maintain its temperature in order
to ensure proper functioning and enhance the operation life of lining.
Make Up Water Connection The bottom ash hoppers are provided with a continuous
source of water in order to maintain the temperature of water (generally at 60 C) and also to
cool the ash. As cooling of ash takes place, the water temperature increases. Therefore, in
order to ensure effective cooling of further ash being collected, water at a lower temperature
is continuously fed into BA hopper.
BA Overflow System As make up water is continuously fed into the BA hopper to ensure
the permissible temperature, continuous overflow of water shall take place in the BA hopper.
This water is collected in an overflow weir box, which also acts as a sealing arrangement for
hopper (similar to the seal water trough). The water is collected in BA overflow sump and
further transferred to the clarifier/tube-settler by centrifugal pumps for clarification and
reuse. Generally 15 minutes storage capacity is provided in the overflow sump.
Jetting and Slope Nozzles Water nozzles are provided along the walls of BA hopper in
order to prevent the ash from sticking onto them.
2.1.1. b. Crushers/Clinker Grinders A clinker grinder is provided at the bottom of BA hopper
in order to break the oversized ash clinkers to a pre-defined value (generally less than 25mm) to
ensure easy handling and conveying of ash slurry. Crushers can be of two types single roll crusher
and double roll crusher.
Fig. 2.4 Clinker Grinder
2.1.1. c. Jetpulsion Pump It is a venturi type device which utilizes high pressure water supply
to convey abrasive solids. It is provided below the clinker grinders for conveying bottom ash slurry
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to the ash pond/dewatering bins. It is a convergent-divergent nozzle with ash slurry fed from top
through bottom ash hopper and high pressure water for transporting slurry from other side. .
Fig. 2.5 Jetpulsion Pump
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bar. Scraper bar chain connector is an open type horn type which surrounds the horizontal link of
drive chain. The chain and scraper bar connectors are protected by a chain shield. Shield is an angled
steel fabrication welded to the side of trough and protruding above chain. It deflects large pieces of
material away from the chain and also helps to prevent ash from accumulation around the chain
thereby reducing wearing of the chain and ensuring smoother operation.
Fig. 2.8 Scraper Bar and Connector
2.1.2. c. Chain and Connecting Link Depending upon the quantity of ash to be handled,
chain sizes are decided. The chains are case hardened can withstand high shock loads. Chain
connecting links are of the same size as chain links. The connectors are secured onto the chain with
the help of roll pins.
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Fig. 2.9 Chain and Connecting Link
2.1.2. d. Drive Sprocket Chain is driven through the drive sprockets. The sprocket teeth are
adjustable and can be adjusted to match with the worn out chain thereby ensuring smooth operation
of unit.
Fig. 2.10 Drive Sprocket
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2.1.2. e. Idler Wheel They are used to support and guide the chain where the chain changes its
direction. Idlers at the base of dewatering ramp also include a scraper which removes the ash from
idler grooves before the chain comes into contact with the wheel. This prevents the chain from
slipping off. The top of scraper is sloped inward so as to prevent ash from collecting on it.
Fig. 2.11 Idler Wheel with scraper
2.1.2. f. Drive Unit Electric or hydraulic motors are used to drive the conveyor through a
helical/planetary-gear reducer. The speed and torque of the motor are adjustable in order to meet the
boiler output.
Fig. 2.12 Drive Unit
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2.1.2. g. Chain Tensioner It gives an indication of the level of chain wear. It is also provided
with an arrangement for manual adjustment of chain tension in order to compensate for elongation of
the chain. Chain tensioner can be manual as well as hydraulic type depending on conveyor capacity
handled.
Fig. 2.13 Chain Tensioner
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enclosure and ash is cooled, while conveying, by a small controlled amount of ambient air that flows
by natural draft into the extractors casing through the inlet valves.
The chief component of extractor is the pan conveyor which receives and extracts the ash falling
from the boiler. The pan conveyor is enclosed inside the extractors external casing that is
completely sealed, thus preventing any uncontrolled infiltration of ambient air, and in the same time
preventing any leakage of ash or gas to the outside atmosphere. From the pan conveyor the ash is
discharged onto a primary crusher for size reduction and is then conveyed and processed further to a
final destination in accordance with the specific needs of the user.
Fig. 2.16 Dry Bottom Ash Extractor
2.1.3. c. Drag Chain This is an additional feature which prevents the build-up of fine ash/dust
on the bottom floor of extractor casing. The Drag Chain consists of two lateral chains connected by
scraper bars that sweep the accumulated dust over the extractor floor to the extractors head section,
where it is discharged into the primary crusher. Among the Dry Bottom Ash Handling System
vendors, this feature is offered by only a few vendors. It is indicated in the Fig. 2.14.
2.1.3.d. Pan Conveyor It is made up of stainless steel mesh belt, which carries partially
overlapping steel pans forming a virtually sealed belt conveyor. The basic concept of the pan
conveyor is similar to a traditional belt conveyor. The conveyor is supported by carrying idlers
across its entire width, in order to withstand heavy mechanical impacts. All bearings are fitted
outside the casing to protect them from heat and to allow easy maintenance. The driving force is
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transmitted by friction between the head pulley and the belt, while a pneumatic take-up device on the
tail pulley supplies a constant tension.
Fig. 2.17 Pan Conveyor
2.1.3. e. Primary Crusher A single-roller primary crusher serves to reduce the size of big ash
lumps to a maximum outlet size of approx. 80mm. The single-roller crusher is designed to handle the
largest possible range of friable materials. As ash falls onto the crusher, the rotating cam teeth shear
and split the ash clinkers against an anvil plate. The curved anvil plate acts to produce perpendicular
forces at all angles of contact between the cams, ash and plate. The crushed ash then drops through
the clearance between the rotor and the anvil plate into the downstream equipment. As the cams
rotate and mesh with the combing plate, crushed ash is efficiently cleared from the cams. The wear
parts (teeth, anvil plate etc.) are made of materials with a high temperature and abrasion resistance,
which guarantees a long life.
Fig. 2.18 Crusher
2.1.3. f. Second stage cooler cum extractor The second stage coolers are totally enclosed
mechanical conveyors, generally very similar in construction as the bottom ash extractor, which are
utilized in case there is further cooling and conveying requirement.
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Fig. 2.19 Layout of Second Stage Cooler
2.1.3. g. Vibrating Feeder The vibrating feeder is a machine with free oscillation, driven by
electromagnetic vibrators. The vibrating feeder is used for metered withdrawing of bulk material
from silos, hoppers etc., especially in all those applications where very precise volumetric or weight
metering is required.
The movement induced in the vibratory feeders is of unidirectional type with amplitude of
oscillation in relation to the weight of the vibrating feeder and the supply voltage of the
electromagnetic vibrator coming from the electronic controllers. The capacity can be remote-
adjusted instantaneously during operation by means of an electronic thyristor control board,
equipped with a voltage stabilizer.
Flow rate is adjusted merely by varying the amplitude of oscillation of the feeder by means of
relative potentiometer.
Fig. 2.20 Vibrating Feeder
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Fig. 2.21 Working Principle of ESP (Corona Discharge, Smoke Ash)
Fig. 2.22 Electrostatic Precipitator
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Fly ash handling and evacuation systems play a very important role in ensuring the efficient
performance of ESPs.
2.2.2 Pneumatic Conveying Systems
Pneumatic conveying is basically an arrangement which enables the movement of dry material through
an enclosed pipeline by utilizing moving air. There are basically two modes of pneumatic conveying:
Dense Phase Conveying In this mode, material is conveyed in such a way that the ratio of mass of
material being transported and mass of air being utilized is very high. In such cases, the material
conveying takes place at lower velocities, thereby reducing the amount of erosion in the enclosing
vessel (generally pipes). Dense phase mode can further be classified as follows:
Moving Bed/Dune Flow This type of flow is possible in case the material being
conveyed has good air retention properties. In this case, the material is conveyed in the
form of dunes on the bottom of pipeline or as a pulsatile moving bed.
Fig. 2.23 Moving Bed/Dune Flow
Slug/Plug Flow This type of flow is possible in case the material being conveyed has
good permeability. Here, the material is conveyed as full bore plugs, separated by air
gaps.
Fig. 2.24 Slug/Plug Flow
Suspended/Dilute Phase Conveying In this mode, the material is conveyed while being completely
suspended in the conveying air. Very high conveying velocities are possible in this mode of
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conveying. The ratio of mass of material being conveyed and the quantity of air being utilized is
very low. Practically any material can be conveyed in dilute phase, provided that requisite amount of
conveying air is available.
Fig. 2.25 Suspended/Dilute Phase
Pneumatic conveying systems are the best solution for conveying of fly ash in a thermal power plant and
are widely adopted nowadays.
There are mainly two types of Pneumatic Conveying Systems:
Vacuum Systems (Negative pressure) In this system, the ash is transported in an air stream at less
than atmospheric pressure. Vacuum pumps are used to create the required negative pressure. The
major limitation of this system is the vacuum levels. High vacuum levels cannot be generated by
vacuum pumps. Thereby, there is a limitation of conveying distance and conveying capacity in
vacuum systems.
Pressure Systems In this system, a positive displacement blower/compressor is used to generate air
at high pressures for pushing of material through pipelines. These types of systems can be used to
convey large quantities of materials over long distances.
Thermal power plants utilize a combination of both above systems for conveying of fly ash. The fly ash
collected in ESP, Air Pre Heater and Duct hoppers is evacuated through a vacuum system and conveyed
to an intermediate surge hopper. A vacuum pump is utilized for this purpose. There after ash is separated
from conveying air through bag filters and collected in intermediate surge hoppers from where it is
subsequently conveyed under pressure to the storage silos for final disposal. The conveying air pressure
is generated by Transport Air Compressors/Blowers. From the storage silos, ash can be loaded onto
trucks and sent for final disposal or reuse in cement or other industries.
A typical flow scheme of Fly Ash Handling System is as given below:
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Fig. 2.26 Vacuum-Pressure System for Fly Ash Disposal
The major components of Fly Ash Handling System are as follows:
2.2.2. a. Vacuum Pumps It is utilized to generate a vacuum which is then utilized to suck the
fly ash collected below ESP hoppers. Conventionally liquid ring type vacuum pumps are employed
for vacuum conveying as they are more apt to handle carry over ash with air sucked.
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2.2.2. b. Air Intake Valve It is a spring loaded valve which can be adjusted to control the air
flow in vacuum system conveying line.
Fig. 2.27 Air Intake Valve
2.2.2. c. Ash Intake/Material Handling Valve It is a metallic seated valve used to feed the
ash in the conveyor line. It can also control the ash feed rates.
Fig. 2.28 Ash Intake Valve
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2.2.2. d. Air Lock Vessel Once the ash is collected in the intermediate surge hopper, it is
transferred to the air lock vessel. Once the air lock vessel is filled, the vessel inlet is closed and
pressurized by compressed air for conveying.
Fig. 2.29 Air Lock Vessel
2.2.2. e. Bag Filter/Separator Assembly It is equipment utilized to remove coarse ash from
the conveying air and then filter out the remaining fine ash. Ash laden air enters the bag filter and is
collected on bag filter due to adsorption phenomenon. The ash gets accumulated on the bags and is
dislodged through intermittent reverse pulse jetting of instrument air and is collected below.
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Fig. 2.30 Bag Filter/Separator
2.2.2. f. Branch Isolation/Line Segregating Valve It is a slide valve with a metallic slide
gate used for isolation of vacuum extraction line.
Fig. 2.31 Branch Isolation Valve
2.2.2. g. Transport/Conveying Air Compressors Oil free rotary screw type compressors are
used for generating high pressure conveying air for ash transportation to silo(s).
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2.2.2. h. Vent Filter for Silo They are used for venting silos into which material is conveyed.
Conveying air, fluidizing air and air displaced by ash is vented through the vent filter. As the ash
fills the silo, it displaces air. The air, carrying the finer ash particles, rises in the bag area. As the air
passes through the bags, dust and ash is captured and gets collected on the outer surface of the bags.
The air is vented into the atmosphere. Ash collected on the filter bags is returned to the silo by using
pulses of high pressure air.
Fig. 2.32Vent Filter for Silo
2.2.2. i. Pressure-Vacuum Relief Valve Fly ash storage silos are provided with a pressure-
vacuum relief valve on the top to prevent built-up of excessive pressure or vacuum in the silo. Such
a situation may cause damage to the storage silo. Due to some fault in the unloading equipment, a
negative pressure may be built-up in the silo and on exceeding a pre-set value, the relief valve allows
air to enter the silo and thereby negate the negative pressure built. Similarly, if pressure exceeds a
pre-set limit, relief valve allows air to escape from the silo.
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Fig. 2.33 Pressure-Vacuum Relief Valve
2.2.2. j. ESP//Silo Fluidizing Blowers and Heaters Fluidization is a process similar
to liquefaction whereby a granular material is converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic
fluid-like state. This process occurs when a fluid (in this case warm air) is passed up through the
granular material. Centrifugal blowers are used to generate low pressure air for fluidization purpose.
The heater unit connected at the discharge end of blower heats up the air to around 140C in order to
enhance the fluidization process.
2.2.2. k. Fluidizing Equipments They are provided at the bottom of storage silos in order to
assist the flow of material from silo outlet. Fluidizing media is diffuser stones/ceramic tiles with
pores for air entrance. They are arranged in such a way that it causes the aerated ash to move
towards the outlet.
Fig. 2.34 Fluidizing Pads Arrangement
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2.2.2.l. Rotary Unloader It is fitted at the bottom of fly ash silos and is utilized for
conditioning of ash before it is being unloaded onto open trucks for final removal. The dry ash is
mixed with water in order to prevent ash from escaping into the atmosphere while unloading onto
trucks. The equipment carries out mixing of ash and water through a tumbling action. It consists of a
rotary drum and a stationary scraper bar which removes the ash from surface of the drum causing
tumbling action and thereby mixing.
Fig. 2.35 Rotary Unloader
2.2.2. m. Telescopic/Dry Unloading Spout While unloading dry ash into closed trucks, an
unloading spout is utilized. It consists of a telescopic tube inside flexible, retractable outer tube. The
outer tube connects to the inlet flange of the closed tank. The telescopic tube is raised and lowered
through an electric winch. Ash discharges from the bin through the inner telescopic tube into the
truck. The displaced air from the truck enters the open space between the concentric tubes thereby
minimizing fugitive dust. Venting action can be assisted by an electric fan. High unloading rates are
possible with such arrangement.
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Fig. 2.36 Telescopic Spout
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Friction factor C as per William Hazans
Friction factor C for Ash Slurry Lines : 140.
Friction factor C for Drain / Sludge Lines : 130
Friction factor C for Recovery Water Lines : 120
Friction factor C for Bottom Ash Over-flow Lines : 120
Friction factor C for Water Lines : 100
Capacities of Various Tanks
Bottom Ash Over flow Tank : for 15 min
Slurry Sump (each compartment) : for 5 min
Ash Water Sump : for 30 min
Drain Sumps : for 10 min
Recovery Water Sump : for 30 min
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4 Utilization of Ash
Disposal of ash is one of the most serious environmental issues of present time. Huge quantities of ash
are generated in thermal power plants around the globe. Till around 1980s and 1990s, disposal of ash
in a low lying area (ash ponds) was generally followed. Large areas of lands, spanning thousands of
acres, were required for this purpose. Most of these ash ponds are already filled up by now. In addition
to the non-availability of land now, another problem which has come up is the contamination of ground
water and rivers due to the leaching of toxic minerals from these ash dumps. Small quantities of ash
have been found to be helpful to improve certain properties of soil increase its productivity. But, large
quantities of ash dumps results in permanent destruction of land resources.
In order to counter these problems, stricter environmental norms have been put into effect which calls
for treatment and recycling of ash instead of disposal. Various methods have been developed to which
are being used to make ash commercial use of ash possible.
4.1 Utilization of Bottom Ash
Bottom ash is a coarse gritty material which has a few possibilities for utilization which are as follows:
As a component in compost for improving the properties of soil. It has been found to be a
satisfactory substrate for growing ornamentals.
As an aggregate in road construction.
For making of concrete blocks used in construction work.
In cement gravel
In paving bricks
4.2 Utilization of Fly Ash
Recycling of fly ash has become an increasingly popular proposition mainly due to unavailability of
landfills and also the pollution control norms. The properties of fly ash like pozzolanic nature, spherical
shape and relative uniformity makes it an excellent engineering material.
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5 References
Training modules from National Power Training Institute
http://en.wikipedia.org/
Article on Pneumatic Conveying of Fly Ash in Thermal Power Plants by Sh. Girish
Bhagchandani, Dy. Manager, Mechanical Auxiliaries, PS-PEM, BHEL
Equipment Brochures from M/s United Conveyor Corporation (USA), M/s DCIPS (India), M/s
Magaldi Power SpA (Italy)