1

Familiar ways of classifying the elements

IA
IIA
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Y Rb Sr
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn La Cs Ba
B C N O F Ne Li Be
Al Si P S Cl Ar Na Mg
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Sc K Ca
Ac Fr Ra
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89
VIIIA
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
p
e
r
i
o
d
H
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
He
2
metals
non-metals
semi-conductors
(semi-metals; metalloids)
IA IIA
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
VIIIA
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Y Rb Sr
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Cs Ba
B C N O F Ne Li Be
Al Si P S Cl Ar Na Mg
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Sc K Ca
Fr Ra
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56
57-
71
72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88
89-
103
He H
1 2
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
transition elements
Alternatively...
COSMIC ABUNDANCE of the ELEMENTS
and NUCLEOSYNTHESIS February 3, 2005
2
Geochemical variations on the periodic table...
IA
IIA
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Y Rb Sr
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn La Cs Ba
B C N O F Ne Li Be
Al Si P S Cl Ar Na Mg
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Sc K Ca
Ac Fr Ra
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89
VIIIA
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
H
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
He
2
ABUNDANCE
abundant in cosmos but not in(on) Earth
major elements in Earth (>1 wt%)
~
trace elements (< 0.1%; some < 1 ppm)
~
minor elements in Earth (0.1 < conc < 1%)
~ ~
Al 13
Ga 31
400 atoms
10 atoms
6
Si 14
Ge 32
118 atoms
10 atoms
6
relative abundances of chemically
similar elements
SIZES OF ATOMS (IONIC RADII)
Sb Sn
In
At Po
Tl
Hg
As
O
Li
Be B C
Na Mg Al Si
K Ca
Ti
Sc
Rb
Cs
Fr
Sr
Ba
Ra
Y
La
Ac
Zr
Hf
Th
V
Ta
Pa
Nb
Cr
Mo
W
U
Mn
Tc
Re
Fe Co
Os Ir Pt
RuRh Pd
N
P
Au
Pb
Bi
Cd
Ag
Ni
Ge Ga
Zn
Cu
F
Cl
Br
I
S
Se
Te
Ionic radius increases coming out of the figure.
Sizes apply to the valence state that is most
common in natural systems.
"Host" mineral
(made of major
elements)
Trace elements
substitute into suit-
able lattice sites
IA
IIA
IIIB
IVB
VB
VIB
VIIB VIIIB IB IIB
IIIA
IVA
VA
VIA
VIIA
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Y Rb Sr
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn La Cs Ba
B C N O F Ne Li Be
Al Si P S Cl Ar Na Mg
Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Sc K Ca
Ac Fr Ra
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
87 88 89
VIIIA
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
p
e
r
i
o
d
H
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
He
2
3
highly volatile (atmophile)
moderately volatile
refractory
siderophile
These geochemical tendencies largely
determine where in the Earth many
elements are sequestered e.g.,
siderophile elements are concentrated
in the core; volatile elements were
partially lost from the Earth during its
hot early history.
4
Some general features of cosmic abundance curve

>75% of the mass of the universe is hydrogen
>99% is H + He
(note: These statements do not apply to the Earth)

Elemental abundances drop off exponentially with increasing atomic number (Z)
up to Z ~ 60; therafter remain ~constant

Li, Be & B show marked depletion relative to both higher and lower-Z elements

There is a pronounced abundance peak in the vicinity of Fe, as well as a few less
obvious peaks at higher Z

Even-Z elements are more abundant than their odd-Z neighbors

A Z N no. of stable isotopes
odd odd even 50
odd even odd 55
even odd odd 4
even even even 165!

COSMIC ABUNDANCES of the elements
atomic number, Z
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
Si
Fe
Pb
Th
U
l
o
g




r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e

(
S
i

=

1
0


)
6
1
0
0
-2
2
4
6
8
10
rare earth elements:
"odd-even" effect
La
Lu
5
l
o
g

o
f

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e

(
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

1
0


S
i

a
t
o
m
s
)
6
Z
cosmic abundances of the elements
(Anders & Ebihara, 1982)
even Z
odd Z
6
similarilty in composition of chondrites and solar atmosphere...
Note: This diagram is a useful illustration, but bear in mind that:
1) it is a log-log plot ( and just about anything can appear to be linear on such a plot!)
2) the chondrites represented are actually metamorphic rocks, so their composition
may not be "primitive" in all respects
O
Mg
Fe
S
Na
Al
Ca
Ni
Cr
Mn
P
Co
K
Ti
Zn
Cu
Ge
Sc
Sr
B
Rb
Ba
Y
Pb
Li
Ce
La
Be
Pr
Th
Tm
log relative abundance in C1 chondrites (Si = 10 )
6
10
-2 0 2 4 6 8
l
o
g




r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e

i
n

s
o
l
a
r

a
t
m
o
s
p
h
e
r
e


(
S
i

=

1
0



)
1
0
6
-2
0
2
4
6
8
*
*
Chondrites are the most "primitive" of meteorites -- i.e., ones we believe represent
the original, overall composition of the solar system. Five distinct types of chondrites
are recognized

.
red numbers: number of solar masses
green numbers: time on main sequence
M
A


S
E
Q
U
E


(
b
r
n
n
)
I
N
E
N
C
H

u
i
g
red
giants
white
dwarfs
blue
giants
red
dwarfs
SUN
22 Ma
68 Ma
232 Ma
1.6 Ga
9 Ga
9
5
3
1.5
4.4 4.2 4.0 3.8 3.6
0.1
1
10
100
1000
1E4
1E5
log surface temperature, K
l
u
m
i
n
o
s
i
t
y

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

S
u
n
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
He burning
"Burning" of hydrogen and helium in first-generation stars
First-generation stars are ones that have come together from an
"original" hydrogen-helium cloud that is, they do not represent "re-
processed" stellar material from a previous supernova explosion (the
Sun is actually a second-generation star). In first-generation stars,
hydrogen "burning" to produce helium occurs by these reactions:
H
1
1
H
1
1
+
H
2
1
+ energy
H
2
1
H
1
1
+
He
3
2
+ energy
He
3
2
He
3
2
+
He
4
2
H
1
1
H
1
1
+ energy
+ +
The elements as we know them are created in the interiors of stars...
7
8
On the main sequence, helium is the main product of hydrogen
burning. A gravitationally stable core of helium is produced in the star,
and hydrogen burning continues on the surface of the core. As H-
burning migrates outward, the luminosity of the star increases slightly:
If the star is massive enough to achieve the required temperature and
density in the core, is initiated and heavier elements
can be synthesized
This process is exceedingly inefficient because is unstable and
-16
decays with a half-life of only 10 s. What probably happens is that
another helium nucleus is immediately absorbed to make a carbon
nucleus:
or
helium burning
He
4
2
+
He
4
2
Be
8
4
Be
8
4
+
Be
8
4
He
4
2
C
12
6
+
He
4
2
C
12
6
He
4
2
He
4
2
+
hydrogen burning
Note: These helium nuclei are actually positively-charged alpha
particles and repel each other strongly (remember Mr. Coulomb?).
Extreme temperatures and pressures are required to get them to
fuse: He burning can occur only in stars having masses of 80% or
more of our Sun. This "triple-alpha" process is the key to
making heavier elements...
He
core
H burning
here
(endothermic!)
9
He burning
here
carbon
core
carbon + some
heavier elements
outer envelope super-
heated; greatly expands
1 2 3 4
nuclear fuel exhausted; star
collapses to white dwarf
5
helium burning
He burning sustains red giants
for a few 10s of Ma at most
Somewhat heavier elements...
If a red giant is sufficiently massive, successively heavier elements can be
synthesized by addition of alpha particles (He nuclei) to carbon...
56 56
This "alpha-process" can continue up to Ni (which decays to Fe), but
elements heavier than Fe cannot be made by this process because the
repulsion between large, positively-charged nuclei and a particles is too strong.
Note that the nuclei forming by this process are all even-Z. Smaller
abundances of odd-Z nuclei are produced by reactions among the fusion
products, such as:
+
He
4
2
C
12
6
16
O
8
16
O
8
+
He
4
2
20
Ne
10
etc.
+
H
1
1
C
12
6
23
Na
11
C
12
6
+
and
16
O
8
+
31
P
15
16
O
8
H
1
1
+
This creates further possibilities, e.g...
and
+ H
1
1
C
12
6
13
N
7
+
g then
13
N
7
13
C
6
+
+
b
n
+
16
O
8
+ +
13
C
6
He
4
2
n
This type of reaction is
crucial because neutrons are
a product! (more soon)
10
Later generations of stars and the CNO cycle
That's about as much as we need to know about first-generation stars. The
key thing to remember is that when these explode, they contribute elements
heavier than H and He to the interstellar gas, so the next generation of stars can
begin with a different, more "versatile" fuel. Subsequent stars can burn hydrogen
in the CNO cycle, in which hydrogen nuclei are added to carbon to produce first
nitrogen and then oxygen. This mode of H burning requires less extreme
conditions than the proton-proton fusion reactions on p. 6. The Sun is now
burning H in the CNO cycle:
+
H
1
1
C
12
6
13
N
7
13
N
7
decays
C
13
6
C
13
6
+ H
1
1
14
N
7
15
O
8
decays
15
N
7
14
N
7
+ H
1
1
15
O
8
He
4
2
+
15
N
7
+ H
1
1
C
12
6
4 12
end result: 4 protons fused to make He; C "released" for future use
H-burning
He-burning
C-burning
Ne-burning
O-burning
Si-burning
H-burning
unburned H
He-burning
unburned He
H-burning
unburned H
process
fuel products
temperature (K)
H-burning
He-burning
C-burning
Ne-burning
O-burning
Si-burning
H
He
C
Ne
O
Mg to S
He
C, O
O, Ne, Na, Mg
O, Mg
Mg to S
elements near Fe
6E7
2E8
8E8
15E8
2E9
3E9
11
Z
N
N


=


Z
"
n
d
o
f

t
b
i
l
i
y
b
a

s
a
t
"
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
Synthesis of heavy nuclei by neutron capture:
the and in second-generation stars s- r-processes
Elements heavier than Fe: NEUTRON CAPTURE
If there is a source of neutrons, the following type of reaction can occur
If a nucleus absorbs too many neutrons, it will eventually become too neutron-
rich to be stable and decay by beta decay. Through neutron-capture reactions, it
is possible to work up through most of the periodic table.
We recognize two distinct types of neutron-capture processes, which differ in
terms of the neutron flux required:
s-process: moderate neutron fluxes in the late red-giant stage
r-process: very high neutron fluxes in supernovae
A A+1
X + neutron = X
z z
neutron
nucleus
new, heavier
nucleus
12
Cd
48
In
49
Sn
50
Sb
51
62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69
70 71 72
73 74
s-process path
r-process
stable
unstable to
beta decay
N
Z
Creating heavy elements by neutron capture: An example...
Fe + n (stable)
56
Fe
57
Fe + n (stable)
57
Fe
58
Fe + n (t = 45 d)
58
Fe
59

The way things proceed from here depends upon the neutron flux (no. of
neutrons available). , the next step would be: If the flux is limited
Fe
59
Co + e + n
59
Co + n (t = 5 y)
59
Co
60

Co
60
Ni + e + n ( Ni is stable)
60
60
However, (lots of neutrons available), we can get
59 59
past Fe: instead of decaying to Co, it absorbs another neutron...
if the neutron flux is large
Fe + n (t = 3E5 y)
59
Fe
60

Fe + n (t = 6 m)
60
Fe
61

Co
61
Ni + e + n ( Ni is stable)
61
61
Fe
61
Co + e + n (t =1.65 h)
61

So...
We got to a
different place
because we
had more
neutrons
available
13
N
Z
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
68 69 70 71
71 72 73
63 64 65 66
60 61 62 63 64 65
70
69
59 60
64 65 66 67 68 69
r-process
s-process
n capture
b decay
b decay
Z
N
SUMMARY
neutron capture
stellar fusion
spallation
Big Bang
atomic number
r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
14
15
Neutron Activation: artificial nucleosynthesis
An example of neutron capture followed by beta decay (as in the s-process)...
Neutron activation is an analytical technique used extensively in the bio-,
geo- and materials sciences for measurement of trace concentrations (e.g.
1-100 ppm) of elements in a wide variety of materials. As the name suggests,
it involves the use of a neutron flux in a research reactor to activate the
element of interest. This really means that the element (nucleus) of interest
is transmuted -- by absorbing a neutron -- into a heavier nucleus that is
radioactive. This activated nucleus is then detected by recording the
gamma ray emitted when it disintegrates by beta decay.
The sequence just described (neutron absorption followed by beta-decay)
is analogous to a step along the s-process path (see class hand-out). The
only difference in the case of neutron activation is that the source of neutrons
is a man-made reactor (and the target nuclei are different).
Heres an example: Analysis of SiO glass for sodium impurities...
2
mostly SiO with
2
a few Na atoms
neutrons
23 24 23 24
Na is activated by conversion to Na: Na + N Na
24
( Na is radioactive)
Step 1 Place glass sample in reactor
24
Step 2 Detect Na decay events by counting
g rays produced by the reaction
glass sample
g detector
24 - 24
Na (b ,g) Mg
11
12
23 24
N
Z
Na
11
23
Na
11
24
Mg
12
24
23
activation of Na by
neutron absorption
b-decay
(t = 15h)
1/2
On the familiar Z-N diagram...