Recent Advances in Materials for use in Permanent Magnet Machines - A Review

Uday S. Deshpande
Black & Decker (US.), Inc.
701 East Joppa Road
Towson, MD 21286
Abshuct - A review of the statwf-theart in materials used
io permanent magnet machines is presented. On-going research
lor new materials is also discussed. Io the end, the impact of
these and the upcoming materials on motor design ls disenssed.
I. INTRODUCTION
With the increasing use of motors in the automotive sectors
and the wide variety of applications that are involved, the
demands on the materials have changed. In the automotive
industry today, there is an increasing trend towardsa more
electric car. Increasing numbers of features in the modem
automobile are being motorized. It is said that there are an
average of 30 electric motors per car today with the number
likely to increase to over 100 by the end of this decade. The
applications runthe gamut fromwindow-lift actuators, power
seats, power doors, antilock brakes, electric power steering,
integral starter-altemator to the main traction motor in
electric vehicles. In meeting the various performance and
cost requirements, the materials used in the motors need to
evolve as well.
This paper reviews the recent developments in materials
for use in permanent magnet machines. In patticular,
permanent magnet materials and soft magnetic materials are
discussed
The permanent magnets are broadly classified as
ferrites, AlNiCo, or rare earths (including Samarium Cobalt
(SmCo) and Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB)). This paper
ignores AlNiCo and only briefly looks at SmCo because of
their very limited use in automotive applications. The typical
range of properties for ferrite and %eo grades is shown in
Fig. 1.
Femta are typically Barium Femte or Strontium
Femte and can be made by injection or compression molding
or sintering with the properties typically increasing to
remnant flux density B, of 4kG, intrinsic coercivity H, of
4kOe and maximum energy product BH- of - 5MGOe.
These magnets have poor low temperature properties and a
reasonably high Curie temperature of - 450C. The magnets
are low cost and the technology is well established.
Rare-earth magnets (NdFeB) can similarly be made by
injection or compression molding or sintering. This broadly
classifies themas %bonded neo or sintered neo magnets.
The bonded neo magnets have typical properties of 6.8kG
(B3, 15kOe (HJ and -10 MGOe ((BH)-). They have
poorer properties at higher temperatures but perform well at
lower temperatures compared to the ferrite magnets. Sintered
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Hci W)
Fig. I - Range ofpmpcrtics of the diffeml -el grades
ne0 magnets have typical properties of 12kG (BJ, 20kOe
(HJ and - 30MGOe ((BH)-) and like the bonded neo types
have poorer properties at higher temperatures. They typically
can handle temperahues higher than the bonded ne0 magnets
but are limited by the relatively lower Curie temperature of
-320OC. Neo magnets are more expensive than the ferrite
magnets.
Note: It may be a little misleading to list the typical
properties as above because of the range that these magnets
cover as is evident fromFig. 1.
Soft magnetic materials have been fairly unchanged over the
years. Cold rolled magnetic lamination ( C W ) is still
widely used, as is silicon-based iron with the various
additives. These are characterized primarily by core loss
(Wkg) and permeability. Typical properties are - SWkg for
core loss and a permeability of - 2000 at 15kG and 50/60 Hz.
II. NEW DEVELOP-
In the opinion of the author, most of the major
developments in recent times have been in permanent
magnets. Soft magnetic materials have seen improvements in
processing for ease of manufacturing and corrosion resistance
but tittle has changed at the fundamental property levels.
(Materials like Co-Fe and Vanadium Permandur are not
considered due to their lack of use in automotive
applications). One change is in Soft Magnetic Composites
(SMC) and this will be discussed shortly.
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A. Permanent Magnets
FromFig. 1 we see that there is a gap between ferrite and
bonded ne0 magnets and again between bonded ne0 and
sintered neo magnets. Femte magnets are the lowest cost but
also have the lowest properties of the magnets under
consideration here. Bonded ne0 magnets address some of the
concems of femtes but are more expensive and are limited at
higher temperahues. Sintered neo have highest properties as
well as cost and are also limited by temperature. Ne0
magnets are also affected by corrosion, which necessitates
special corrosion resistant coating prior to use. Most of the
development has been to bridge these gaps.
I. Ferrite Magnets
The low cost ferrite magnets have been the ones
primarily used in automotive applications but bonded ne0
magnets are making in-roads intot hi s domain by focusing on
enhancing their higb temperature pmpenies and lowering
cost The main issue with ferrite magnets has been the
relatively lower properties (B,, a,, and BH& and the
tendency to face demagnetization at lower temperatures.
This last feature is a concern in automotive applications
where operation at -40C is routinely required. In response,
the femte magnet developers have focused on increasing
magnet strength and low temperature capabilities. One
approach has been the use of additives such as Cobalt (CO)
and Lanthanum-Cobalt (LatCo) to the base powder.
Addition of CO essentially increases B, while maintaining H,
while the addition of La +CO increases both B, and H,. This
is typically done for sintered femtes. Fig. 2a shows range of
ferrite magnets fiom Groupe Carbonne LorraineilJgimag.
The figure shows the grade where only CO is added and the
grades where both La- is added. The sintered femtes with
CO or LaKo additives reach a B, of 4300 - 4500 Gauss and
H, Of 4000 - 5000 Oe.
U. Bonded Nea Magnets
The primary issue with bonded ne0 is achieving full
densification and good higb temperature performance. The
use of a plastic binder material causes a reduction in the
achievable density and a limitation of the maximum operating
temperature. Addi ti ~~l l y, bonded ne0 magnets fall between
sintered femtes and sintered neo. The effort then has been to
address both ends of the spectrum - reduce cost to compete
with ferrite magnets and increase the operating temperature
rating as well as magnetic properties to compete with the
sintered neo magnets.
Magneqnench, the cbief producer of the bonded ne0
powder has been working in both these regards.
Improvements in processing the powder as well as other
strategic decisions have helped address cost issues and
improvements in processing and advancements in coating
technologies have helped address performance issues.
Magnequench in conjunction with Daido Steel Co. recently
announced the development of new anisotropic powders
using the Magnequench rapid quenching process along with a
special plastic deformation process that resulted in magnets
with BH,, of 22MGOe with maximum operating
temperature of 100C and BH, of 17MGOe with maximum
operating temperature of 125T [l], [9].
Another candidate for making bonded neo magnets is
the so-called HDDR process initially developed by
Mitsubishi Materials Co. NdFeB powder is subjected to
hydrogen under pressure (hydrogenation), which causes the
powder to become very brittle (disproportionation) and thus
allows milling to fmer particles. The hydrogen is then
desorbed and the NdFeB recombined to produce anisotropic
bonded ne0 magnets with energy product of around
ISMGOe. Recently Aichi Steel Corp. reported a modified
HDDR process called the d-HDDR where they controlled the
pressure at which the hydrogenation takes place. This
allowed themto achieve greater anisotropy and makebonded
ne0 magnets with a BH, of - 25MGOe [l].
Group ho l d uses a different approach in their bonded
magnets offering where a femte-neo blend is used. In these
ferrite-neo hybrids, NdFeB powder is blended with the
strontium (or barium) ferrite. This results in isotropic
magnets in which the ferrite and NdFeB compensate each
others temperature characteristics and provide a more
temperature stable magnet. The cbaracteristics are affected by
the relative percentages of the blends. This is shown in Fig.
2b. These magnets address both the increased flux
requirement and increased temperature resistance
requirement but are weaker than the bonded ne0 magnets
described above [4].
III. Sintered Ne0 Magnets
Developments in sintered ne0 mapets have focused on
improving strength and high temperature capability. With the
increasing use of high powerhigh performance automotive
applications like eleceic power steering, integrated starter
alternator, mction motors for EV/HEV, the demand for high
temperahue performance has increased. With a Curie
temperature of - 320C, this has been a challenge. Recently
Sumitomo reported magnets capable of operation up to 2ZOT
with 250C capable magnets also being developed [I], [8].
From a strength point of view, the theoretical m
energy product for a single NdlFel.BI crystal is 64MGOe.
This gives a B, of about 1.6T. Recently Kaueko (Sumitomo)
and Rodewald (Vacumschmelze) reported magnet properties
in the neighborhood of 15.19kG ( B3, 9.8kOe&) and
56MGOe (BH-) [l], [2], [3], [SI. They achieved this by
optimizing the alloy composition, improved domain
alignment by the use of alternating pulsed orienting field and
optimizing the sintering conditions to optimize the
microstructure of the magnets. These values are close to the
practical limit for sintered NdFeB magnets.
A major thrust in research has been in processing to
improve domain alignment and powder purity to achieve the
high performance magnets. Another area of focus has been
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, - _. _..-
Fig. 2b - "Farite-NCO" mapel material from Group h o l d 141.
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to improve the temperature capability. The use of
dysprosium is cmmon to increase H, but this is an
expensive element. Materials processing to use other
elements in place of Dy are being studied to address this issue
as well. Fig. 3 shows the range of properties for sintered neo
magnets fromShinEtsu Magnetics [7]. The line is the l i t
on properties that can be reasonably achieved in the opinion
of the author.
Corrosion has been a major issue for NdFeB magnets.
Various coatings have been studied and developed and has
largely ameliorated t hi s concern. In recent times, the use of
hydrogen fuel cells bas created a new concern for corrosion
protection. Hydrogen is extremely corrosive to NdFeB, a fact
that is exploited in the HDDR process. Outside of that, the
effect is detrimental. ShhEtsu Magnetics bas repoIted
development of a new coating that has shown promise in
protecting against hydrogen [7]. More details on this new
coating are forthcoming. Typical coatings used are epoxy
coating, nickel plating, a l u " chromate ion vapor
deposition. The relative merits are based on the application.
In the opinion of the author, the aluminum ion vapor
deposition with chromate coating works very well for
automotive application offering good corrosion resistance,
good adhesion properties and good dimensional control.
Most voice coil motor magnets tend to use nickel coating and
the epoxy coating tends to be acceptable for general industrial
applications.
W. Other Materinls
Other developments have been to get away fkomNdFeB
base to counter supply issues as well as extend the l i ts that
are inherent. In this regard, work is being done using
Sm2Fe17N3 (Samarium Iron Nitride (SmFeN)). Its properties
can theoretically surpass those of NdFeB but the processing
is much morecomplex and not yet suitable for commercial
production. Sumitomo Metal Miniig CO has produced
injection molded isotropic SmFeN magnets with an energy
product of - 15MGOe by a reduction & diffusion process.
Work is on going in the study of magnets made with a
combination of SmFeN/FeN and it bas been reported that
properties of SmFeNFeN combmation can theoretically
reachanenergyproductof I5OMGOeandaB.of2.IT [SI.
Nanocomposites (combmation of had and soft
magnetic materials) are another development where the
potential for very high-energy product exists. Soft magnetic
material is added to the hard phase to reduce dependence on
the rare-earth elements. The high saturation magnetization of
the soft phase and the high anisotropy of the hard phase
combine to offer the potential for BH, approaching
-90MGOe. Prof. Sam Liu of the University of Dayton
reported making powder level samples with a BH,, of
93MGOe [I], [Z]. Recently (February 2003), Prof. Liu
reported making nanocomposite magnets with a BH- of
35MGOe 161. The research seems to hold the promise of
living up to its potential but more development is needed
Samarium Cobalt magnets are briefly mentioned for
their inherent ability to operate at high temperatures.
Currently the strongest SmCo magnet is -28MGOe and can
operate up to -3OOOC. SmCo magnets capable of operating up
to 500C have been reported by Electron Energy Magnets
having hear 2" quadrant B-H characteristics up to the
operating temphue limit. On going research is focussed
on increasing the maximumenergy product over 30MGOe
and developing temperature compensated SmCo magnet
grades for operation up to 50OoC [l], [Z]. Fig. 4 shows the
historical progress of rare earth magnets.
Years
Fig.4DNClopmntsinrarc-earthma%nctsovertheycars(CaunesyOfPmf:
S. Lis. University of Dq"
B. Sop Magnetic Materialr
As mentioned earlier, there bas been no fundamental
change in soft magnetic material other than processing. Most
of the development in this area has been to improve
production process to increase consistency, develop better
coatings, and reduce costs. The limits on the steel arethe
same -peak saturation flux densities for the CRML grades of
- 2T and peak permeability of 2000-3000 at 1.ST. The core
loss is a fimction of composition, thickness, processing and is
typically 5Wkg. As mentioned earlier, Co-Fe steels and the
like are not considered here due to their relatively specialized
use.
The one new development has been in soft magnetic
composites where iron particles of -150pm in size coated
with a thin inorganic surface insulation along with various
organic additives are pressed in a die and then annealed and
cured to formthe desired pari (e.g. stator of the motor). This
material has inherently lower permeability (- 500) and
saturation flux density (1.8T) than lamination steel and
slightly bigber core loss (- 10WKg). It also has a lower
mechanical strength compared to lamination steel [lo], [I ll.
Fig. 5 compares typical B-H curves for lamination steel and
SMC material.
The lower initial permeability and the lower saturation is
easily seen fromFig. 5. Despite the seeming drawbacks of
this material it offers some interesting features and
possibilities for making motors. Due to its manufacturing
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process, it is easy to make complex shapes while maintaining
good dimensional tolerances. The 3-D nature offers the
possibility of sue and weight savings by allowing shapes that
are optimized for the application.
Lamination stee 6 SMC material B n cum* Comparison
2.5 7
m
material
Fig. 5 Camparison of typical B-H CY" for l a " steel a d SMC
Prof. Alan Jack of the University of Newcastle upon
Tyne is heavily involved in research using this material and
had published several papers showcasing the capabilities of
the soft magnetic composite material [IO], [ll], [12]. Recent
reports by other authors have discussed the use of SMC in
various applications in automotive, home appliances,
industrial applications. Use of SMC in different motor types
has also been reported [12].
There are certain applications where the material use
offers some benefits not obtained from conventional
lamination material. While this material holds promise, it is
by no means a replacement for the conventional lamination
steel. A lot of research is ongoing to exploit the properties of
this material.
It was mentioned earlier in the paper that no major
developments have occurred in conventional lamination
steels. By this it is meant that nothing has happened that has
allowed low carbon, low silicon steel to have saturation flux
density of 2.5T or have an an-hysteretic B-H loop. This is at
least not in the knowledge of the author.
Most of the work has been to improve processes to
increase consistency in steel properties, reduce core loss by
improved purity, development of new and improved surface
coatings and in general to improve the usability of the steel.
A lot of development has taken place in these areas.
European Electrical Steels has reported activities in the above
areas in developing low loss steels that they market under the
Polycor brand [13].
Following the foregoing discussion, Fig. 6 shows the new
map showing the ranges of the various permanent magnet
materials.
60
50
10
0
Distribution of Magnet grades and their relative properties
I - I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Hci (kOe)
Fig. 6: Ranges of various magnetp d e s
the size of the motor for a given power size or provide more
power for the same motor size. An example is given for a
111. IMPACT ON MOTOR DESIGNS
surface PM motor. The baseline numbers are for a motor with
35Mme sintered N G ~ ~ magnets p, =1,23~, H, =21koe,
BH, =35MGOe). The best sintered NdFeB magnet
The basic impact of magnet properties on motor design is
well known - a stronger magnet offers the potential to reduce
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reported to date (Rodewald, B. =1.519T, H, =9.8kOe,
BH,. =56.7MGOe) is used and the impact on motor size
and performance compared in per unit numbers.
It is seen from Table I that the 23% increase in B, offers
a - 20% increase in output or a -20% reduction in size
(length). In the above study the diameters and winding were
unchanged. The data is at m m temperature (25C). The flux
densities are obviously higher and so will be the saturation
effects. This is reflected in the higher torque ripple numbers.
TABLE I
COMPARISON ofMOTOR PARAhETER5
With the advent of the new materials there are lot of
choices for the motor designer. At the same time, it is
important that the material characteristics be properly
understood so as to optimize the design. In addition to
material, new processing techniques have been developed
that offer additional possibilities.
With the new materials, new process can bedeveloped to
take full advantage of their capabilities and perhaps simplify
and economize the production process. Conventional bonded
magnets have been used as rings made by exhusion, injection
or compression molding. Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.,
has reported the use of rolled flexible bonded magnets for
small motors, molding magnet material directly on to the
rotor back iron or even molding the magnet material into
pockets in a rotor core for IPM motors [l], 121. In doing so
they report new techniques for manufacturing motors with the
new types of magnets that offer advantages in size, process
and perhaps cost over the conventional techniques of motor
manufacturing.
From a design aspect, the temperature and the B-H
characteristics of the new magnets have to be considered but
also the manufacturing process. Manufacturing a motorhotor
where the magnet material is directly bonded on to the rotor
iron for example, results in end magnet propelties beiig
different from magnet powder properties. This needs to be
taken into consideration during the motor design process to
ensure proper motor design.
The use of SMC materials is a very good example of the
above comments. Due to its inherent isotropic, "3-D" nature,
conventional design methodologies will not provide the best
design for a motor using SMC materials.
The higher strength magnets (flux output and high
temperame capability) are key elements in providing
reasonable motor designs to facilitate the automotive
applications needs. These magnets enable high power
density, compact motor designs for electric power steering,
traction motor for EV/HEV as well as other applications
where the tight confies of the automotive under-the-hood
dictate the package size. The new bonded neo magnets will
help provide means to address applications that need similar
compact motors for applications that arenot as high power.
In the end, it all boils down to cost. For automotive
applications, the cost for the neo magnets would have to
continue to decrease. Bonded ne0 magnets need to approach
the cost of femte magnets and sintered neo magnets need to
approach the current cost of bonded ne0 magnets. There is a
txend along these lines but the costs have to drop more to
ensure wide acceptance and use.
N. CONCLUSIONS
This digest has attempted to provide an insight into
the new materials available for PM motor designers. Some
discussion and thoughts on the impact of these materials has
been provided. Some thoughts on magnets costs have also
been made. The new materials can be helpful in facilitating
motorized applications for a wide range of automotive needs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author gratefully acknowledges James Krajczynski
of Globe Motors for his help and discussions.
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[a] S.Liu, Private Communications, University of Dayton,
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191 G. Riley, A. Albers, Private Communications,
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