i

FAILURE EVALUATION IN DESALINATION

PLANTS - SOME CASE STUDIES
1
Anees U. Malik, T.L. Prakash and Ismaeel Andijani
Research & Development Center
Saline Water Conversion Corporation
P.O.Box 8328, Al-Jubail 31951
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
In the desalination plants, the corrosion failure of components due to environmental
related factors constitutes a major part of the reported cases. This paper presents few
interesting case studies of the failed components of SWCC desalination plants in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
It has been recognized that the biofouling of offshore structure of desalination plants
combined with sulfide contamination are responsible for Microbiologically Induced
Corrosion (MIC) of components. A case study investigated on the failure of monel
bolts in the seawater intake pump has revealed severe MIC attack by sulfide reducing
bacteria. Failure of materials by Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in service due to
combined and synergistic interaction of mechanical stresses and corrosion reaction is
not an uncommon phenomenon in desalination plants. The second case study concerns
with the investigation on a large size intermediate bearing support block of a seawater
intake pump. The results of the study confirmed that the failure is due to SCC resulted
from the retained residual stresses during component manufacture. Another case study
on the failure of steam impingement plate of the desal chamber also indicated that the
failure is due to SCC caused by the development of thermal stresses during plate
reinforcement. The methodology adopted and the analysis of material/corrosion
products carried out are detailed. The issues that must be addressed in order to control
corrosion and/or failure are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The failure analysis is a tribute to the society since it rewarded scientists and engineers
by systematically identifying, exploring, understanding and finally solving the
problems. Although the word failure reflects in negative meaning, but the analysis of
1
Presented in IDA World Congress on Desalination and Water, Sciences, Abu
Dhabi, November 18-24, 1995.
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failure is most positive of disciplines since it benefits every one by improving product
reliability and safety. Failure of components or material may stem from many origins
like corrosion, faulty design, improper material processing, operational errors etc.
In the desalinations cum power plants the failures of components due to corrosion and
related environments constitute major part of the reported cases, This paper deals with
a few interesting case histories of the failed components of the desalination plants.
1. FAILURE OF MAIN SEAWATER INTAKE PUMP BOLTS
It has been recognized that biofouling of offshore industrial structure combined with
sulfide contamination is responsible for Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC) of
materials. The bacteria are the first organism to colonize on immersed material by one
or more mechanisms. Therefore, intimate contact of marine bacteria with metal
surface is of consequence in corrosion process.
Several theories [1] have been putforth to explain MIC. The most conceivable ones are
cathodic depolarization theory, galvanic cell theory and metabolite theory. It is
beyond the scope of the present paper to go in detail about the mechanisms of MIC. In
metal corrosion bacteria produces in their microniche a local difference in the
concentration of protons and other cations that is substantially different from that of the
general biolilm [2]. These constitutes local electrochemical corrosion cells whose
dimensions increase with increased colonialization.
A number of investigations have been reported on microfouling in aerobic and
anaerobic environments by SBR on several alloys [3,4]. It has been suggested that
bacteria influence corrosion process through their capability to dissolve protective films
over the metal surface.
The present study describes the failure analysis carried out on the failed bolts used in
the casings of a MSF plant seawater intake pump. They were in service for more than
10 years. These bolts have developed cracks on their shafts and made them unfit for
future service. Some bolts were of 25 mm dia. 100 mm length and few were of 18 mm
dia, 75 mm length. It was found that several longitudinal and circumferential cracks
were present on the shaft of the bolt including threaded portion [Fig. 1], All the bolt
material were anaiysedis for their chemical composition by spectrochemical methods.
the result of the analysis indicates that the material belonged to Monel 400 grade alloy
(composition : Cu-32.68%, Fe - 1.46%. Al - 0.09%; Ni - Bal.%).
Metallography
Metallography was carried out on the longitudinal and transverse cross section of the
bolt. It was observed that the most of the cracks have originated from the surface of the
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bolt and penetrated deep radially towards the central axis of the bolt. The grain
boundaries have been affected more severely and the path of the cracks were totally
intergranular (Fig.2). The material exhibited recrystallized and equiaxed grain
structure with plenty of annealed twins. The average grain size of the material was
found to be 140 m.
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The SEM studies have been carried out on bolt material. Specimens both from sound
as well as cracked sections were prepared for the studies. The cracked surface samples
were prepared by cutting a notch exactly opposite side of the cracked surface of the bolt
shaft and gently hammering in the direction such that to expose the cracked surface.
The SEM of the polished sample indicated the grain boundary attack. Interestingly, the
grain boundaries near the cracked regions contained white nodular deposits typically
of bacterial colonies (Fig.3). These deposits when analyzed by Energy Dispersive
Spectroscopy (EDS) with SEM were found to be rich in sulfur containing compounds of
nickel and copper (Fig.4). The deposits found near crack tip when analyzed by EDS
were found to be rich in sulfur and the deposits over the crack surface had also revealed
sulfur enrichment. The mode of crack propagation was entirely through intergranular
regions (Fig.3b).
1.3 Discussion
The evidences gathered during the course of this investigation suggest that the bolt have
failed mainly due to intergranular corrosion during its service. The intergranular
corrosion in this alloy could be due to Strerss Corrosion Cracking (SCC) or MIC The
SCC in the subject bolt is a remote possibility because SCC would occur in material
with history of cold work. The bolt material has showed no evidence of cold work as
noticed by the presence of annealed twins in the microstructure of the alloy. The
hardness measurement made on the alloy also indicated that there is no stored energy of
cold work which could have manifested in increasing the hardness of the material. The
average hardness value was found to be 146 VHN, which indicates that the material
was in the softened condition. Hence SCC may not be the reason for the observed
cracking of bolts in service.
The presence of sulfur and oxygen in the corrosion products at the grain boundaries
(Fig.4) and at crack tip and considering the long exposure of bolt material to marine
environment, it is likely that the intergranular corrosion attack on the grain boundaries
was by MIC. The only conceivable source of sulfide in this case is bacterial activity of
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria (SRB). The sulfides which are the product of SRB can cause
breakdown of the passive film layer on the Monel 400 alloy, thus making it susceptible
to intergranular corrosion by chlorides.
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The role of sulfide in the breakdown of passive film layer in Monel 400 have been
examined in the solution containing different chloride, sulfate and sulfide ion
concentration. Potentiostatic polarization techniques have been used for this purpose.
The experiments were performed in an universal buffer (pH = 6.5) mixture of
phosphoric acid, acetic acid, boric acid and sodium hydroxide.
The electrochemical measurements were carried out on EG &G Potentiostat-Model 273
using Monel 400 electrode. A saturated colomel electrode (SCE) was used as reference
electrode. Polarization resistance measurements at 0.1 mv/min were made at ambient
temperature. The anion concentration was determined spectrophotometrically. The
results have been tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1
Potentiostatic Polarization Data
Electrolyte E corr PR I corr CR
S.No.
(mv> (Wcm*) (@/cm*) (mpy)
1 Buffer + Chloride of : (i) 0.4M - 172 6.89 3.15 1.39
(ii) 0.5M - 174 2.7 7.88 3.49
(iii) 0.6M - 186 2.47 8.77 3.86
2 Buffer + 0.6M chloride (i) 0.064M - 586 4.48 4.85 2.14
+ sulphide of (ii)0.094M - 540 6.4 3.29 1.50
(iii) 0.13M -641 1.3 16.68 7.35
3. Buffer + 0.6M chloride (i) 0.01M - 332 8.48 2.56 1.13
+ sulfate of (ii) 0.015M -211 11.68 1.86 0.81
(iii) 0.02M - 197 8.47 2.57 1.13
4 Buffer + 0.6M chloride + 0.02M
sulfate + 0 13M sulfide -528 11.93 1.82 0.8
5 Buffer + 0.02M sulfate + 0.13M - 599 9.59 2.26 0.997
From the comparison of results obtained, it is apparent that although chloride induces
the breakdown of the passive film, the breakdown potential is strongly dependent on
the sulfide ion concentration in the presence of chloride. In presence of sulfide, the
value of corrosion current obtained is 2 times the current which was recorded in absence
of sulfide.
1.4 Conclusion
The observed cracking of monel 400 alloy bolt in service is due to MIC by SRB. The
sulfides which are the product of SRB can cause the breakdown of passive film making
it susceptible to intergranular attack by chlorides present in the environment.
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1.5 Recommendation
In the light of the above, it is recommended to use material containing chromium or
chromium and molybdenum as they have better resistance to MIC [5]. The nickel
copper alloy containing chromium (alloy UNS No. 6600) or alloy containing chromium
and molybdenum (alloy UNS No. 10276) would be a good choice for sea water service.
2. FAILURE OF INTERMEDIATE BEARING SUPPORT OF A
SEAWATER INTAKE PUMP
Engineering materials when subjected to combined action of mechanical stresses and
corrosion reaction would fail in service due to development of cracks. Such failures are
known as Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). The type of loading, nature of
environment and the grade of material are responsible for SCC to occur. Generally,
tensile stresses are required to cause SCC and are usually below the yield stress of the
material. They are externally applied, some time the residual stresses present in the
component can also cause SCC. The environments that cause SCC are generally
aqueous solution, Typically, SCC of an alloy is due to the chlorides or other reactive
species present in the environment. In SCC the cracks initiate and propagate at a slow
rate until the stresses in the remaining part of the uncracked area exceeds the fracture
strength. Many different mechanisms have been proposed [6,7] to explain the SCC
behavior of materials. The following two case histories enumerated below belonged to
failure by SCC.
An investigative study has been carried out on an intermediate bearing support block
which was cracked during service. The intermediate bearing support block belonged to
the main seawater intake pump of a Desalination Plant. The cracks have been
developed at the rim and arm joint prematurely. The photograph of the component is
shown in Fig.5. The arrow marks in the photograph indicates the region where cracks
appeared during service. It was found by dye fluorescent non-destructive testing
technique that the other two arms and rim joints were devoid of any cracks.
2.1 Chemical Composition
The material of the component was analyzed for its chemical composition by
spectrochemical methods, The material used for the component were confirmed to be of
ductile Ni-Resist Cast Iron, grade ASTM-A439 type D2 and had compositon : C -
l.8%, Mn - 1.2%, Si - 0.2%, Ni - 27.8%, Cr - 1.7%, Fe - Bal.
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2.2. Metallography
The samples for metallographical examination have been prepared by cutting the
portion of cracked parts initially by power hacksaw followed by milling. The general
microstructure of the sample is shown in Fig.6. The microstructure showed spheroids of
graphite and even distribution of carbide networks essentially made up of chromium
carbides in austenitic matrix. The grain boundaries have been revealed by etching in
2% Nital + 3% Picral etchant for 30 to 60 seconds. The average grain size of the
material was found to be 280 mm. The grain boundaries appeared irregular and wavy
due to the pinning of grain boundaries by carbides during grain growth. The
metallographic examination of the cracks has revealed that the main cracks were
propagated along the grain boundaries. The branching of cracks have taken place often
across the grains. The main crack and the sub-cracks branching are shown in Fig.6b.
2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) & Energy Dispersive X-ray
Analysis (EDX)
The etched samples containing cracks have been examined in scanning electron
microscope. It was found that the cracked regions contained essentially oxides rich in
iron and small amounts of chlorides and sulphates. The SEM picture of the sample
showed main cracks associated with transgranular branching (Fig.7). The EDX
spectrum of the deposits found along the cracked surface is shown in Fig.8. The typical
branching of cracks from the main cracks associated with corrosion suggests that the
material had failed due to stress corrosion.
2.4 Discussion
It is well known that the ductile Ni-Resist cast iron have fairly good corrosion resistance
properties particularly to marine environments. It is reported in the literature that the
corrosion rate or the pitting rate of Ni-Resist Cast Iron is independent of velocity [8] in
deoxygenated seawater. The average corrosion rates [9] have been reported to be
around 40 mm/year at flow rates of 8 ms
-1
. In spite of the excellent corrosion
resistance to seawater, several failure of cast components of Ni-resist cast iron have
been reported in the past. The reason of failures have been attributed to many factors
such as carbide content of the alloy [l0], the sea exposure temperature, faulty
inoculation procedures, improper heat treatments, etc.
It is seen from the investigation carried out on the component that the several
microcracks have been originated at the region where there is considerable variation in
the section size. These areas are however, more vulnerable for the development of high
residual stresses during manufacturing process. Hence, proper care has to be exercised
in the design and also in the heat treatment to relieve the stresses soon after the casting.
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If proper stress relief heat treatment is not carried out, local internal stresses close to the
yield strength of material would make the material prone to stress corrosion cracking
(SCC). The branching of sub-cracks from the graphite nodules in transgranualr mode
(Fig.6b) and the presence of macrocracks connecting the graphite (Fig.7a) strongly
suggest that the local residual internal stresses accumulated at those region where
cracks were initiated. The metallography carried out on the sound portion of the
component suggests that there is no material inhomogeneity in the component. The
macrohardness measurements taken near the cracked regions as well as the sound
portion of the components were also found to be uniform. Therefore, the observed
cracks could be due to internal stresses developed during the casting process and the
material has not been sufficiently stress relieved by heat treatment.
2.5 Conclusion
The development of cracks in the component are predominently due to the combined
effect of stress and corrosion leading to Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). The reason
of SCC is due to the presence of residual stresses at the regions where there is large
variation in section size of the component.
2.6 Recommendation
It is suggested that care must be exercised in the design aspects to minimize the
variation in section size to avoid accumulation of residual strcsscs (at arm and rim Joint
regions). Proper stress relief heat treatment to be carried out to ensure that all the
accumulated stresses are fully relieved after the heat treatment. We suggest to make use
duplex stainless steel such as NORIDUR 9.4460 [9] as an alternative material for this
component. These steels exhibit excellent pitting and SCC resistance to seawater
applications.
3. FAILURE OF STEAM IMPINGEMENT PLATE IN THE BRINE
HEATER
Another investigativc study, has been carried out on a steam impingement plate in the
brine heater compartment. The failed plate was of size 250 cm x 150 cm x 0.6 cm
thick.
The plate had contained perforations to allow the steam impinging on it into the heat
exchanger tubes. The plate was positioned in the brine heater compartment by welding
the opposite sides of the plate to the circular outer shell which is made out of carbon
steel. The plate was reinforced by angular iron strip from the bottom. Cracks had
developed at the welded portion of plate and shell joints and also at both the sides of
welding near the middle portion of the plate where there is a central reinforcement
underneath by angular strip. The impingement plate was so positioned that the steam
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would directly impinge on the plate at the center during the operation. A schematic
picture of the plate with the places of cracks developed is showed in Fig .9.
3.1 Chemical Composition
The plate samples were analysed for their chemical composition by spectrochcmical
method. The plate material was confirmed to be of AISI 304 grade stainlesr steel alloy
with the composition : Cr-18.3%, Ni-9.04%, C-0.041%, Fe - Bal
3.2 Metallography
The samples containing visible cracks have been subjected to metallography. The
general microstructure of the sample is showed in Fig. 10a. The microstructure revcalcd
typical austenitic structure containing plenty of twins with in the grains. The average
grain size was found to be around 50 mm. The cracks appeared to have originated at
places close to weld regions and also at regions approximately 1 cm away from weld
zone. The cracks which are noticed away from weld zones had propagated in
transgranular mode and showed branching from main cracks (Fig. l0b). At few places
close to weld zone the propagation of cracks appeared to have propagated in
intergranular mode with less branching. The propagation of cracks in trans and
intergranular modes suggests that the plate might have failed due to stresses which are
tensile in origin and may also due to intergranular corrosion.
3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
The SEM has been carried out on the fractured surfaces and also on the polished and
etched samples. The fractured surface of samples near weld zone showed extensive
cracking along grains indicating intergranular mode of failure with extensive fissuring
along grains. The cracks observed in SEM from the polished samples representing
regions away from weldments revealed transgranular mode of cracks propagation. The
Energy Dispersive Spectrum taken at the crack tip during SEM showed no
compositional degradation in the matrix as evidenced in the spectrum (Fig. 11). The
quantitative analysis done on the elemental spectrum was found very close to that of the
chemical composition of the alloy.
3.4 Discussion
The intergranular corrosion in the weldments of AIS1 304 stainless steel [12] is a
well-known problem if proper care is not exercised during welding. The postweld heat
treatment is absolutely necessary to avoid weld decay occurring near the weld zones.
The evidence of severe cracking all along the zones close to weld clearly suggest that
the problem is with the AISI 304 material. During welding the areas near welds which
experience temperature of 600 - 850C is likely to favour chromium carbide
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precipitation reaction at the grain boundaries. This reaction would deplete chromium
metal concentration in the areas adjacent to grain boundaries thus making it susceptible
to cracking due to corrosion in course of time. The observed separation of plate by
cracking is likely due to this phenomenon.
It is observed in the SEM and also in the metallography that several cracks were seen in
regions quite away from the welds and these cracks are of transgranular type (Fig. 10b).
The AISI 304 stainless steel can fail in transgranular mode normally when it is
subjected to high tensile stresses. The reinforcement of the plate by angular strips by
welding generated high degree of thermal stresses which are tensile in nature had also
resulted in cracks formation during service.
3.5 Conclusion
All the observation made in this investigation on the failure of the impingement plate
suggest that there are likely two main reasons for failure. First reason being the
intergranular corrosion arising out of welding of AISI 304 stainless steel. The second
reason being the development of thermal stresses during plate reinforcement and
subsequent welding to shell had resulted in the failure due to stress corrossion cracking.
3.6 Recommendation
It is recommended to use stainless steel type AISI 321 ( Ti stabilized ) or AISI 347 (Nb
stabilized ) to overcome weld decay problems. It is also suggested that after welding, a
thorough weld anneal heat treatment to be carried out on the plate to relieve all the
thermal stresses before it is put into actual service.
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4.
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1124
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Jones. R.H., Stress Corrosion Cracking, Metals Handbook 9th Edition, Ed.
ASM International, Vol. 13; 1957. p. 145-162.
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Corrosion Journal, 1993. 28 (3) : pp. 209-216.
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Dawson , J.V. and B. Todd, BCIRA. Journ., 1987. l-9.
Technical data KSB Akiengesselschaft Frankonthal. Germany on Cast Ferritic
- Austenitic Stainless Steel, NORIDVR, July 1993. 9.4460.
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9th Edition. Edtd. ASM International, Vol. 13, 1987. p. 123.
1125
Figure 1. Photograph of bolts. Arrows indicate the longitudinal and
circumferential cracks developed during service.,
Figure 2. Photomicrograph of bolt showing intergranular cracks x 100
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Figure 3. Scanning electron micrographs of bolt: (a) Polished surface-note
white deposits surrounding the grain (b) Cracked region showing
complete intergranular separation.
1127
-
-
,
Figure 4. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy of grain boundary deposits.
1128
Figure 5. Photograph of main seawater pump intermediate
bearing support. Note: Arrow indicates the place
of cracking.
Figure 6. Photomicrographs of intermediate bearing support. (a) General
microstructure. X 100 (b) Main cracks and branching of cracks.
X 100
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Figure 7. Scanning Electron Micrographs showing (a) Intergranular cracks.
(b) Transgranular cracks.
1130
Figure 8. EDX analysis of deposits at the cracks. Arrow in the inset
represents the area of the analysis.
\ h
- Perforated sheet
- Cracks
Angular
-
reinforcement
strip from bottom
Figure 9. Schematic Picture Of Impingement Plate.
1131
Figure 10. Photomicrographs of impingement plate. (a) General
microstructure. X 100 (b) Transgranular cracks in the
microstructure. X 100.
Figure 11. EDX analysis spectrum at the crack tip. Arrow in the inset
represents the area of analysis.
1132