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Coefficient of lift
Maximum lift
Cruise Velocity
Dive Velocity
)
x
(cm)
y
(cm)
Ax
(c
)
Ay
(c
)
Ax
2
(c
)
Ay
2
(c
)
I
cx
(c
)
I
cy
(c
)
1 737 33.5 5.5 24689.5 4053.5 827098.5 22294.25 7431.41 275699.41
2 737 33.5 43.5 24689.5 32039.5 827098.5 32059.50 275699.41 7431.41
3 737 33.5 83.5 24689.5 61539.5 827098.5 5138548.25 7431.41 275699.41
Total 2211 74068.5 97632.5 2481294.75 5192902.0 290562.23 558830.23
5)
Front Spar Calculations
Centroid = X =
= 33.5 mm ; Y=
= 44.15 mm
I
xx
= I
cx
+ Ay
2
AY
2
I
xx
= (290562.22+5192902-4309730.94)
I
xx
= 1173733.28 mm
4
I
yy
= I
cy
+ Ax
2
A X
2
I
yy
= (558830.21+2481294.75-2481294.75)
I
yy
= 558830.21 mm
4
The FRONT SPAR carries 35 % of the BM carried by the Spars. Thus,
Front spar BM = 0.35 x 3153201.89 N-mm
= 1576600.94 N mm
POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm
2
)
A 89 1.532
B 78 1.343
C 78 1.343
D 11 0.189
E 11 0.189
F 0 0
Front Spar Bending Stress
Bending Stress,
z
= (M
x
/ I
xx
) y
The bending stress at various points whose co-ordinates are determined with centroid as
the origin are calculated from above formula and tabulated.
Bending Stress diagram for I-Section
REAR SPAR
Height of the spar = 44.5mm
Breadth of the spar = 33.5 mm
Thickness of the spar = 5.5 mm
Cross Section of Rear Spar
A
B
C
D
E
F
To find out the centroid, the following calculations are made:
Element
Area(A)
(m
)
x
(mm)
y
(mm)
Ax
(m)
Ay
(m
)
Ax
2
(m
)
Ay
2
(m
)
I
cx
(m
)
I
cy
(m
)
1 184.25 16.75 2.75 3086.18 506.68 51693.64 1393.39 464.46 17231.21
2 184.25 16.75 22.25 3086.18 4099.56 51693.64 91215.2 17231.21 464.46
3 184.25 16.75 41.75 3086.18 7692.4 51693.64 321159.26 464.46 17231.21
Total 552.75 9258.54 12298.64 155080.92 413767.95 18160.13 34926.88
Rear Spar Calculations
Centroid X =
= 16.74 mm ; Y=
= 22.24 mm
I
xx
= I
cx
+ Ay
2
AY
2
I
xx
= (18160.13+155080.92-552.75*22.249^2)
I
xx
= -100158.82mm
4
I
yy
= I
cy
+ Ax
2
A X
2
I
yy
= (34926.88+413767.95-552.75*(16.74)
2
)
I
yy
= 293799.02 mm
4
Rear Spar carries 25 % of the spar Bending Moments.
Rear Spar Bending Moment = 0.25*3153201.89
=1126143.33 N-mm
Bending Stress
z
= (M
x
/I
xx
)y
The bending stresses at various points are obtained as:
Rear Spar Bending Stress
POINTS COORDINATES (y) (cm) BENDING STRESS (N/cm
2
)
A 44.5 -8.984
B 39 -7.874
C 39 -7.874
D 5.5 -1.110
E 5.5 -1.110
F 0 0
MATERIALS SELECTION
8.1. Materials used in aircraft manufacturing: For many years, aircraft designers
could propose theoretical designs that they could not build because the materials needed
to construct them did not exist. (The term "unobtainium" is sometimes used to identify
materials that are desired but not yet available.) In the early days of flight, before World
War I, aircraft were constructed entirely of wood and canvas. They were shaped and
joined by skilled craftsmen, many of whom were drawn from other woodworking trades.
Every aircraft was unique, reflecting many different thoughts and constant design
changes. The beginning of World War I brought a sudden demand for thousands of
aircraft. This meant that factories had to accommodate large-scale manufacture and
assembly of aircraft components by unskilled workers. Small companies grew into
major manufacturers capable of producing many different types of aircraft in large
numbers. The techniques for building aircraft evolved gradually during the years
between the wars. Wood and canvas changed to aluminum as the principal structural
material while designs improved and records were set and broken. Monoplanes (single
wing aircraft) were becoming more popular than biplanes (two wing aircraft). More
power-ful and reliable aircraft engines were continually being developed to increase
pay-loads and ranges. Because of the increased reliability and improved comfort, aircraft
became a more acceptable form of freight and passenger transport.
Material requirement for aircraft building:
1.small weight
2.high specific strength
3.heat resistance
4.fatigue load resistance
5.crack and corrosion resistance
Raw Materials:
The principal material used in modern air-craft manufacturing is aluminum sheet, billet,
and castings, but the use of composite materials is rapidly increasing. Composite
materials are structural materials made up of two or more contrasting components,
normally fine fibers or whiskers in a bonding resin. Composites such as carbon epoxies,
graphite, fiberglass, carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP), boron fiber reinforced
plastics (BFRP), and glass reinforced plastics (GRP) enable manufacturers to build
aircraft that are lighter and stronger than aluminum models.Steel alloys, titanium,
stainless steel, and magnesium castings are also used, but in much smaller quantities.
Composites: For many years, aircraft designers could propose theoretical designs that
they could not build because the materials needed to construct them did not exist. (The
term "unobtainium" is sometimes used to identify materials that are desired but not yet
available.) For instance, large space planes like the Space Shuttle would have proven
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to build without heat-resistant ceramic tiles to
protect them during re-entry. And high-speed forward-swept-wing airplanes like
Grumman's experimental X-29 or the Russian Sukhoi S-27 Berkut would not have been
possible without the development of composite materials to keep their wings from
bending out of shape. Composites are the most important materials to be adapted for
aviation since the use of aluminium in the 1920s. Composites are materials that are
combinations of two or more organic or inorganic components. One material serves as a
"matrix," which is the material that holds everything together, while the other material
serves as reinforcement, in the form of fibers embedded in the matrix. Until recently, the
most common matrix materials were "thermosetting" materials such as epoxy,
bismaleimide, or polyimide. The reinforcing materials can be glass fiber, boron fiber,
carbon fiber, or other more exotic mixtures.
Fiberglass is the most common composite material, and consists of glass fibers
embedded in a resin matrix. Fiberglass was first used widely in the 1950s for boats and
automobiles, and today most cars have fiberglass bumpers covering a steel frame.
Fiberglass was first used in the Boeing 707 passenger jet in the 1950s, where it
comprised about two percent of the structure. By the 1960s, other composite materials
became available, in particular boron fiber and graphite, embedded in epoxy resins. The
U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy began research into using these materials for aircraft
control surfaces like ailerons and rudders. The first major military production use of
boron fiber was for the horizontal stabilizers on the Navy's F-14 Tomcat interceptor. By
1981, the British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier flew with over 25
percent of its structure made of composite materials.
Making composite structures is more complex than manufacturing most metal
structures. To make a composite structure, the composite material, in tape or fabric
form, is laid out and put in a mould under heat and pressure. The resin matrix material
flows and when the heat is removed, it solidifies. It can be formed into various shapes.
In some cases, the fibers are wound tightly to increase strength. One useful feature of
composites is that they can be layered, with the fibers in each layer running in a different
direction. This allows materials engineers to design structures that behave in certain
ways. For instance, they can design a structure thatwill bend in one direction, but not
another. The designers of the Grumman X-29 experimental plane used this attribute of
composite materials to design forward-swept wings that did not bend up at the tips like
metal wings of the same shape would have bent in flight. The greatest value of
composite materials is that they can be both lightweight and strong. The heavier an
aircraft weighs, the more fuel it burns, so reducing weight is important to aeronautical
engineers. Despite their strength and low weight, composites have not been a miracle
solution for aircraft structures. Composites are hard to inspect for flaws. Some of them
absorb moisture. Most importantly, they can be expensive, primarily because they are
labour intensive and often require complex and expensive fabrication machines.
Aluminium, by contrast, is easy to manufacture and repair. Anyone who has ever gotten
into a minor car accident has learned that dented metal can be hammered back into
shape, but a crunched fiberglass bumper has to be completely replaced. The same is true
for many composite materials used in aviation. Modern airliners use significant amounts
of composites to achieve lighter weight. About ten percent of the structural weight of the
Boeing 777, for instance, is composite material. Modern military aircraft, such as the F-
22, use composites for at least a third of their structures, and some experts have
predicted that future military aircraft will be more than two-thirds composite materials.
But for now, military aircraft use substantially greater percentages of composite
materials than commercial passenger aircraft primarily because of the different ways that
commercial and military aircraft are maintained. Aluminium is a very tolerant material
and can take a great deal of punishment before it fails. It can be dented or punctured and
still hold together. Composites are not like this. If they are damaged, they require
immediate repair, which is difficult and expensive. An airplane made entirely from
aluminium can be repaired almost anywhere. This is not the case for composite
materials, particularly as they use different and more exotic materials. Because of this,
composites will probably always be used more in military aircraft, which are constantly
being maintained, than in commercial aircraft, which have to require less maintenance.
Thermoplastics are a relatively new material that is replacing thermosets as the matrix
material for composites. They hold much promise for aviation applications. One of their
big advantages is that they are easy to produce. They are also more durable and tougher
than thermosets, particularly for light impacts, such as when a wrench dropped on a
wing accidentally. The wrench could easily crack a thermoset material but would
bounce off a thermoplastic composite material. In addition to composites, other
advanced materials are under development for aviation. During the 1980s, many aircraft
designers became enthusiastic about ceramics, which seemed particularly promising for
lightweight jet engines, because they could tolerate hotter temperatures than
conventional metals. But their brittleness and difficulty to manufacture were major
drawbacks, and research on ceramics for many aviation applications decreased by the
1990s.
Titanium: Aluminium was widely used in subsonic aircraft. Aerotechnics of supersonic
speeds faced with elevated temperatures of the aircraft skin for which aluminium can not
be applied due to low heat resistance. Structural materials reliably operating in
complicated combination of force and temperature fields under the influence of
corrosive media, radiation and high pressures were required. Titanium and its alloys
meet this requirement. Currently a greater amount of titanium is incorporated in to
aircraft. This is connected with the fact that the share of the composite materials with
which aluminium intensively interacts and corrodes in the new airplanes is being
increased. Titanium is not subjected to these processes and results in increasing the life
of components. Three major trends of titanium application for aircraft building:
Material Selection:
The wing spars are composed of a high strength unidirectional graphite/epoxy composite
material chosen for its high strength and low weight. The fuselage bulkheads are made
of a high strength aluminium alloy. This arrangement was chosen through a trade study
to determine the optimum balance between overall structural weight and cost. Because
of its stealth and torsional strength characteristics, a high modulus graphite/epoxy was
also selected for the aircraft skin. A further use of advanced composites is the placement
of 1/2-inch Kevlar armour around the engines. This was done to improve survivability
since the aircraft spends much of its time at low levels where critical systems must be
protected from battle damage. The usages of materials on the aircraft are summarized in
the following table and weight distribution graph.
Material Selection
Material Usage Advantages Disadvantages
High strength
unidirectional
graphite/epoxy
Spar caps High strength, low
weight
High cost, low impact
resistance, difficult to
manufacture
High modulus 45
graphite/epoxy
Skin (w/foam core),
Shear web, Wing ribs
High strength, low
weight, low surface
roughness, stealth
characteristics
High cost, low impact
resistance, difficult to
manufacture
Aluminum 7075-T6 Bulkheads, Longerons Low cost, ease of
manufacture, good
sturctural efficiency
Low strength, not
weldable
Stainless steel (AM-
350)
Landing gear Relatively low cost,
high strength,
corrosion resistance
High weight
Nickel (Hastelloy B) Nozzles and ducting Temperature
resistance
Low structural
resistance
Kevlar
Internal armor High strength, low
weight, high impact
resistance
High cost, difficult to
manufacture
In the design of any part of the aircraft it is essential to know accurately the properties of
the material used. The aim of this exercise is to determine crucial properties such as
Young's modulus, poisson's ratio, shear strength, yield strength, ultimate strength.
Young's modulus: It is the ratio of stress to strain and is constant for and isotropic
material in all directions.
Poisson's ratio: It is the ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain on application of
longitudinal stress
. Yield strength: It is the maximum stress the material can take in the elastic region of
loading. Ultimate stress: It is defined as the maximum stress the material can withstand
beyond which it will completely fail.
Shear strength: It is the maximum shear stress the material can withstand beyond
which it will completely fail.
There are two standards followed for testing a specimen. They are 1. American Standard
for Testing Materials (ASTM) 2. Indian Bureau of Standards (IBS) The Aluminium
specimens were tested in a Universal Testing Machine.
Aluminium 7075-T6; 7075-T651:
Subcategory: 7000 Series Aluminium Alloy; Aluminium Alloy; Metal; Nonferrous
Metal Composition: A Zr + Ti limit of 0.25 percent maximum may be used with this
alloy designation for extruded and forged products only, but only when the supplier or
producer and the purchaser have mutually so agreed. Agreement may be indicated, for
example, by reference to a standard, by letter, by order note, or other means which allow
the Zr + Ti limit. Aluminium content reported is calculated as remainder. Composition
information provided by the Aluminium Association and is not for design. Material :
General 7075 characteristics and uses (from Alcoa): Very high strength material used for
highly stressed structural parts. The T7351 temper offers improved stress-corrosion
cracking resistance. Applications: Aircraft fittings, gears and shafts, fuse parts, meter
shafts and gears, missile parts, regulating valve parts, worm gears, keys, aircraft,
aerospace and defense
Aluminium alloy 6061: Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used of
the 6000 series aluminium alloys. It is a versatile heat treatable extruded alloy with
medium to high strength capabilities.
Composition
Typical composition of aluminium alloy 6061
Component Amount (wt.%)
Aluminium Balance
Magnesium 0.8-1.2
Silicon 0.4 0.8
Iron Max. 0.7
Copper 0.15-0.40
Zinc Max. 0.25
Titanium Max. 0.15
Manganese Max. 0.15
Chromium 0.04-0.35
Others 0.05
Component Amount(wt.%)
Aluminium Balance
Magnesium 0.8-1.2
Silicon 0.4-0.8
Iron Max.0.7
Copper 0.15-0.40
Zinc Max.0.25
Titanium Max.0.15
Maganese Max 0.15
Chromium 0.004-0.35
Others 0.05
Physical Properties
Density: 2.7 g/cm3
Melting Point: Approx 580C
Modulus of Elasticity: 70-80 GPa
Poissons Ratio: 0.33
Temper Ultimate Tensile
Strength (MPa)
0.2% Proof
Stress (MPa)
Brinell
Hardness (500kg
load, 10mm ball)
Elongation
50mm dia (%)
0 110-152 65-110 30-33 14-16
T1 180 95-96 16
T4 179 min 110 min
T6 260-310 240-276 95-97 9-13
Thermal Properties Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion (20-100C): 23.5x10-6
m/m.C
Thermal Conductivity: 173 W/m.K
Electrical Properties Electrical Resistivity: 3.7 4.0 x10-6 .cm
KEVLAR:
Kevlar is the registered trademark for a para-aramid synthetic fiber, related to other
aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed at DuPont in 1965, this high strength
material was first commercially used in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in
racing tires. Typically it is spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such or as
an ingredient in composite material components.
Currently, Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to
body armor because of its high tensile strength-to-weight ratiofamously: "...5 times
stronger than steel on an equal weight basis..." When used as a woven material, it is
suitable for mooring lines and other underwater applications.
FIBERGLASS:
Fiberglass, (also called fibreglass and glass fibre), is material made from extremely
fine fibers of glass. It is used as a reinforcing agent for many polymer products; the
resulting composite material, properly known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or
glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. Glassmakers
throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of
fiberglass was only made possible with the invention of finer machine tooling. In 1893,
Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition
incorporating glass fibers with the diameter and texture of silk fibers. This was first
worn by the popular stage actress of the time Georgia Cayvan.
What is commonly known as "fiberglass" today, however, was invented in 1938 by
Russell Games Slayter of Owens-Corning as a material to be used as insulation. It is
marketed under the trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark. A
somewhat similar, but more expensive technology used for applications requiring very
high strength and low weight is the use of carbon fiber.
MATERIALS USED IN COMPAREABLE AIRCRAFTS
Materials and Processes
Validating structural materials is especially important to the any fighter aircrafts because
new material technologies were incorporated to maximize aircraft performance. F-22
Raptor The overall percentage of composites in the F-22 (approximately 25%) is
historically high, though not unprecedented. However, the extensive application of
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) technology and high temperature bismaleimide (BMI)
composite materials directly resulted in the high weight/performance efficiency the
Raptor demonstrates. The use of metallics technologies such as titanium Hot Isostatic
Pressed (HIP) castings and electron beam welding allowed the airframe designers to
incorporate complex features into a single component without the weight of fastened
assemblies. The continuing challenge is to reduce material and component costs through
a constant reassessment of emerging technologies. Recently developed machining
technologies, for instance, have allowed the inlet canted frame lip to be changed from a
casting to a lower cost machined component with no appreciable weight penalty.
Traditional aircraft materials such as aluminium and steel make up about 1/5 of the F-
22's structure by weight. The high performance capabilities of the F-22 requires the
significant use of titanium (42 % of all structural materials by weight) and composite
materials (24 % by weight), which are both stronger and lighter weight than traditional
materials, and offer better protection against corrosion. Titanium also offers higher
temperature resistance.
Airframe Structural Materials By Weight
Titanium 64 (Ti-64) 36%
Thermoset Composites
24%
Aluminum (Al)
16%
Other Materials*
15%
Steel
6%
Titanium 62222 (Ti-62222)
3%
Thermoplastic Composites
>1%
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) Casting Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) casting is a process
where metallic castings are subjected to very high temperatures in a static pressure
environment (more than 10,000 pounds per square inch). The effect is to collapse, or
"heal", voids (gas pockets) that otherwise may be present. On the F-22, structural
titanium castings are HIP'ed to eliminate any voids that are present from the casting
process. HIP casting is used on six large structures on the F-22: the rudder actuator
housing (one for each rudder), the canopy deck, the wing side-of-body (SOB) forward
and aft fittings (four total, two for each wing), the aileron strongback (one for each
aileron, two total), and the inlet canted frame (one each for the left and right inlets).
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) The F-22 is the first aircraft to take advantage of
Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) of composite parts. RTM is a method of composite parts
fabrication well suited to economically fabricating complex shaped details repeatedly to
tight dimensional tolerances. Large composite parts traditionally are formed by applying
and pressurizing hundreds of layers of fabric that contain a pre-embedded resin, and
curing, or 'baking,' them in an autoclave. This is a very time consuming and labor
intensive process.
The process employs fibrous "preforms" that are formed under vacuum from stacks of
fabric and placed in metal tooling that matches the shape of the part. The tool is then
injected with heated resin under pressure. The benefit of the matched metal tooling to
RTM is a high level of part reproducibility, consistency in assembly operations, and
consequently, economies of scale.
Composite Pivot Shaft (CPS) The composite pivot shaft is an application of Automated
Fiber Placement (AFP) technology, employed with unique tooling approaches to
incorporate a composite structure in place of a titanium one in a flight-critical
application - the F-22's horizontal stabilizers. AFP technology makes possible the exact
fiber positioning required to achieve the complex geometry of the pivot shaft, which is a
10-inch diameter cylinder at one end; and a rectangular spar at the other approximately
four inches wide; with a offset in the transition area. Its shape can be likened to that of
an oversized hockey stick. Alliant Techsystems is the contractor for the composite pivot
shaft, which is laid out using computerized fiber placement machines. The pivot shaft is
composed of more than 400 plys (layers) of composite tow tapes ranging from 1/8 of an
inch wide to 1/2 inch wide. The shaft is cured in stages to prevent internal cracking and
no wrinkles, as there is no allowances for voids in the shaft. After layup, the shafts are
nondestructively inspected and tested. The composite pivot shafts take up to 60 days to
produce, but they save 90 pounds per shipset (two shafts) over titanium, which is an
extremely large amount of weight to take out of an aircraft at one time. Also, because of
the high temperatures in the engine bay area of the fighter, it is constructed mostly of
titanium, and any weight is difficult to engineer out of that area. When the first F-22 was
rolled out in April 1997, four shipsets of flightworthy composite pivot shafts had already
been produced. A plan is in place to use thicker tow tapes, which should greatly reduce
production time for the shafts.
Electron Beam (EB) Welding An automated process called electron beam (EB)
welding is helping Boeing and Aerojet, its supplier, build lighter-weight titanium
assemblies for the aft fuselage. EB welding takes place in a vacuum chamber and uses a
stream of electrons to weld titanium parts together. Performing the welding in a vacuum
prevents exposure to oxygen, which can create an undesirable brittle surface during the
process. Electron beam welding is able to weld thick titanium parts (i.e., more than an
inch) considerably better than other methods.