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D
3
p
0:001 D mm
In fact, the standard tolerances are not evaluated separately
for each nominal size, but for a range of nominal sizes. For a
generic nominal dimension D
jn
, the number of the tolerance
units n is evaluated as follows:
n
j
1; 000jD
jn
2 D
jm
j
i
where D
jm
is a measured dimension.
The tolerance is expressed as a multiple of i: for example,
IT14 corresponds to 400i with n 400.
The evaluation model adopted introduces the maximum
tolerance grade for 95 per cent of the observations as a quality
index, because the distribution is not log-normal and the
tolerance grade sets up the maximum error allowed for each
dimension (Ippolito et al., 1995).
The results obtained by the measurements have been
grouped for each X-, Y- and Z-axis. Then for each coordinate
the mean, the standard deviation and the 95th percentile of n
(value corresponding to the 95 per cent of the measurements)
were calculated, the latter taken as a reference index for the
evaluation of the tolerance grade. The results are shown in the
Tables I-III and the Figures 8-10.
The internal tolerance grades are IT15 for the starch
pattern, IT16 for the steel casing and IT 15 for the Al alloy
casing, while the external tolerance grades are IT13 for the
starch pattern, IT15 for the steel casing and IT15 for
the Al alloy casing. For the Al alloy casing, the tolerance
grades of both the internal and external surfaces are almost
the same for each axis X, Y, Z.
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
151
The technological chain based on investment casting, from
the starch pattern to the steel casing, and the ZCast process
ensure similar dimensional performances. It is important to
notice that the tolerance grades calculated for the considered
RC techniques are consistent with the values allowed for
casting operations, between IT11 and IT18 (Chirone and
Tornincasa, 2004). Both the technological prototypes
obtained are thus completely acceptable in terms of
dimensional tolerances.
Conclusions
The feasibility of investment casting starting from 3D-printed
starch patterns was proven even in the case of thin walls,
excluding problems of residues after the pattern burning out.
This solution does not imply any limitation in the alloy to
be cast.
The ZCast technique provided satisfactory results, limited
at present to the eld of light alloys. With respect to
Figure 5 (a) CAD model of the complete mould; (b) one of the four parts constituting the mould
(a) (b)
Figure 4 CAE analysis results: CFS
Figure 6 Technological prototype obtained by the ZCast technique
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
152
traditional sand casting it ensures a much higher geometrical
freedom and permits the overcoming of the traditional shape
denition concept. The research proved the possibility of
realizing parts with overall dimensions exceeding the 3D
printer working volume, through a modular mould. The
process limits can be identied in the surface nish of
castings, which will be the objective of future developments of
the research. CAE simulations helped in the qualitative
evaluation of different feeding systems, showing good
predictive performances. A quantitative application of such
tools would require the collection of comprehensive data
about the innovative mould materials.
A dimensional characterization has been performed on
the obtained technological prototypes, through
Table I Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the starch pattern
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Starch pattern
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.016 0.318 0.160 0.275 96.310 143.968 427.538 14
Y-axis 20.026 0.300 0.163 0.253 109.139 165.722 428.143 14
Z-axis 0.009 0.255 0.182 0.177 240.079 265.143 695.656 15
External part
X-axis 0.003 0.237 0.117 0.205 61.514 92.668 233.423 12
Y-axis 0.014 0.114 0.067 0.093 49.967 67.986 176.458 12
Z-axis 0.078 0.122 0.084 0.117 98.637 122.352 331.016 13
Table II Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the steel casing
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Steel casing
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.001 0.432 0.237 0.360 149.948 199.986 510.708 14
Y-axis 0.048 0.713 0.342 0.627 217.187 359.688 1,087.655 16
Z-axis 0.257 0.327 0.274 0.313 353.922 432.866 1,369.213 16
External part
X-axis 0.072 0.582 0.369 0.454 218.490 227.742 668.017 15
Y-axis 0.215 0.688 0.432 0.576 280.324 338.600 984.774 15
Z-axis 20.073 0.200 0.155 0.145 188.367 161.801 589.995 14
Figure 7 Points measured on the external surface
Table III Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the Al alloy casing
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Al casing
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.001 0.172 0.078 0.154 43.194 80.618 243.542 12
Y-axis 20.044 0.164 0.071 0.154 47.101 98.348 248.233 12
Z-axis 0.118 0.308 0.221 0.244 259.249 240.358 756.328 15
External part
X-axis 0.022 0.131 0.066 0.115 40.739 71.655 191.309 12
Y-axis 0.045 0.207 0.084 0.211 52.241 110.046 273.372 13
Z-axis 0.105 0.259 0.184 0.276 225.096 253.122 812.185 15
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
153
measurements on a CMM compared with the relative
nominal positions. The results have been grouped for
the different directions and for each coordinate the
tolerance grade has been evaluated, considering as a
reference index the 95th percentile of n. The overall
dimensional tolerance ensured by both the proposed
technological solutions belongs to classes IT15-16.
As a conclusion, both the proposed RC solutions proved to
be effective for the production of cast technological
prototypes, in very short times, avoiding any tooling phase
and with dimensional tolerances that are completely
consistent with metal casting processes.
Based on the results of this initial study, an interesting
development of the research could be the assessment of the
tolerance class of other parts produced with the two
processes, aiming at the construction of a database for the
accuracy and repeatability of RC solutions.
References
Ainsworth, I., Ristic, M. and Brujic, D. (2000), CAD-based
measurement path planning for free-form shapes using
contact probes, International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 23-31.
Figure 10 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the Al alloy casing
1,000
IT 12
IT 12
IT 13 IT 12
IT 15
IT 15
IT 15
IT 12
800
600
400
200
0
X Axis
191,309
243,542 248,233
273,372 812,185
756,328
Y Axis Z Axis
external
internal
Figure 9 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the steel casing
1,500
1,000
IT 15
IT 15
IT 16
IT 16
IT 16
IT 14
IT 14
IT 14
500
0
external
X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
668,017 984,774 589,995
1369,213 1087,655 510,708 internal
Figure 8 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the starch pattern
800
600
IT 14 IT 14
IT 15
IT 15
IT 12
IT 12
IT 12
IT 13
400
200
0
internal
external
427,538 428,143 695,656
331,016 176,458 233,423
X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
154
Bak, D. (2003), Rapid prototyping or rapid production? 3D
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Integration of CAD and rapid manufacturing for sand
casting optimisation, Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 9
No. 5, pp. 327-33.
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Industriale, Vol. 2, Il Capitello, Torino.
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process parameters choice on part produced by direct
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PRIME 2001 1st International Seminar on Progress in
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Benchmarking of rapid prototyping techniques in terms
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Thermal optimisation in the sand casting process,
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Ramos, A.M., Relvas, C. and Simo es, J.A. (2003), Vacuum
casting with room temperature vulcanising rubber and
aluminium moulds for rapid manufacturing of quality parts:
a comparative study, Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 9
No. 2, pp. 111-5.
Rooks, B. (2002), Rapid tooling for casting prototypes,
Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 22 No. 1, pp. 40-5.
Song, Y., Yan, Y., Zhang, R., Lu, Q. and Xu, D. (2001),
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in rapid tooling, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design,
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UNI EN 20286-1 (1995), ISO system of limits and ts.
Bases of tolerances, deviations and ts.
Wang, W., Conley, J.G. and Stoll, H.W. (1999), Rapid
tooling for sand casting using laminated object
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Further reading
Marutani, Y. and Kamitani, T. (2004), Manufacturing
sacricial patterns for casting by salt powder lamination,
Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 281-7.
Corresponding author
Elena Bassoli can be contacted at: bassoli.elena@unimore.it
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
155
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