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3D printing technique applied to rapid casting

Elena Bassoli and Andrea Gatto


Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy, and
Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Department of Production Systems and Business Economics, Polytechnique of Turin, Turin, Italy
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to verify the feasibility and evaluate the dimensional accuracy of two rapid casting (RC) solutions based on 3D
printing technology: investment casting starting from 3D-printed starch patterns and the ZCast process for the production of cavities for light-alloys
castings.
Design/methodology/approach Starting from the identication and design of a benchmark, technological prototypes were produced with the two
RC processes. Measurements on a coordinate measuring machine allowed calculating the dimensional tolerances of the proposed technological chains.
The predictive performances of computer aided engineering (CAE) software were veried when applied to the ZCast process modelling.
Findings The research proved that both the investigated RC solutions are effective in obtaining cast technological prototypes in short times and with
low costs, with dimensional tolerances that are completely consistent with metal casting processes.
Practical implications The research assessed the feasibility and dimensional performances of two RC solutions, providing data that are extremely
useful for the industrial application of the considered technologies.
Originality/value The paper deals with experimental work on innovative techniques on which data are still lacking in literature. In particular, an
original contribution to the determination of dimensional tolerances and the investigation on the predictive performances of commercial CAE software
is provided.
Keywords Rapid prototypes, Printers, Computer aided design
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
The techniques based on layer-by-layer manufacturing are
extending their elds of application, from the building of
aesthetic and functional prototypes to the production of tools
and moulds for technological prototypes or pre-series.
In particular, additive construction applied to the
production of dies and electrodes, directly from digital data,
is dened as rapid tooling (RT). Patterns, cores and cavities
for metal castings can be obtained through rapid casting (RC)
techniques (Bernard et al., 2003; Rooks, 2002; Song et al.,
2001). In both cases, since the tooling phase is highly
onerous, great competitive advantages can be achieved thanks
to solutions ensuring a short time-to-market. Moreover, RT
and RC processes allow the simultaneous development and
validation of the product and of the manufacturing process.
Technological prototypes can constitute a strategic means, not
only for functional and assembly tests or to obtain the
customers acceptance, but mainly to outline eventual critical
points in the production process.
The relevance of RC techniques consists, above all, in a
short time for parts availability. Traditionally, in order to
produce cast prototypes a model and eventual cores have to
be created, involving time and costs that hardly match the
rules of the competitive market. For this reason, functional
tests are typically performed on prototypes obtained by metal
cutting (Rooks, 2002), which are not effective in outlining
issues related to the manufacturing process. The possibility to
verify the efcacy of a technological solution, in the early
stages of the product development, ensures a Concurrent
Engineering approach and minimizes the risk of late
modications of the denitive production tools (Ramos et al.,
2003). The initial cost increase can thus be repaid through a
reduction of costs and time for the following phases of
development, engineering and production, as well as trough
non-monetary advantages (Bernard et al., 2003). In particular,
for relatively small and complex parts, the benets of additive
construction can be signicant, thanks to its independence of
geometry (Bak, 2003; Wang et al., 1999; Ramos et al., 2003).
In this eld, innovative solutions are now available based on
3D printing process, which can extend RC possibilities thanks
to the lower costs with respect to previous technologies such
as selective laser sintering of sand (Gatto and Iuliano, 2001).
One such technological solution consists in investment casting
starting from starch patterns produced on 3D-printing
conceptual modellers. A second solution is the ZCaste
process, in which 3D-printing technology with the use of a
ceramic material allows the production of complex cavities
and cores, suitable for casting light alloys.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1355-2546.htm
Rapid Prototyping Journal
13/3 (2007) 148155
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1355-2546]
[DOI 10.1108/13552540710750898]
Received: 27 September 2005
Revised: 5 June 2006
Accepted: 10 January 2007
148
A key issue regarding the investment casting process is the
production of the expendable pattern in the case of a
prototype casting, for which the traditional aluminium-alloy
die is uneconomical. Rapid prototyping techniques can meet
this requirement, producing single/few parts in short times
and without tooling costs. The geometrical complexity
achievable thanks to layer manufacturing matches the
distinctive points of this casting process, suitable also for
undercuts and hollow parts. Many solutions have been
proposed, based on different technologies and materials.
The present research regards starch patterns obtained by 3D
printing on which, as in the conventional process, the ceramic
shell can be built and then evacuated to obtain the cavity for
pouring metal. Experimental studies regarding this solution
are lacking in literature, in particular the technological
feasibility in the case of thin-walled parts needs to be assessed
and the dimensional tolerances calculated.
As for the second process, the 3D printer consolidates a
plaster-ceramic powder by selective jetting of polymeric glue.
Complex cores and cavities can be produced directly from the
CAD model, complete with the gating system and air vents,
avoiding the construction of patterns and core boxes (Bak,
2003). After removal from the unconsolidated powder, the
parts are thermal treated and assembled before pouring the
molten metal. The process is marketed as ZCaste Direct
Metal Casting by Z-Corporation. Owing to the current
limitation in the maximum temperature (about 1,0008C as
stated by the producer), the technology is only suitable for
casting light alloys, whereas the rst described solution does
not entail any limitation in the metal to be cast. With respect
to traditional sand casting, limited by the pattern
extractability, layer-by-layer construction allows obtaining
complex parts, without any restrictions in terms of undercuts,
provided only that the unconsolidated powder can be
removed from the cavity.
The great advantages, in terms of relatively low costs and
very low times for the casting availability, contrast with a very
poor knowledge concerning the limits of application and the
process performances. Bak (2003) only reports the data
supplied by the producer, stating that the accuracy and
surface nish are consistent with sand casting. The present
research aims at calculating not only accuracy but
the tolerance class, which is the most signicant value for
the assessment of the dimensional performances ensured by
the technological chain. Tolerance calculation is particularly
important in cases where the mould is obtained through the
assembling of different parts, due to the limits of the 3D
printer working volume. To this regard, the optimization of
the mould design plays a key role in the best exploitation of
the geometrical freedom ensured by layer construction. Wang
et al. (1999) and Ramos et al. (2003) propose similar studies
with regard to different solutions for the production of
technological prototypes. Song et al. (2001) agree on the
importance of identifying the dimensional errors introduced
in the different steps of RT and RC processes, offering a
numerical solution. Moreover, since the process involves
pouring the molten alloy into a cavity built with
unconventional techniques and materials, a relevant issue is
the evaluation of the predictive performances of computer
aided engineering (CAE) software applied to this innovative
technology. CAE software is widely used to model the cavity
lling and the solidication in traditional casting processes,
allowing the detection of possible critical points and
defects (Lewis et al., 2001). The applicability of those tools
to new technologies like the ZCaste process still needs to be
proven. In particular, among all the commercially available
codes, the low-cost ones appear particularly interesting since
they are consistent with the needs of an approach aiming at
time and cost compressions.
Experimental plan
The research regarded the concurrent product-process
development and production of a technological metal
prototype by means of the two described RC processes,
with the following objectives:
.
verifying the application limits of the ZCaste technique
and the feasibility of the investment casting process with
3D-printed patterns in the case of thin walls;
.
evaluating eventual critical factors in the two technological
chains;
.
evaluating the predictive performances of a commercial
low-cost CAE software applied to the ZCaste technique,
improving the poor knowledge regarding lling and
solidication within a cavity produced with innovative
materials; and
.
calculating the class of dimensional tolerance ensured by
the two proposed technological solutions.
For the described purposes, an Aluminium alloy casing was
chosen as a benchmark, representative of the automotive eld,
where the application of RT and RC technologies is
particularly relevant (Rooks, 2002; Ramos et al., 2003). The
experimental procedure started with the CAD modelling of
the benchmark (Figure 1), having a total volume of
214,000mm
3
and box dimensions of 250 180 70 mm
3
.
The casing, characterized by uniform thickness, no sharp
edges and a variety of geometrical entities, is suitable to be
produced by casting processes and to outline their
dimensional performances. Referring to the investment
casting process starting from starch patterns, the benchmark
geometry is particularly relevant to determine the application
limits for the technology. In effect, the process feasibility had
already been veried by the authors for previous applications,
Figure 1 CAD model of the automotive casing chosen as a benchmark
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
149
which were characterized by a much higher volume/surface
ratio than the present case. Since, the starch pattern is
inltrated with cyanoacrylate (as in the present case) or wax
before use, with a penetration depth of few millimetres, in
case of thin walls the complete evacuation of the permeating
agent without residues has to be proven.
Subsequently, the two technological prototypes were
obtained through the steps described as follows. The rst
RC solution required:
.
generation of the STL le of the benchmark, to be sent to
the RP machine;
.
3D printing of the expendable starch pattern on a Z402
machine; and
.
investment casting following the traditional process
conguration, through shell building on the pattern,
pattern evacuation at 9008C, casting and extraction of a
rst technological prototype of the casing in AISI 304 steel.
As for the second RC process, based on the ZCaste
technology, the following phases were planned:
.
A design for manufacturing analysis was performed on the
benchmark, with the aid of a commercial low-cost code
for the simulation of the casting process (SOLIDCast
w
).
The software had been preliminarily tested on a known
component: an engine head for a sports car, with a well-
established production know-how. The obtained results
were consistent with industrial practice, even if a bit
precautionary. The analysis on the casing lead to the
denition of the feeding system and risers, in a concurrent
product-process development (Lewis et al., 2001).
.
The parts constituting the cavity were then CAD
modelled starting from the benchmark, taking into
account the limitations due to the machine working
volume and dening the optimal assembly procedure.
.
The parts were manufactured by 3D printing and treated
following standard specications (6 h isothermal at 2008C,
heating ramp of 1.58C/min).
.
The inner surfaces of the cavity were air-blown and
treated by foundry painting to improve the molten metal
ow. Parts were assembled and an Aluminium alloy
(GAlSi9MnMg-UNI3051, equivalent to ISO R 164
AlSi10Mg) was poured to obtain the technological
prototype.
.
A visual analysis of the defects in the cast model allowed
the verifying of the predictive performances of the CAE
software.
The two metal prototypes were then measured on a
coordinate measuring machine (CMM), to calculate the
overall dimensional tolerances given by the investigated RC
techniques. The global accuracy depends on the errors
introduced in all the subsequent steps: STL le generation,
mould/pattern construction by 3D printing, thermal
treatment of the mould, mould assembling for the ZCaste
technique, solidication shrinkage of the metal alloy in the
cavity. For the rst considered process, the starch expendable
pattern was also measured before the shell construction, for a
better quantication of the error sources.
The measurements have been made both on the internal
and external surfaces of the three components: the starch
pattern of the casing, the steel prototype produced by
investment casting and the aluminium alloy part obtained by
the ZCaste technique. The procedure carried out in order to
realize the dimensional control has been the following:
.
denition of the control path to measure the internal and
external surface of the pieces and control of the
components with a CMM; and
.
elaboration of the results to identify the tolerance class of
the components.
Prototypes development and production
Investment casting with 3D-printed pattern
After exporting the STL model of the benchmark, the starch
pattern was produced, a central riser with two runners was
added and the whole part was covered with the ceramic shell;
the pattern was then evacuated leaving the cavity in which
steel was poured. The described procedure was carried out
following the conventional know-how of investment casting
operators. Figure 2 shows the broken shell after the casting
removal and Figure 3 shows the cast technological prototype,
after cutting of the feeding system.
The casting resulted in a good quality part, with only small
porosities at the ribs base, but overall completely acceptable.
No defects due to an incomplete pattern evacuation or
Figure 2 Shell after casting removal
Figure 3 Technological prototype obtained by investment casting with
the starch pattern
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
150
residues were detected. Mean surface roughness R
a
was
calculated from ve measurements on a tracing length (L
t
) of
4.8 mm: a mean value of 4.0 mm was obtained, with a
standard deviation of 0.67mm. The values are quite good
even if slightly higher than those typical of investment casting.
ZCaste technique
With the aid of the software SOLIDCAST a design for
manufacturing analysis was performed on the benchmark,
taking into account different feeding systems and optimizing
the cavity lling and the solidication process. The properties
of UNI3051 were selected from the software database
of casting alloys. The ZCaste material was analysed though
X-ray diffraction, revealing Calcium sulphate (CaSO
4
) and
Forsterite (Mg
2
SiO
4
). Since, that innovative material could
not be selected in the software database and specic data
regarding its properties were lacking, traditional silica sand
was chosen to model the mould. As to the heat transfer
phenomena, the behaviour of the two materials was judged to
be similar. Moreover, the analysis was targeted towards a
comparison between different feeding congurations under
the same materials conditions. For this reason, the simulation
results were given only a qualitative signicance that could not
be affected by possible slight differences in the properties of
the mould material.
The CAE software outputs were analysed in terms of
preferred cooling direction, from the outer zones into the inlet
runners, and absence of isolated zones solidifying without
molten metal supply. In particular, the following parameters
were considered:
.
The Niyama factor, calculated with the temperature
gradient divided by the square root of the cooling rate in a
denite point. It is an indicator of the risk of shrinkage
porosity.
.
The plot of the critical fraction of solid (CFS), above
which the metal is liquid enough to ow. It allows
identifying areas that solidify without molten alloy supply.
.
The FCC value, calculated from the local solidication
time and wavefront speed. In moderately degassed Al alloy
castings, it estimates the total per cent microporosity in a
denite point.
Following the suggestions for Aluminium alloys, the CFS was
set at 35 per cent, the fraction of solid for the Niyama
calculation at 50 per cent and the default solidication
shrinkage at 7 per cent. The analysis led to select a solution
with a single riser and horizontal runners connected on the
outer edge of the component. The corresponding software
prevision in terms of CFS is shown in Figure 4.
Starting from the CAD model of the casing, complete with
feeding runners and risers, the mould was modelled with a
wall thickness between 12 and 25 mm, minimizing the ZCast
material to limit production time and cost. Vents were
provided to eliminate gas due to the contact between molten
metal and the binder. The CAD model of the complete
mould is shown in Figure 5(a). Since, the overall dimensions
exceeded the 3D printer format (250 200 200mm
3
),
the shape was split into four parts, ensuring the appropriate
denition of a parting line and coupling surfaces. One of the
four parts produced by 3D printing is shown in Figure 5(b).
The parts were heat-treated and assembled, then the Al
alloy was poured obtaining the technological prototype shown
in Figure 6. The result proved that the cavity was correctly
lled, conrming the outputs of the qualitative CAE analysis.
Only small porosities could be detected at the base of ribs and
a defect on the upper surface, in a zone to be removed with
the subsequent machining operations. The shape parting line
caused an edge on the outer surface, but the casting was
judged satisfying. Mean surface roughness R
a
was calculated
from ve measurements on a tracing length (L
t
) of 4.8 mm:
a mean value of 10.0mm was obtained, with a standard
deviation of 2.91mm.
Measurements results
The measurement paths for the internal and the external
surfaces of the benchmark have been generated through the
measurement software of the DEA Iota 0101 CMM
(Ainsworth et al., 2000; Wolovich et al., 2002).
These paths direct the movements of the CMM probe
along trajectories normal to the parts surface. About
100 points have been measured on the internal and external
surface (Figure 7). For each point the machine software
evaluates the deviations between the measured positions and
the theoretical ones for the X, Y, Z coordinates.
The results of the dimensional measurements have been
used to evaluate the tolerance unit (n) that derives starting
from the standard tolerance factor i, dened in standard
UNI EN 20286-1 (1995). The values of standard tolerances
corresponding to IT5-IT18 grades, for nominal sizes up to
500mm, are evaluated considering the standard tolerance
factor i (in micrometers) indicated by the following formula,
where D is the geometric mean of the range of nominal sizes
in millimetres.
i 0:45

D
3
p
0:001 D mm
In fact, the standard tolerances are not evaluated separately
for each nominal size, but for a range of nominal sizes. For a
generic nominal dimension D
jn
, the number of the tolerance
units n is evaluated as follows:
n
j

1; 000jD
jn
2 D
jm
j
i
where D
jm
is a measured dimension.
The tolerance is expressed as a multiple of i: for example,
IT14 corresponds to 400i with n 400.
The evaluation model adopted introduces the maximum
tolerance grade for 95 per cent of the observations as a quality
index, because the distribution is not log-normal and the
tolerance grade sets up the maximum error allowed for each
dimension (Ippolito et al., 1995).
The results obtained by the measurements have been
grouped for each X-, Y- and Z-axis. Then for each coordinate
the mean, the standard deviation and the 95th percentile of n
(value corresponding to the 95 per cent of the measurements)
were calculated, the latter taken as a reference index for the
evaluation of the tolerance grade. The results are shown in the
Tables I-III and the Figures 8-10.
The internal tolerance grades are IT15 for the starch
pattern, IT16 for the steel casing and IT 15 for the Al alloy
casing, while the external tolerance grades are IT13 for the
starch pattern, IT15 for the steel casing and IT15 for
the Al alloy casing. For the Al alloy casing, the tolerance
grades of both the internal and external surfaces are almost
the same for each axis X, Y, Z.
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
151
The technological chain based on investment casting, from
the starch pattern to the steel casing, and the ZCast process
ensure similar dimensional performances. It is important to
notice that the tolerance grades calculated for the considered
RC techniques are consistent with the values allowed for
casting operations, between IT11 and IT18 (Chirone and
Tornincasa, 2004). Both the technological prototypes
obtained are thus completely acceptable in terms of
dimensional tolerances.
Conclusions
The feasibility of investment casting starting from 3D-printed
starch patterns was proven even in the case of thin walls,
excluding problems of residues after the pattern burning out.
This solution does not imply any limitation in the alloy to
be cast.
The ZCast technique provided satisfactory results, limited
at present to the eld of light alloys. With respect to
Figure 5 (a) CAD model of the complete mould; (b) one of the four parts constituting the mould
(a) (b)
Figure 4 CAE analysis results: CFS
Figure 6 Technological prototype obtained by the ZCast technique
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
152
traditional sand casting it ensures a much higher geometrical
freedom and permits the overcoming of the traditional shape
denition concept. The research proved the possibility of
realizing parts with overall dimensions exceeding the 3D
printer working volume, through a modular mould. The
process limits can be identied in the surface nish of
castings, which will be the objective of future developments of
the research. CAE simulations helped in the qualitative
evaluation of different feeding systems, showing good
predictive performances. A quantitative application of such
tools would require the collection of comprehensive data
about the innovative mould materials.
A dimensional characterization has been performed on
the obtained technological prototypes, through
Table I Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the starch pattern
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Starch pattern
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.016 0.318 0.160 0.275 96.310 143.968 427.538 14
Y-axis 20.026 0.300 0.163 0.253 109.139 165.722 428.143 14
Z-axis 0.009 0.255 0.182 0.177 240.079 265.143 695.656 15
External part
X-axis 0.003 0.237 0.117 0.205 61.514 92.668 233.423 12
Y-axis 0.014 0.114 0.067 0.093 49.967 67.986 176.458 12
Z-axis 0.078 0.122 0.084 0.117 98.637 122.352 331.016 13
Table II Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the steel casing
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Steel casing
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.001 0.432 0.237 0.360 149.948 199.986 510.708 14
Y-axis 0.048 0.713 0.342 0.627 217.187 359.688 1,087.655 16
Z-axis 0.257 0.327 0.274 0.313 353.922 432.866 1,369.213 16
External part
X-axis 0.072 0.582 0.369 0.454 218.490 227.742 668.017 15
Y-axis 0.215 0.688 0.432 0.576 280.324 338.600 984.774 15
Z-axis 20.073 0.200 0.155 0.145 188.367 161.801 589.995 14
Figure 7 Points measured on the external surface
Table III Elaboration of the dimensional measurements for the Al alloy casing
Error with signs (mm) Absolute error (mm) n
Al casing
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation
Arithmetic
mean
Standard
deviation Mean
Standard
deviation 95 per cent IT 95 per cent
Internal part
X-axis 0.001 0.172 0.078 0.154 43.194 80.618 243.542 12
Y-axis 20.044 0.164 0.071 0.154 47.101 98.348 248.233 12
Z-axis 0.118 0.308 0.221 0.244 259.249 240.358 756.328 15
External part
X-axis 0.022 0.131 0.066 0.115 40.739 71.655 191.309 12
Y-axis 0.045 0.207 0.084 0.211 52.241 110.046 273.372 13
Z-axis 0.105 0.259 0.184 0.276 225.096 253.122 812.185 15
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
153
measurements on a CMM compared with the relative
nominal positions. The results have been grouped for
the different directions and for each coordinate the
tolerance grade has been evaluated, considering as a
reference index the 95th percentile of n. The overall
dimensional tolerance ensured by both the proposed
technological solutions belongs to classes IT15-16.
As a conclusion, both the proposed RC solutions proved to
be effective for the production of cast technological
prototypes, in very short times, avoiding any tooling phase
and with dimensional tolerances that are completely
consistent with metal casting processes.
Based on the results of this initial study, an interesting
development of the research could be the assessment of the
tolerance class of other parts produced with the two
processes, aiming at the construction of a database for the
accuracy and repeatability of RC solutions.
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Figure 10 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the Al alloy casing
1,000
IT 12
IT 12
IT 13 IT 12
IT 15
IT 15
IT 15
IT 12
800
600
400
200
0
X Axis
191,309
243,542 248,233
273,372 812,185
756,328
Y Axis Z Axis
external
internal
Figure 9 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the steel casing
1,500
1,000
IT 15
IT 15
IT 16
IT 16
IT 16
IT 14
IT 14
IT 14
500
0
external
X Axis Y Axis Z Axis
668,017 984,774 589,995
1369,213 1087,655 510,708 internal
Figure 8 Tolerance grade of the internal and external parts of the starch pattern
800
600
IT 14 IT 14
IT 15
IT 15
IT 12
IT 12
IT 12
IT 13
400
200
0
internal
external
427,538 428,143 695,656
331,016 176,458 233,423
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3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
154
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Further reading
Marutani, Y. and Kamitani, T. (2004), Manufacturing
sacricial patterns for casting by salt powder lamination,
Rapid Prototyping Journal, Vol. 10 No. 5, pp. 281-7.
Corresponding author
Elena Bassoli can be contacted at: bassoli.elena@unimore.it
3D printing technique applied to rapid casting
Elena Bassoli, Andrea Gatto, Luca Iuliano and Maria Grazia Violante
Rapid Prototyping Journal
Volume 13 Number 3 2007 148155
155
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