Role of Geological Structures Role of Geological Structures

in Civil Engineering
Importance of Folding in CE p g
Folds mainly occur due to tectonic forces resulting into
deformation of rocks or sediment strata deformation of rocks or sediment strata.
These tectonic stresses result in development of strain in These tectonic stresses result in development of strain in
rocks, when released by human interference e.g. by
excavation for tunnels, for reservoirs or by mining cause
caving or bulging on the surface caving or bulging on the surface
The geometric setting of different types of folds (and the The geometric setting of different types of folds (and the
lithology of the folded strata) are very important from CE
point of view, likewise in selection of Dam site; tunnels;
locating groundwater potentiality; laying roads/rail tracks
along hill slopes etc.
LOCATION OF DAMS
Inclination of the limbs or the
beds at the dam site is very
important, which may be
T
favourable or unfavourable
W- weight of the dam structure
Reservoir
R
W
(acts vertically downward)
T- lateral thrust due to
R
reservoir water
R- resultant force of these two
Percolation
will be inclined in the
downstream direction
d d h
Of water
However, depending upon the
quantum of reservoir water the
(R) inclination may vary from
10
0
to 30
0
from the vertical
The beds which have a gentle upstream dip will
be perpendicular to the resultant force and
hence can provide best resistance to withstand
10 to 30 from the vertical.
the stresses or loads acting in the area.
T
Reservoir
W
R
Percolation
Of t
Uplift
pressure
Of water
R- will be parallel or nearly parallel to the bedding planes depending
upon the dip of the beds and inclination of the resultant force
So if sedimentary rocks are present they are less competent So if sedimentary rocks are present, they are less competent
Leakage of the reservoir water causes uplift pressure means a
reduction in the stability of the dam structure.
L ti f D i f ld d Location of Dam in folded area
Importance of Faults in CE projects p p j
Faulted areas are neither safe nor stable
Faults causes considerable fracturing and shattering of the Faults causes considerable fracturing and shattering of the
rocks along the fault zone; which reduces physical strength of
the rocks and foundation
When fractured or faulted zones get saturated with water, their
strength reduces further
Faults act as channel ways for movement of ground water and Faults act as channel ways for movement of ground water and
causes leakage problem from the reservoir
Most important feature of faulting is the probability of
recurrence at same place recurrence at same place
Faulting is usually accompanied by earthquake- which causes
strong shaking in the area
Important to know the history of past earthquakes (i.e., their
magnitude and intensity and repeat time interval)
PRECAUTIONS TO IMPROVE THE FAULT SITE
First it is always desirableto avoidthesitewherefaultinghas occurred, but
it isalwaysnot possibletofight withnature y p g
Tectonichistoryof theareashouldbestudiedcarefully
Depending upon themagnitudeof thepast earthquakes thestructureshould
bemadeor planedinsuchawaythat it canwithstandtheshaking.
If thefaultinghas not recurredintherecent past, thenthedamagecausedto
theregionshouldbecarefullyassessedandproper treatment begiven
Sealing the faults: Grouting is done by injecting a thin slurry of cement
under pressure This means that thestrength of thefaulted ground has been under pressure. This means that thestrength of thefaulted ground has been
improvedconsiderablyandsiteismadesuitablefor construction.
If there is lot of shattering in the are due to past faulting the whole loose If there is lot of shattering in the are due to past faulting, the whole loose
massisremovedandrefilledwithconcrete.
Upstream Down stream
A
B
A A
B
The Fault AA is dipping in upstream direction and BB in The Fault AA is dipping in upstream direction and BB in
down stream direction and both are far away from the main
structure. So such faults are not harmful unless the structure. So such faults are not harmful unless the
tectonic history indicates that they are active.
2- EQs around 2- EQs around
4 ka
10 ka
EQ around
1500 AD
L i f R i Location of Reservoirs
I f th i li d b d i t In case of the inclined beds in upstream
direction there will not be any leakage
from the reservoir in downstream from the reservoir in downstream
direction
If the beds are inclined in downstream
direction leakage will be there in
downstream direction downstream direction
In case of horizontal beds the seepage will In case of horizontal beds the seepage will
be minimum
Tunnels:
Tunnels are underground passage or routes through hills or
mountains and are mainly dug to regulate traffic and to reduce mountains and are mainly dug to regulate traffic and to reduce
distance
Economic aspects of tunneling mutually oppose one another:
Where tunneling can be expected to be completed very
fast/economically and if lining is not necessary-
This is possible when we get soft (e.g., Shales) or weak rocks This is possible when we get soft (e.g., Shales) or weak rocks
(resulted due to intense fracturing or jointing)
But such soft and weak rocks are not capable to withstand the
t li d lt i t ti l t t l ll f th tunneling process and may result into partial or total collapse of the
roof
Further tunneling in such situation may also lead to severe ground g y g
water problems---to avoid this lining is done which is very
expensive
On the other hand, excavation in hard rocks (massive granite) or competent
f ti t li ill b l d t i i formationtunnelingwill beslowandcost-wiseexpensive
But tunnels through such formation will be safe and stable and hence do not
requireanylining
Tunneling in Igneous rocks especially softer ones (e.g. Vesicular or
amygdaloidal basalts) arecompetent andsuitablefor tunneling.
Tunnel intheThal Ghat ontheBombay-Delhi railway lineandintheBor Ghat Tunnel intheThal Ghat ontheBombay Delhi railway lineandintheBor Ghat
ontheBombay-Punelinewereexcavatedthroughamygdaloidal basaltswithout
anyproblem.
Tunneling through Sedimentary rocks thi k b dd d ll t d Tunneling through Sedimentary rocks thick bedded, well cemented,
siliceous or ferruginous S.st. are more competent and better for tunneling.
Whereas, argillaceousS.st. areweak andundesirable
R di i l i Hi l d h h l e.g. Ramganga diversion tunnel in Himalaya- was excavated through poorly
cemented S.st., which became more soft due to interaction of water, caused a
roof fall.
The Umiam-Barapani tunnel in Meghalaya also faced the same problemsoon
after theexcavation.
Limestonesarehardandmoredurable- but canresult intocavingactivity
Metamorphic rocks: p
Gneisses are very much similar to Granites in terms of compactness,
durability and workability. Hence can withstand the tunnelling process
without anylining. y g
Alsothegneissicstructurefacilitatestheexcavation
Schists& Phyllitesarehighlyfoliatedandsoft easytoexcavatebut needs
proper lining
Quartzitesarehardanddifficult toexcavateandneednolining
Marblebyvirtuearecompact andhasgranulosestructure Marblebyvirtuearecompact andhasgranulosestructure
Presence of calcite (H=3) with excellent cleavage facilitates excavation,
however their susceptibilitytoerosionishigh however, their susceptibilitytoerosionishigh.
Slatesarerather soft andwithtypical slatycleavage needlining.
Location of Tunnels
Folded rocks are under great strain, and
the subsurface removal of material may
cause collapse of the roof or caving etc.
So it is always better to put tunnels
along the thick limb and parallel to the
fold axis
e.g., If tunnel is made along the crest of
the fold (the beds comprise numerous
tensional fractures) -- frequent rock fall
from roof may occur; seepage of water from roof may occur; seepage of water
also reduces the competence.
Along the trough- the folded beds are
hi hl d t t highly compressed; not very easy to
excavate so the tunneling work will be
difficult, slow and expensive; also the
percolation of water will accumulate
along the trough along the trough
In case of tunneling along the limb no
such problems are faced.
Tunnelling perpendicular Tunnelling perpendicular
to the fold axis is not
desirable because desirable because,
different rock formations
are encountered from are encountered from
place to place and also
tunnel has to pass tunnel has to pass
through number of
anticlines and synclines anticlines and synclines.
Effect of J oints
Most of rocks in nature possess cracks and joints,
which represents the plain of weakness which represents the plain of weakness
Some joints are surfacial and disappear with depth
so this should be properly studied so this should be properly studied
Closely spaced joints in all kinds of rocks are harmful
e g the Koyna tunnel was excavated through compact e.g., the Koyna tunnel was excavated through compact
basalt with closely spaced joints. This caused
Constant roof falls heavy leakage of water etc which Constant roof falls, heavy leakage of water etc which
made tunnelling very expensive and difficult task.
Importance of orientation of J oints Importance of orientation of J oints
Dip and strike (attitude) of joints with respect to tunnel
alignments is very important.
J oints which strikes parallel to the tunnel axis will persist
for long distance and hence are undesirable in all kinds of
rocks.
J oints striking oblique or perpendicular to the tunnel axis
ill h li it d ff t th will have a limited effect on them
Fault at the tunnel site
In civil engineering project
faults are harmful and
d i bl b f undesirable because of
following reasons:
1) active fault zones are the
places where there is a scope
of further and future recurrence
of faulting. So irrespective of
th ttit d f th f lt ith the attitude of the fault with
tunnel, the site of active fault is
undesirable and should be
avoided avoided
2) even area of inactive faults:
are the places of intense
f t i k fracturing rocks are
physically weak so they
required proper lining which
increases the cost increases the cost
LayingroadandRail TracksalongHill slopes Laying road and Rail Tracks along Hill slopes
Roadcutting Road cutting
On hill slope
Unsafe Safe