2013/10/28

1
Chapter 3 p
Quantization of Charge,
Light, and Energy
3-1 Quantization of Electric Charge
3 2 Blackbody Radiation
Units of Chapter 3
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
3-4 X-Rays and the Compton Effect
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Faraday's law of electrolysis:
m is the mass of the substance liberated at an electrode;
Q is the total charge passed through the substance;
3-1 Quantization of Electric Charge
Q is the total charge passed through the substance;
F = 96500 C/mol is the Faraday constant;
M is the molar mass of the substance;
z is the valency number of ions of the substance.
The charge per
Michael Faraday
1791-1867
Q = It
I
monovalent ion is
e = F/N
A
, which is
the indivisible unit
of charge.
In 1897, J. J. Thomson
measured e/m for cathode
rays, and discovered the
electron (which he called
Discovery of the Electron
vacuum
anode
th d
deflector
electron (which he called
corpuscles).
cathode
J.J. Thomson
Nobel Prize (1906)
1856-1940
Sir G.P. Thomson
Nobel Prize (1937)
1892-1975
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Discovery of the Electron
1. Adjust perpendicular B
and E fields so that the
particles are undeflected
at the screen. This allows
2. Then turn off the B field
and measured the
deflection of the particles:
us to determine the
speed:
Discovery of the Electron
Thomsons experiment was remarkable in that he
measured e/m for a subatomic particle using only a
voltmeter, an ammeter, and a measuring rod!
Thomson repeated the experiment Thomson repeated the experiment
with different metals for cathodes and
always obtained the same e/m. He
concluded that these corpuscles
having one unit of negative charge e
and mass about 2000 times less
than the mass of the lightest known
atom, were constituents of all atoms.
Thomson proposed a raisin
pudding atomic model.
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Individual charged oil drops were suspended by the
E-field for periods varying from 30 to 60 seconds.
Millikans oil drop experiment gave conclusive
Measuring e: Millikans Experiment
evidence that electric charges always occur in integer
multiples of a fundamental unit e, whose value he
determined to be 1.601x10
19
C.
R. A. Millikan
Nobel Prize 1923
1868-1953
With no electric field,
Measuring e: Millikans Experiment
The terminal velocity
When an electric fieldX is applied,
q
n
X
When an electric fieldX is applied,
He found:
& e = 1.601x10
19
C
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The first clue to the quantum nature of EM waves came
from the study of thermal radiation.
1) All matter emits EM radiation when it has a T > 0 K.
2) The EM radiation absorbed by a dark body increases the
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
2) The EM radiation absorbed by a dark body increases the
kinetic energy of the constituent atoms, which oscillate about
their equilibrium positions, i.e., T.
3) The atoms contain charges (the electrons), and they are
accelerated by the oscillations. According to EM theory, the
atoms emit EM radiation, so T.
4) Wh th t f b ti l th t f i i th 4) When the rate of absorption equals the rate of emission, the
temperature is constant and we say that the body is in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.
5) A good absorber of radiation is therefore also a good emitter.
6) The EM radiation emitted this way is called thermal radiation.
The ability of an object to emit or absorb EM radiation
is called emissivity (). A body that absorbs all EM
radiation incident on it (and emitts all thermal radiation)
i ll d id l bl kb d It h 1
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
is called an ideal blackbody. It has an =1.
A small hole in the wall of a
cavity approximates an ideal
blackbody.
Blackbody radiation is interesting
because the radiation properties because the radiation properties
of the blackbody are independent
of the particular material, and the
spectrum can be calculated
theoretically.
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The intensity or spectral distribution R(,T) is the power
radiated per unit area per unit wavelength at a given
temperature T.
The total power radiated per unit area R(T) is
3-2 Blackbody Radiation
The total power radiated per unit area R(T) is
Wiens displacement law:
The peak wavelength
}

=
0
) , ( ) ( d T R T R
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
R(T) = T
4
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R(,T) u(,T), where u(,T) is the EM energy density
distribution in the cavity.
* You can prove that: R(,T) = cu(,T)
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
u(,T) can be calculated from classical physics in a
straightforward way:
(the number of modes of EM waves in the cavity with
wavelengths in the interval d) X (the average energy
per mode).
( ) D() E(T) u(,T) = D() <E(T)>
* D() is the density of states (D.O.S.) at .
* <E(T)> is the average energy per mode (state);
Classically, <E(T)> = kT.
The average energy per mode <E(T)> = kT (classically)
The equipartition theorem: in thermal equilibrium, any
degree of freedom (such as a component of the position
l it f ti l ) hi h l d ti ll
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
or velocity of a particle) which appears only quadratically
in the energy has an energy of kT.
Derivation using Boltzmann distribution: P(E) = Ae
-E/kT
dE Ae
dE EAe
dE E P
dE E EP
E
kT E
kT E
= >= <

}
}
}
}
/
0
/
0
) (
) (
( )
( )
kT kTe
dE e Ee
kT
e Ed kT
dE Ae dE E P
kT E
kT E kT E
kT E
= =
(

}
}
} }
0
/
0
/
0
/ 0
/
0 0
|

) (
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Density of states D() for EM waves in the cavity:
Trick: Count the states in the k-space D(k)
The EM modes in a cubic cavity with fixed-end B.C.:
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
1,2,3,... , , where , , ,
0 ) , , ( ) 0 , , ( ) , , ( ) , 0 , ( ) , , ( ) , , 0 (
)
2
number (wave , ) sin( ) sin( ) sin( ) , , (
= = = =
= = = = = =
= =
z y x
z
z
z
y
y
y
x
x
x
z y x
z y x
n n n
L
n
k
L
n
k
L
n
k
L y x E y x E z L x E z x E z y L E z y E
k z k y k x k z y x E
t
t
t

t
L
L
x
L
z
L
y
Density of states D() for EM waves in the cavity:
D(k)dk is the # of EM modes within (k, k+dk), which is
(1/8) of the spherical shell with volume = (4tk
2
)(dk)/8.
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
dk
k
V
dk k
dk k D
k
L L L
z y x
2
2
3
2
, ) ( ) 2 (
8 / 4
) (
space - in the
) )( )( ( volume a occupies mode Each
t t
t
t t t
= =

k
k D
L L L
z y x
2
2
) ( : is D.O.S. the So
states. on polarizati 2 the means (2) factor the where
) (
t
t t
= volume unit per
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How to convert D(k) into D(v) or D()?
Use the identity: D(k)dk = D(v)dv = |D()d|
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
2 2 2 2 t t tv t
2
2
2
2
8
) (
8
) (
) (
2 2
,
2 2

t

tv
t
v
t

t tv

t
=
= = = =
D D
k
k D
d
c
d dk
c
k
u(,T) = D() <E(T)> = 8tkT/
4
u(v,T) = D(v) <E(T)> = 8tv
2
kT/c
3
4 3
) ( , ) (

v = = D
c
D
(Rayleigh-Jeans Eq.)
u(,T) = 8tkT/
4
Rayleigh-Jeans Equation
Rayleigh-Jeans equation agrees with the experimentally
determined spectra at long wavelengths, but at short
wavelengths this equation predicts that u() approaches
infinity as 0, whereas experiment shows that the
distribution approaches 0.
Also, this equation implies
The disagreement between
classical physics and the
experiment is called
ultraviolet catastrophe.
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u(,T) = D() <E(T)>
Plancks Law
Where does Rayleigh-Jeans equation go wrong?
D? or <E>?
In early October 1900, Max Planck found that the
formula
could perfectly fit the experimental results.
4 /
8 /
( )
1
hc kT
hc
u
e

t

p y p
He was to make a presentation at a
physical meeting on Oct. 19. But since
he had arrived at his formula through
guesswork, he was rather anxious to
derive his formula.
1918 Nobel prize
1852-1931
Plancks Law
In classical theory, the average energy per mode <E>
is always equal to kT regardless of . But to avoid
ultraviolet catastrophe, we need
> <

kT E

> <
> <

0
0
E
kT E
Out of desperation, Planck made a weird assumption:
the energy E of each EM mode was discrete E = nhv
) ( ) (
/

kT nh
Ae nh E EP
v
v

1

) (
/
0
/
0
0
0

=
= >= <

=
=
kT h
n
kT nh
n
n
n
e
h
Ae E P
E
v
v
v

0
0

kT
1
/

/

>= <
kT hc
e
hc
E


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Plancks Law
Plancks law
( )
1
8
3
3

=
/kT h
e c
h
u
v
v t
v
Pls verify Wiens
law by yourself!
Plancks Law
Planck regarded his assumption as nothing more than
a mathematical trick, and tried hard to reconcile with
classical physics, but was unable to do so.
And thus did this reluctant revolution start in an act of And thus did this reluctant revolution start, in an act of
desperation, the quantum revolution
The value of Plancks constant, h = 6.626*10
-34
Js,
can be determined by fitting the function to the data.
In 1905 Einstein applied the same ideas to explain the
/ hc c =
In 1905 Einstein applied the same ideas to explain the
photoelectric effect and suggested that, rather than
being merely a mysterious property of the oscillators in
the cavity walls and blackbody radiation, quantization
was a fundamental characteristic of light energy.
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CIE 1931 xy
Chromaticity diagram
C Color temperature
Correlated color
temperature (CCT)
Cosmic microwave background
The cosmic microwave
background (CMB) is the thermal
radiation left over from the "Big
Bang" . g
The CMB has a thermal black
body spectrum at a temperature
of 2.725480.00057 K.
All-sky map
Robert Woodrow Wilson and Arno Allan Penzias
(1978 Nobel Prize)
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3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
In the famous experiment of Heinrich Hertz in 1887 in which
he produced and detected EM waves, thus confirming
Maxwells wave theory of light, he also discovered the
photoelectric effect:
Without light, the receiver gap had to be made shorter in
order for the spark to jump the gap (i.e, for e
-
to be emitted).
1857-1894
Heinrich Hertz
Methods of electron emission:
Thermionic emission: Application of heat allows electrons
to gain enough energy to escape.
Secondary emission: The electron gains enough energy by
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
Secondary emission: The electron gains enough energy by
transfer from another high-speed particle that strikes the
material from outside.
Field emission: A strong external electric field pulls the
electron out of the material.
Photoelectric effect: Incident light (electromagnetic
di ti ) hi i th t i l t f t th
26
radiation) shining on the material transfers energy to the
electrons, allowing them to escape.
EM radiation interacts with electrons within metals and gives
electrons enough extra kinetic energy to allow them to
escape. We call the ejected electrons photoelectrons.
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In 1902, P. Lenard demonstrated the photoelectric
effect: If UV light strikes a metal, electrons are
emitted. The effect does not occur if the frequency
of the light is too low; the maximum kinetic energy
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
(K
max
) of the electrons increases with frequency.
How to determine
K
max
?
i
V
0
is the stopping
potential.
i
If light is a wave, theory predicts:
1. Number of emitted electrons should increase
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
with light intensity.
2. K
max
of emitted electrons should increase
with light intensity I.
3. Frequency f would not matter.
4. There must be a delay time for electron to be
ejected when the light intensity I is very low.
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The experimental results:
Increasing the light intensity I increases the
number of electrons
3-3 The Photoelectric Effect
X K
max
is independent of the I.
X There is a cutoff frequency f
t
below which no
electrons will be emitted, regardless of I.
Above f
t
, K
max
will increase linearly with f.
X There is no delay time when the I is very low.
Experimental Results
30
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Einsteins Theory
Einstein suggested that the electromagnetic
radiation field is quantized into particles called
photons. Each photon has the energy quantum:
where f is the frequency of the light and h is
Plancks constant.
L f f l h t
or E = hv
32
Larger frequency f means larger photon
energy.
Larger I means larger number of photons at
a given f.
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Einsteins prediction: Einsteins prediction:
Einstein predicted that a graph of the K
max
vs. f (frequency)
would be a straight line, given by the linear relation:
eV eV
00
= = KK
max max
= = hf hf

V
0
vs. f must be a straight line
h l ( h/ ) i whose slope (= h/e) is
independent of the materials.
is a material characteristic.
No delay because an electron
absorbs one photon at a time.
Einsteins prediction: Einsteins prediction:
eV eV
00
= = K K
max max
= = hf hf
This prediction was verified in detail through subsequent
experiments by Millikan in 1914. Einstein was thus
awarded the 1921 Nobel prize.
slope = h/e
= hf
t
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Einsteins prediction: Einsteins prediction:
= hf
t
Millikan didnt like Einsteins light quanta idea, in a 1916
paper:
This hypothesis may well be called reckless
Despite the apparently complete success of the
Einstein equation, the physical theory of which it was Einstein equation, the physical theory of which it was
designed to be the symbolic expression is found so
untenable
He tried very hard (for 10 years) to disprove Einsteins
theory. But for all his efforts, he confirmed Einsteins
theory and provided a very accurate measurement of
Plancks constant Planck s constant.
Millikan got Nobel prize in 1923 for the measurements
of e and the photoelectric effect.
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eV eV
00
= K = K
max max
= hf = hf
1 Let 1 Let eV eV == KK = 0 = 0 = = hf hf == hc hc// 1. Let 1. Let eV eV
00
= = KK
max max
= 0 = 0 = = hf hf
tt
= = hc hc//
tt
= ( = (6.626x10 6.626x10
--34 34
Js Js) ( ) (3x10 3x10
88
m/s)/ ( m/s)/ (558x10 558x10
--99
m) m)
= (1240 = (1240 eVnm eVnm)/( )/(558nm 558nm))
= 2.22 = 2.22 eV eV
2. 2. eV eV
00
= = hf hf = = (1240 (1240 eVnm eVnm)/( )/(400nm 400nm) ) 2.22eV 2.22eV
hc hc = 1240 = 1240 eVnm eVnm
00
(( ) ( ) ( ))
= 3.10 = 3.10 eV eV 2.22 2.22 eV eV = 0.88 = 0.88 eV eV
VV
00
= 0.88 V = 0.88 V
Energy (in Energy (in eV eV) = 1240 ) = 1240/( /( in in nm) =1.24 nm) =1.24/( /( in in m) m)
So the classical wave model predicts that no electron will be
emitted until 18.8 min after the light source was turned on.
According to the photon model of light, each photon has
enough energy to eject an electron immediately No delay.
Low intensity means few photons/s current .
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X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
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Night Vision Devices
Photoelectric effect
The German physicist Wilhelm K.
Roentgen discovered x rays in 1895
when he was working with a cathode-
3-4 X-Rays and the Compton Effect
ray tube.
All materials were transparent to these
rays to some degree and that the
transparency decreased with
increasing density.
Wilhelm Rntgen
Nobel Prize (1901, the 1st)
1845-1923
These rays did not deflect in a
magnetic field (q = 0), nor refract in
materials (not EM wave??).
He thus named them x rays.
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X ray source - Bremsstrahlung
e
-
beam
Metal
target
Vacuum
cathode
anode
43
Braking radiation: a < 0

Characteristic x-rays
Characteristic x-rays
Transition of e
-
into inner shells (K, L)
Si t f th t th t t
44
Signature of the atoms on the target.
Cutoff wavelength (
m
) is independent of the target material
but depends on the energy of the bombarding electrons.
eV = hf
Max
= hc/
m

m
= hc/eV = 1240/V (in nm)
(Duane-Hunt rule)
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X-ray diffraction by crystals
In 1912, Laue suggested that the atoms in
a crystal might act as a three-dimensional
grating for the diffraction of x rays.
Experiments soon confirmed that: Experiments soon confirmed that:
(1) x rays have wavelengths of about 0.01
to 0.10 nm;
(2) atoms in crystals are arranged in regular
arrays.
Diffraction peaks occur:
45
Diffraction peaks occur:
(1) Law of reflection;
(2)
Compton measured the
scattered X-rays from
different materials. He found
in 1923 that the scattered X-
The Compton Effect
Compton
scattering
Thomson
scattering
rays had a slightly longer
wavelength than the incident
ones, and that the wavelength
depended on the scattering
angle.
This was correctly predicted y p
by the photon model.
This experiment provided the
most direct confirmation of
the particle nature of light:
photons have momentum!
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COMPTON SCATTERING
X-ray source
Crystal
Collimator
Compton measured intensity of scattered X-rays
from solid target, as function of wavelength for
different angles. He won the 1927 Nobel prize.
A.H.Compton
(1892-1962)
1927 Nobel
Prize.
Target
Crystal
(selects
wavelength)
Collimator
(selects angle)

Result: One of the 2 peaks shifted to

longer wavelength than the source.
The amount depends on (but not
on the target material).
A.H. Compton, Phys. Rev. 22, 409 (1923)
Detector
COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
Classical picture: oscillating EM field causes oscillations of electons, which
re-radiate in all directions at same frequency and wavelength as incident
radiation Thomson scattering.
Change in wavelength of scattered light is unexpected classically.
Comptons explanation: billiard ball collisions between particles
of light (X-ray photons) and electrons in the material
Oscillating
electron
Incident light wave Emitted light wave

e
p
v '
p
Before After
Electron
Incoming photon
v
p
scattered photon
scattered electron
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v '
p
Before After
El t
Incoming photon
v
p
scattered photon
COMPTON SCATTERING (cont)
I. Conservation of energy II. Conservation of momentum
( )
1/ 2
2 2 2 2 4
e e e
h m c h p c m c v v' + = + +

e
h
v v

'
= = + p i p p
From this Compton derived the change in wavelength
e
p
Electron
scattered electron
( )
( )
1 cos
1 cos 0
e
c
h
m c
u
u
' =
= >
12
Compton wavelength 2.4 10 m
c
e
h
m c

= = = or 0.00243 nm
Note that, at all angles there is also an
unshifted peak, called the Thomson
COMPTON SCATTERING
(contd)
unshifted peak, called the Thomson
scattering.
This comes from a collision between
the X-ray photon and the nucleus of
the atom:
( )
1 cos 0
h
u '
since since
( )
1 cos 0
N
m c
u ' =
N e
m m
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Wave Wave- -particle duality particle duality
Though Compton effect provided the most direct
evidence of the particle nature of light, the measurement
of by xtal diffraction used the wave nature of light!
The Youngs Double Slit Interference Experiment:
Evidence for the
wave-nature of
light!
Interference and diffraction are properties of waves.
52
g
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G. Taylors Double Slit Experiment in 1909:
When the light intensity was attenuated to
so weak that only one photon enter the
Wave Wave- -particle duality particle duality
double-slit at a time, the interference pattern
was still observed.
53
DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT INTERPRETATION
The flux of particles arriving at the slits can be reduced so
that only one particle arrives at a time. Interference fringes
are still observed!
Wave-behaviour can be shown by a single photon Wave-behaviour can be shown by a single photon.
A photon can interfere with itself!?
Each particle goes through both slits!?
If we try to find out which slit the particle goes through
the interference pattern vanishes!
If we know which path the particle takes, we lose the
fringes .
Richard Feynmans comments on double-slit exp. : a
phenomenon which is impossible, absolutely impossible, to
explain in any classical way, and which has in it the heart of
quantum mechanics. In reality it contains the only mystery.
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The principle of complementarity states
Wave-Particle Duality; the Principle
of Complementarity
The principle of complementarity states
that both the wave and particle aspects
of light are fundamental to its nature.
Indeed, waves and particles are just our
interpretations of how light behaves. p g
The principle of complementarity
actually applies to matter as well.
Wave Wave- -particle duality particle duality set the stage for 20
th
century quantum mechanics.
In 1924, Einstein wrote:
There are therefore now two
theories of light, both indispensable,
and - as one must admit today despite
twenty years of tremendous effort on
the part of theoretical physicists -
without any logical connection.
Einstein himself on light quanta:
All these fifty years of conscious brooding have
brought me no nearer to the answer to the question
What are light quanta? Nowadays every rascal thinks
he knows, but he is mistaken. (1951)
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Clearly, a photon must travel at the speed of light.
Looking at the relativistic
equation for momentum,
Energy, Mass, and Momentum of a Photon
it is clear that this can only happen if its rest mass is
zero.
We already know that the energy E = h (or hf); we can
put this in the relativistic energy-momentum relation
E
2
= m
2
c
4
+c
2
p
2
and find the momentum:
p = E/c = h/.
E e =
p k =
2
h
t
=
2
k
t

=
Other useful relations
2 e tv =
angular frequency
wavevector
hbar
c v =