Chapter 1

MATERIAL STRUCTURE
AND BINARY ALLOY
SYSTEM
concept
Atom Elements Compound Mineral Rocks
Smallest
Largest
Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Atoms are extremely small. A sugar cube
sized sample of most materials has on the order of 10 atoms!
Atom
Is the smallest particle of an element and has the same chemical
properties of the element

Atoms:
the stuff that builds elements
the smallest particle that uniquely defines an element

Atom is a combination of:
Protons: positive (+) charge
Neutrons: no charge
Electrons: negative (-) charge

Protons + neutrons define the nucleus of an atom.

Layers of electrons that orbit around the nucleus are called orbitals or
energy-level shells.


Atom Structure

Atom Structure

Elements
A substance composed of a single kind of atom

Cannot be broken down into another substance
by chemical or physical means.

Elements are substances which contain all the
same kind of atoms, like gold and silver. There are
about 90 identified naturally occurring elements,
which are listed on the Periodic Table of the
Elements. All other substances are combinations of
different kinds of atoms.

Elements
Elements contain one or more of the same type of atom!

Mixture
Two or more substances that are mixed together but are NOT
chemically bonded.
Example : Air is a mixture of mostly nitrogen (about 80%) and
oxygen (about 20%)
Compound
A substance in which two or more different elements are
CHEMICALLY bonded together
Example : carbon dioxide is made of CO2 molecules, with one
carbon atom and two oxygen atoms each

Periodic Table Elements

Define Periodic Table
The Periodic Table of the Elements arranges the different
elements by atomic number (left to right).

Elements with the same valence are in columns, which is why
potassium is directly below sodium on the periodic table.

The atomic mass listed on most periodic tables is actually a
weighted average of the atomic masses of the different
isotopes of that element
What have inside the box of EPT?
Atomic Number
Symbol of Element
Atomic Weight
Name of Element
What is Atomic Number?
Atomic Number
Atomic numbers represent the number of
protons in one atom of the element.
What is Atomic Mass?
Atomic Number
A sum of the number of
protons and neutrons in
the nucleus

What is Symbol?
Symbol of Elements
Explains name of the element.

Electron configuration
Arrangements of electrons in an atom.
Each orbital can have only 2 electrons and
with different quantum numbers.
Example electron configuration
1) Oxygen
Atomic Number=8
Shell Number=2
Group=? lets determine it through atomic orbit.
Solution
1) Filled up electron at first shells
2) The balance of electron number left will be fill up at
outer shell. Then it shows the group of Oxygen.




Oxygen-atomic orbit
ions
Ions are atoms or molecules that have had electrons either
removed or added.

A negative ion has more electrons than protons (it has gained
one or more electron) whereas a positive ion has fewer
electrons than protons (it has lost one or more electrons).

Example : Na+ is a positive sodium ion (a normal sodium atom
that has lost one electron) and O- - or O2- is a negative oxygen
ion (a normal oxygen atom that has gained two electrons)
crystal structure
crystal structure is a unique arrangement
of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.

A crystal structure is composed of a pattern, a set of atoms
arranged in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-
range order and symmetry.

Patterns are located upon the points of a lattice , which is an
array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. The
points can be thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called
unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice.

crystal structure
The lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles between
them are called the lattice
parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are
embodied in its space group.

A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role in determining
many of its physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic
band structure, and optical transparency.

crystal structure
Crystallized structure
Simple cubic








No of atoms:
8 corner atom x 1/8 = 1 atom
Total atom = 1 atom
Body-centered cubic

>>atoms located at all eight corners and a
single atom at the cube center
No of atoms:
8 corner atom x 1/8 = 1 atom
1 centre atom = 1 atom
Total atom = 2 atoms
Crystallized structure (cont.)
Face-centered cubic





No of atoms:
8 corner atom x 1/8 = 1 atom
6 face corner x = 3 atoms
Total atom = 4 atoms
Hexagonal close-packed


No of atoms:
12 corner atom x 1/6 = 2 atoms
2 centre atom x = 1 atom
3 centre atom = 3 atoms
Total atom = 6 atoms

assignment
With a correct schematic diagram, draw some of
the crystals structure below and state total number
of atom and example of material that have below
crystal structure :

Simple Cubic (SC)
Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
Face Centered Cubic (FCC)
Hexagonal Closed Pack (HCP)


Adapted from Fig. 2.10, Callister 6e.
COVALENT BONDING
Electrons are shared (as opposed to
transferred) between atoms in their
outermost shells to achieve a stable set of
eight
Ionic bond
Atoms of one element given up their outer
electron(s), which are in turn attracted to
atoms of some other element to increase
electron count in the outermost shell to eight.

METALLIC BONDING
Sharing of outer shell electrons by all atoms to
form a general electron cloud that permeates
the entire block.

Metals and Alloys
Some metals are important as pure elements
(e.g., gold, silver, copper)
Most engineering applications require the
enhanced properties obtained by alloying
Through alloying, it is possible to increase
strength, hardness, and other properties
compared to pure metals.
Solid Solutions
Solid solution is an alloy in which the solute
atoms are distributed in the solvent matrix
and has same structure of the solvent.
The elements which present in larger amount
in the alloy is called solvent and the other
elements is called solute.
There are two type of solid solution
1) Substitutional
2) Interstitial

Subtitutional solid solution
The atoms of the solvent metal are replaced in
the crystal lattice by the atoms of the solute.
Subtitutional solid solution formation is
favoured when the atomic sizes of the two
metals are almost equal.

Subtitutional solid solution
Interstitial solid solution
Are formed only when the atoms of the solute
elements are very small compared with those
of the solvent, thus enabling them to fit into
interstices or spaces in the crystal lattice of
the solvent.

Interstitial solid solution
Metal solidification
Metal and alloy cooling curve
Pure metals solidify at a constant temperature. Alloys solidify within a temperature range
phase diagram
Terms of equilibrium phase diagram
A solidus is a line below which the substance is stable in
the solid state.
A liquidus is a line above which the substance is stable in a
liquid state
Composition is expressed in weight percent(wt%) of each
elements in the phase.
Phase - can exist over a range of temperatures and
compositions, but it's atomic structure will remain the
same. There to be three phases, or states of matter: gas,
liquid and solid.
An equilibrium diagram (or phase diagram) is a diagram
with T and X (or W) as axes, showing the equilibrium
constitution.

Solidification of solids: Introduction
Almost engineering materials during their industrial
process, will involve solidification process
melt at high temperature and then solidify and cast into
semi finished or finished shape.
Example: Casting process of metals and alloys





However, in practice, the crystal structure of final product
(solid) which is formed in the metals and alloys are not
perfect and has imperfection that will affect the final
properties of the materials.
Product
(finished or
semi finished
shape)

Raw materials
(pure metals
and alloys in
solid form)
Melting process in furnace
(when arise to a melting
temperature, it will melt
into liquid form)
Casting process into mold
(reduction of temperature
and solidification process
will occur)
Solidification of solids: Introduction
Solidification process is important because:
it controls the grain structure and the defects that are introduced
during the solidification stage.
In the molten, atoms are free to move and dont have any specific
arrangement.
But during solidifications atoms are being arrange and packed into
crystal structures.
Here grain structure, defect, arrange and packed all these are affect the
properties of the metal.

Solidification process of metal or alloy can be divided into 2 steps:

1. Nucleation
formation of stable nuclei in the melt.

2. Grain growth
growth of nuclei into crystals and the formation of a grain
structure.
Solidification of solids: Nucleation

Nucleation process - formation of stable nuclei (a tiny solid
particles)
when liquid metal cools from high temperature to below the
liquidous temperature.

In practice, nuclei are formed but are dissolved back into the liquid
metal unless undercooling process occurs.

In the absence of growth of these nuclei, solid grain structure is not
generated in the mold (for casting process).
Solidification of solids: Grain growth

The crystals in the solidified metal can also have dendrite structure.
also known as a tree like structure.
form primary, secondary and tertiary arms.
Figure 4: Growth of a metal dendrite
Formation of a crystal
Nucleus
(a)
Primary axis
(b)
(e)
(c)
Secondary axis
(d)
Ternary axis
2.1 Solidification of metal










Steps involved in the solidification process:
1. Dendrite structure from a nuclei.
2. Primary and secondary arms begin to form.
3. Tertiary arms is formed and growth into different orientation.
4. Dendrite crystal will grow gradually and meet each others.
5. The formation of grain boundaries and solidification of metal is completed.

2.2 Metal vs Alloy
Pure metals - soft, ductile and limited usefulness.
Engineering metals - mix >2 metals or mix metal & nonmetal
(additives or alloying elements). to form an ALLOY.
to strength, resistance or other desired properties.
Exp of alloys : steel/cast iron (iron base alloys), bronze/brass
(copper base alloys), aluminum alloys, nickel base alloys,
magnesium base alloys, titanium alloys.

Solid solution (types of alloy) is a phase, where >2 elements
are completely soluble in each other.
Depending on the ratio of the solvent (matrix) metal atom
size and solute element atom size, two types of solid solutions
may be formed: substitution or interstitial.
2.3 Metallic Solid solutions
Substitutional solid solutions





Substitutional solid solutions are those in which the solute atoms (minor
component) are substituted for the solvent atoms (major component or parent
element) on the lattice positions normally occupied by the solvent atoms.
The crystal structure of the solvent is unchanged, but the lattice may be distorted
by the presence of the solute atoms if there is a difference in the atomic size of
these 2 atoms.


Disordered
substitutional solution
Solute element
Atom Cu
Solvent metal
Atom Ni
Solute element
Atom Cu
Solvent metal
Atom Zn
Ordered substitutional
solution
2.3 Solid solutions
Interstitial solid solutions
Carbon
r=0.075nm
Iron
r=0.129nm
Interstitial solid solutions are those in which
the solute atoms fit into spaces between the
solvent or parent atoms in the crystal lattice.
This spaces or voids are called interstices.
It can form when solute atoms are much
smaller than solvent atoms. Example of solute
atoms which have a small size are hydrogen,
carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.
Example:
Steel hardening - C + FCC iron
Hydrogen embrittlement atomic H2 enter
metal lattice & diffuses to voids .
Stainless steel 304 18%Cr-8%Ni


Note:
The distortion of the iron
atoms around the carbon
atoms occur because the
largest interstitial space in
FCC iron is only 0.053 nm.
Interstitial solid solutions always have
limited solid solubility of the solute
atoms.
Example: only 2.08 % of the carbon
can dissolve interstitially in FCC iron.
2.4 Introduction to Phase Diagrams
A phase diagrams is a temperature (
o
C) versus composition (wt %) diagram
shows the phases formed (such as liquid, solid, solid solution, compounds etc.) in
differing mixtures (in terms of composition) of alloy systems (two or more
elements) over a range of temperatures.
single-phase
region
two-phase
region
single-phase
region
Figure 6.1 shows an example of binary phase diagrams for elements A and B.
2.4 Introduction to Phase Diagrams (continue)
Most phase diagrams are:
constructed by using equilibrium conditions.
Its determined by using slow cooling rate
conditions.
used by engineers and scientists to understand
and predict many aspects of the behavior of
materials, especially metals and alloys.



+ liquid
Composition (wt %)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)
100% 100%
A B
liquid


solidus line
liquidus line
Some of the important information obtainable from phase diagrams is:

1. To show what phases are present at different compositions and
temperatures under slow cooling (equilibrium) conditions.
2. To indicate the equilibrium solid solubility of one element in
another.
3. To indicate the temperature at which an alloy cooled under
equilibrium conditions starts to solidify and the temperature
range over which solidification occurs.
4. To indicate the temperature at which different phases start to
melt.
2.4 Introduction to Phase Diagrams (continue)
The applications of phase diagram for alloy systems are:
1. Design and control heat-treating procedures of materials, such
as thermal histories (heat treatment process) and composition of alloys.
2. Predict the crystal growth and phase transformation during
cooling/solidification process (in terms of alloys microstructure).
3. Improve the design of metals and alloys product, especially an
engineer whose involve in R&D and metal-based industries.

Two (2) common type of phase diagrams, which are:
1. Binary phase diagrams
A temperature (
o
C) versus composition (wt%) diagram shows the phases
formed in differing mixtures of alloy systems (only two elements) over a
range of temperatures.
2. Ternary phase diagrams
A temperature (
o
C) versus composition (wt%) diagram shows the phases
formed in differing mixtures of alloy systems (more than two elements) over a
range of temperatures.

2.4 Binary Isomorphous Alloy Systems (continue)
There are three (3) different phases appear on the diagram, which are:
1. L phase, liquid phase [single-phase region].
2. + L phase [two-phase region].
3. Alpha, phase or solid solution phase [single-phase region].
The phase boundaries are separated by two lines, which are:
1. Liquidus line the line separating L and ( + L) regions.
2. Solidus line the line separating and ( + L) regions.
Figure 6.8
2.4 Binary Isomorphous Alloy Systems (continue)
The intersection of these two lines signifies the melting temperatures of the
two components (Cu and Ni).
The liquid, L phase is a homogeneous liquid solution mixed of both copper
and nickel.
The phase is a substitutional solid solution consisting of both Cu and Ni
atoms. This type of solid solution because Cu and Ni atoms have the same FCC
crystal structure.
Figure 6.8
2.4 Binary Isomorphous Alloy Systems (continue)
Binary equilibrium isomorphous phase diagrams can be constructed from a series of
liquid-to-solid cooling curves as shown in Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9: Constructions of Cu-Ni equilibrium phase diagram from liquid-to-solid cooling
curves; (a) cooling curves, (b) equilibrium phase diagram.
2.5 The Lever Rule: Phase Analysis
In any two (2) phase region of a binary
phase diagram, the lever rule is used to
analyses:
1. phases that are present.
2. composition of the phases.
3. weight fraction of the phases.
4. weight percentage of the phases.

1. The phases that are present
Liquid + solid [two phase region]
2. The composition of the phases
Liquid: w
l

Solid: w
s

3. The weight fraction of the phases
Wt fraction of
solid phase
Wt fraction of
liquid phase


l s
l o
s
w w
w w
X

Figure 6.10
l s
l
w w
X

o s
w w
4. The weight percentage of the phases
Wt percentage
of solid phase

Wt percentage
of liquid phase


100% x
l s
S
w w
W

l o
w w
100% x
l s
l
w w
W

o s
w w
Thank you
Next week Quiz 1 - STUDY