KALASALINGAM UNIVERSITY

TAMILNADU NEWS PRINTS AND PAPER

LIMITED ( TNPL ) .
PROJECT TITLE : BOILER DRUM LEVEL
CONTROL USING THREE
ELEMENT STRATEGY .
PROJECT MEMBERS : G. AMARNATH ( 9909007006)
M. AROCKIYA SANTHOSH RAJ
(9909007014)

INTERNAL GUIDE : EXTERNAL GUIDE :
Mr. G. SARAVANA KUMAR Mr. M. SURESH
TABLE OF CONTENT

Chapter
No.


Title

Page
No.
1 ABSTRACT 1
2 LIST OF FIGURES 2
3 COMPANY OVERVIEW 3
4 CHEMICAL RECOVERY PROCESS 5
5 BOILER DRUM LEVEL CONTROL 17
6 THREE ELEMENT STRATEGY 18
7 CASCADE CONTROLLER 27
8 PID CONTROLLER 30
9 CONTROL VALVES 34
10 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER
47
11 PLC LADDER DIAGRAMS 53
12 SCADA

57
LIST OF FIGURES

TITLE
Page
No.
SINGLE-ELEMENT CONTROL 18
TWO-ELEMENT CONTROL 20
THREE-ELEMENT CONTROL 23
CASCADE CONTROL 28
PID CONTROLLER 29
FLOW SENSOR 38
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCER 39
GLOBE VALVE 40
FLOW NOZZLE 44
PLC BLOCK DIAGRAM 47
CPU MODULE 49
INPUT MODULE 51
OUTPUT MODULE 52
PLC ARCHIETECTURE 53
SINGLE ELEMENT PLC DIAGRAM 54
THREE ELEMENT PLC DIAGRAM 55
FLOW CONTROL PLC DIAGRAM 56
SWITCH MODE PLC DIAGRAM 57
PLC INTERFACED WITH SCADA 60

ABSTRACT :
The main objective of our project is to
maintain the boiler drum level , feed water flow and
outlet steam flow from the boiler using cascade
controller by applying an bias calculation and an
compensated steam flow.
The design have been stimulated using
Programmable Logic Controller ( PLC ) and
interfaced with SCADA (Supervisory Control And
Data Acquisition ) .








COMPANY OVERVIEW :
The Company has emerged as the Largest baggasse
based Paper Mill in the world consuming about one
million tones of bagasse every year.

The capacity of the plant is grown to 4,00,000 tonnes
per annum from July 2010.


TNPL uses automated process control facilities for
various process till final packing and dispatch.

TNPL is an acknowledged leader in the technology
of manufacture of paper from bagasse the sugar
cane residue.

Started with an initial capacity of 90,000 tonnes per
annum (tpa) on a single Paper Machine., the Mill
doubled the capacity to 180,000 tonnes per annum in
the year 1995 by addition of one more Paper
Machine.

The pulp being produced by TNPL, in post-MDP is
Elemental Chlorine Free (ECF).

Along with this, the upgrade of the Paper Machines
has resulted in reaching the paper production capacity
to 2,45,000 tpa.

In 2010TNPL raise the mill capacity to 400,000 tpa
from January 2011, by installing a third Paper
machine (PM #3) and simultaneouly increased the
pulp production capacity to 880tpd.













CHEMICAL RECOVERY PROCESS :
The function of the chemical recovery process
involves receiving weak black liquor from hardwood and
chemical bagasse pulping streets in pulp mill for removal
of the non-cellulosic organic matter and process it to
make white liquor which can be re-used in the process.
This section contains three operations such as
Evaporation, Incineration and Causticizing .

EVAPORATION :
Evaporation in the recovery of sodium hydroxide in kraft
pulping

.Cutting down waste-handling cost is another
major reason for large companies to use evaporation
applications. Legally, all producers of waste must dispose
of waste using methods compatible with environmental
guidelines; these methods are costly. By removing
moisture through vaporization, industry can greatly
reduce the amount of waste product that must be
processed.
Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying
methods in that the final product of evaporation is a
concentrated liquid, not a solid. It is also relatively simple
to use and understand since it has been widely used on a
large scale, and many techniques are generally well
known. In order to concentrate a product by water
removal, an auxiliary phase is used which allows for easy
transport of the solvent (water) rather than the solute.
Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process
occurs more readily at high temperature and low
pressures.
Working of an evaporator :
The solution containing the desired product is fed into the
evaporator and passes across a heat source. The applied
heat converts the water in the solution into vapour. The
vapor is removed from the rest of the solution and is
condensed while the now-concentrated solution is either
fed into a second evaporator or is removed. The
evaporator, as a machine, generally consists of four
sections. The heating section contains the heating
medium, which can vary. Steam is fed into this section.
The most common medium consists of parallel tubes but
others have plates or coils. The concentrating and
separating section removes the vapor being produced
from the solution. The condenser condenses the separated
vapor, then the vacuum or pump provides pressure to
increase circulation.

Heat is needed to provide enough energy for the
molecules of the solvent to leave the solution and move
into the air surrounding the solution. The energy needed
can be expressed as an excess thermodynamic potential of
the water in the solution. Leading to one of the biggest
problems in industrial evaporation, the process requires
enough energy to remove the water from the solution and
to supply the heat of evaporation. When removing the
water, more than 99% of the energy needed goes towards
supplying the heat of evaporation. The need to overcome
the surface tension of the solution also requires energy.
The energy requirement of this process is very high
because a phase transition must be caused; the water must
go from a liquid to a vapor.
In our process the water content in the weak black liquor
is first concentrated by evaporation process before
removing the organic matter present. This operation is
carried out in the evaporation plant.
The bagasse liquor and hardwood liquor at
different concentration levels are blended and processed
in the evaporators. The blend liquor concentration around
8-9 % . The recovery plant has two streets of six-stage
multiple effect and another street of seven-effect falling
film evaporator. The concentration level of the evaporator
output is 45 % and is called a Semi Concentrated Black
Liquor (SCBL).
The plant has a capacity to evaporate 500M
3
of
water per hour.
Weak Black Liquor
Solids : 8 11 % Solids
Heavy Black Liquor
Solids : 70 80 % Solids
Evaporator Capacity : 350 T/hr
Steam Economy : 6.45






RECOVERY BOILER :
Recovery boiler is the part of Kraft process of pulping
where chemicals for white liquor are recovered and
reformed from black liquor.
Recovery boilers are also used in the (less common)
sulfite process of wood pulping .
FUNCTION OF AN RECOVERY BOILER :
Concentrated black liquor contains organic dissolved
wood residue in addition to sodium sulfate from the
cooking chemicals added at the digester. Combustion of
the organic portion of chemicals produces heat. In the
recovery boiler heat is used to produce high pressure
steam, which is used to generate electricity in a turbine.
The turbine exhaust, low pressure steam is used for
process heating.
Combustion of black liquor in the recovery boiler furnace
needs to be controlled carefully. High concentration of
sulfur requires optimum process conditions to avoid
production of sulfur dioxide and reduced sulfur gas
emissions. In addition to environmentally clean
combustion, reduction of inorganic sulfur must be
achieved in the char bed.
Recovery boilers also improved the smelt removal. It is
removed directly from the furnace through smelt spouts
into a dissolving tank
BLACK LIQUOR DRY SOLIDS :
As fired black liquor is a mixture of organic, inorganic
and water. Typically the amount of water is expressed as
mass ratio of dried black liquor to unit of black liquor
before drying. This ratio is called the black liquor dry
solids.
In our process , the concentrated black liquor is fired in
the recovery boiler. Sodium sulphate (Salt Cake) is added
to concentrated black liquor to make up for the losses in
the system. The concentrated black liquor containing the
organic and the inorganic compounds are incinerated in
the boiler. The primary function of the recovery boiler is
to incinerate the organic matter in a controlled manner
and to recover the spent chemicals of the cooking liquor.
In this controlled combustion, certain chemical reactions
takes place and the sodium sulphate is enriched .This
reaction is called as Reduction. The sodium salts melt
in the furnace and flows out in the molten form and is
called as smelt. The smelt contains mostly sodium
carbonate and sodium sulphide. It is dissolved in the
dissolver and is called Green Liquor. The recovery
process generates heat which is used to produce
superheated steam and this is used to generate power.
The recovery boiler is provided with
Electrostatic Precipitators to collect the solids (sodium
salts) escaping with the flue gas .
Liquid Firing
Capacity :1300 T Black Liquor Solids / day.
Steam Generation : 195 T / hr
Steam Pressure : 65 Kg/cm
2
.

SMELT-WATER EXPLOSION :
One of the main hazards in operation of recovery boilers
is the smelt-water explosion. This can happen if even a
small amount of water is mixed with the solids in high
temperature. Smelt-water explosion is purely a physical
phenomenon. The liquid - liquid type explosion
mechanism has been established as one of the main
causes of recovery boiler explosions.
In the smelt water explosion even a few liters of water,
when mixed with molten smelt can violently turn to steam
in few tenths of a second. Char bed and water can coexist
as steam blanketing reduces heat transfer. Some trigger
event destroys the balance and water is evaporated
quickly through direct contact with smelt. This sudden
evaporation causes increase of volume and a pressure
wave of some 10 000 100 000 Pa. The force is usually
sufficient to cause all furnace walls to bend out of shape.
Safety of equipment and personnel requires an immediate
shutdown of the recovery boiler if there is a possibility
that water has entered the furnace. All recovery boilers
have to be equipped with special automatic shutdown
sequence.
The other type of explosions is the combustible gases
explosion. For this to happen the fuel and the air have to
be mixed before the ignition. Typical conditions are either
a blackout (loss of flame) without purge of furnace or
continuous operation in a substoichiometric state.
Combustible gas explosions are connected with oil/gas
firing in the boiler. As also continuous O
2
monitoring is
practiced in virtually every boiler the noncombustible gas
explosions have become very rare.


CAUSTICIZING PLANT :
The green liquor obtained on dissolving the
smelt contains mostly sodium carbonate apart from
sodium sulphide. To convert the sodium carbonate to
sodium hydroxide, which is the main chemical of the
cooking liquor, the green liquor is treated with burnt lime
and thereby white liquor is generated. The reaction is as
follows:
Sodium Carbonate + Calcium Hydroxide + Water
( Green Liquor ) ( Burnt Lime )
Sodium Hydroxide + Calcium Carbonate
( White liquor ) ( lime sludge )

This reaction is carried out in the causticizing section .
Burnt lime generated from the lime kiln and hot green
liquor are processed in the equipment called slaker . In
this reaction white liquor and lime sludge are formed . It
is fed to white liquor clarifier , where the lime sludge
settles down in the process called sedimentation and clear
white liquor flows from the top of the clarifier . It is
stored and supplied to pulp mill for cooking .
The lime sludge settled at the bottom of the clarifier
is extracted and washed in the equipment called lime mud
washer and mud filter. A lime kiln has been installed to
recycle this lime sludge and re-generate burnt lime
required for the causticizing process and as well for hypo
preparation .
In this cycle of operation , there will be loss of
sodium compounds . These losses are made up with
Sodium Sulphate and Sodium Hydroxide . The caustic
soda is directly mixed in the white liquor at required
concentration , before pumping to pulp mill .
The Causticizing Plant has capacity to 3600M
3
/ day
of white liquor.






LIME KILN :
Lime kiln with the capacity of 170 MT / day of burnt
lime has been installed to recycle the lime sludge
generated in the process of causticizing . Raw lime stone
is added with the lime sludge and fet into the kiln . The
kiln is fired with furnace oil and Bio Gas . At the
required temperature , the burnt lime with purity of 75 %
CaO is generated which will be used in the causticizing
and hypo preparation and as well as in bio-methanation
plant , 170 tpd was added to meet the additional burnt
lime required for recausticizing .








BOILER DRUM LEVEL CONTROL :
A very common control problem, and one used in
many examples elsewhere, is that of controlling the level
in a boiler drum. Many industrial plants have boilers for
generating process steam, and ofcourse boilers are central
to thermal power generation.

The boiler drum is where water and steam are separated.
Controlling its level is critical if the level becomes too
low, the boiler can run dry resulting in mechanical
damage of the drum and boiler piping. If the level
becomes too high, water can be carried over into the
steam pipework, possibly damaging downstream
equipment.

The design of the boiler drum level control strategy is
normally described as single-element, two-element, or
three-element control. This article explains the three
designs.



THREE ELEMENT STRATEGY :
The term 3-element control refers to the number of
process variables (PVs) that are measured to effect control
of the boiler feed water control valve. These measured
PVs are :

liquid level in the boiler drum,
flow of feed water to the boiler drum, and
flow of steam leaving the boiler drum.
Single-element Control (Feedback Control) :

One or more boiler feed water pumps push water
through one or more feed water control valves into the
boiler drum. The water level in the drum is measured with
a pressure and temperature-compensated level transmitter.
The drum level controller compares the drum level
measurement to the set point and modulates the feed
water control valves to keep the water level in the drum as
close to set point as possible. Variable-speed boiler feed
pumps are sometimes used to control the level instead of
valves.
The simple feedback control design described above is
called single-element control, because it uses only a
single feedback element for control the drum level
measurement.
With multiple sources and multiple pumps, the supply
pressure of the feed water will change over time. Every
time supply pressure changes, the flow rate through the
valve, even if it remains fixed in position, is immediately
affected.
So, if the boiler drum liquid level is low, the level
controller will call for an increase in feed water flow. But
consider that if at this moment, the feed water supply
pressure were to drop. The level controller could be
opening the valve, yet the falling supply pressure could
actually cause a decreased flow through the valve and into
the drum.
Thus, it is not enough for the level controller to
directly open or close the valve. Rather, it must decide
whether it needs more or less feed flow to the boiler
drum. The level controller transmits its target flow as a set
point to a flow controller. The flow controller then
decides how much to open or close the valve as supply
pressure swings to meet the set point target.
Major Disturbances :
Drum level is affected by changes in feed water and
steam flow rate. But because of the very slow response of
the feedback control loop, changes in feed flow or steam
flow can cause very large deviations in boiler drum level.
Single-element drum level control can work well only if
the residence time of the drum is very large to
accommodate the large deviations, but this is seldom the
case especially in the power industry. For this reason,
the control strategy is normally expanded to also include
feed water and steam flow.






Two-element Control (Cascade Control) :

Many boilers have two or three feed pumps that will
be switched on or off depending on boiler load. If a feed
pump is started up or shut down, the total feed water flow
rate changes. This causes a deviation in drum level, upon
which the drum level controller will act and change the
feed water control valve position to compensate. As
explained above, the level controllers response is likely
very slow, so switching feed pumps on and off can result
in large deviations in drum level.
A faster control action is needed for dealing with
changes in feed water flow rate. This faster action is
obtained by controlling the feed water flow rate itself, in
addition to the drum level.
The drum level controller becomes the primary
controller and its output drives the set point of the feed
water flow controller, the secondary control loop. This
arrangement is also called two-element control, because
both drum level and feed water flow rate are measured
and used for control.
The level controller is the primary controller
(sometimes referred to as the master controller) in this
cascade, adjusting the set point of the flow controller,
which is the secondary controller (sometimes identified as
the slave controller).








Three-element Control
(Cascade + Feed forward Control) :


Similar to feed flow, changes in steam flow can also
cause large deviations in drum level, and could possibly
trip the boiler. Changes in steam flow rate are measurable
and this measurement can be used to improve level
control very successfully by using a feed forward control
strategy.
For the feed forward control strategy, steam flow rate
is measured and used as the set point of the feed water
flow controller. In this way the feed water flow rate is
adjusted to match the steam flow. Changes in steam flow
rate will almost immediately be counteracted by similar
changes in feed water flow rate. To ensure that deviations
in drum level are also used for control, the output of the
drum level controller is added to the feed forward from
steam flow.
The combination of drum level measurement, steam
flow measurement, and feed flow measurement to control
boiler drum level is called three-element control.
By measuring the steam flow, the magnitude of
demand changes can be used as a feed forward signal to
the level control system. The feed forward signal can be
added into the output of the level controller to adjust the
flow control loop set point, or can be added into the
output of the flow control loop to directly manipulate the
boiler feed water control valve. The majority of boiler
level control systems add the feed forward signal into the
level controller output to the secondary (feed water flow)
controller set point. This approach eliminates the need for
characterizing the feed forward signal to match the
control valve characteristic.
Actual boiler level control schemes do not feed the
steam flow signal forward directly. Instead, the difference
between the outlet steam flow and the inlet water flow is
calculated. The difference value is directly added to the
set point signal to the feed water flow controller.
Therefore, if the steam flow out of the boiler is suddenly
increased by the start up of a turbine, for example, the set
point to the feed water flow controller is increased by
exactly the amount of the measured steam flow increase.
Simple material balance considerations suggest that if
the two flow meters are exactly accurate, the flow change
produced by the flow control loop will make up exactly
enough water to maintain the level without producing a
significant upset to the level control loop. Similarly, a
sudden drop in steam demand caused by the trip of a
significant turbine load will produce an exactly matching
drop in feed water flow to the steam drum without
producing any significant disturbance to the boiler steam
drum level control.
The most common of these are boiler blow down and
steam vents (including relief valves) ahead of the steam
production meter. In addition, boiler operating conditions
that alter the total volume of water in the boiler cannot be
corrected by the feed forward control strategy. The level
controller itself must correct for these unmeasured
disturbances using the normal feedback control algorithm.

INSTRUMENTATION :
CASCADE CONTROLLER :
In a cascade control we have one manipulated variable
and more than one measurement . It is clear with a single
manipulation we can control only one output .
One distinctive advantage of Cascade controllers is that
two PID controllers can be used together to yield better
dynamic performance. This is called cascaded PID
control.
In cascade control there are two PIDs arranged with
one PID controlling the setpoint of another. A PID
controller acts as outer loop controller, which controls the
primary physical parameter, such as fluid level or
velocity.
The other controller acts as inner loop controller,
which reads the output of outer loop controller as setpoint,
usually controlling a more rapid changing parameter, flow
rate or acceleration.
It can be mathematically proven that the working
frequency of the controller is increased and the time
constant of the object is reduced by using cascaded PID
controller .



The loop that measures the controlled variable (boiler
drum level) is the primary loop .

The loop that measures the output of the primary
controller as its set point ( Feed Water Flow ) is
called secondary loop .
The purpose of cascade control is to achieve greater
stability of the primary process variable by regulating a
secondary process variable in accordance with the needs
of the first . An essential requirement of cascade control is
that the secondary process variable be faster responding
than the primary process variable .






CASCADE CONTROL




PID CONTROLLER :



A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID
controller) is a generic control loop feedback mechanism
(controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A
PID controller calculates an "error" value as the
difference between a measured process variable and a
desired set point. The controller attempts to minimize the
error by adjusting the process control inputs.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three
separate constant parameters, and is accordingly
sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the
integral and derivative values, denoted P, I, and D.
Heuristically, these values can be interpreted in terms of
time: P depends on the present error, I on the
accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of
future errors, based on current rate of change. The
weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the
process via a control element such as the position of a
control valve, a damper, or the power supplied to a
heating element.

Loop tuning :
Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control
parameters (proportional band/gain, integral gain/reset,
derivative gain/rate) to the optimum values for the desired
control response. Stability (bounded oscillation) is a basic
requirement, but beyond that, different systems have
different behavior, different applications have different
requirements, and requirements may conflict with one
another.
PID tuning is a difficult problem, even though there are
only three parameters and in principle is simple to
describe, because it must satisfy complex criteria within
the limitations of PID control.


PID CONTROLLER TUNING :
CV = K * L
-1
[( 1 + 1/T1
S
+ T2
S
/ 1+ a * T2
S
) * ( PVP
S
- SPP
S
)]
TUNING - GENERAL
Control action : REVERSE
Integral Time T1 = 0.05 min
HI Limit =1440.00
LOW Limit = 0.00
Derivative Time T2 = 0.00 min
HI Limit = 1440.00
LOW Limit = 0.00
Filter Time = 0.00

GAIN OPTIONS :
Gain option : LINEAR
Overall Gain = 0.20
HI Limit = 240.00
LOW Limit = 0.00
Linear Gain Factor = NaN

Gap Gain Factor = NaN
HI Limit = NaN
LOW Limit = NaN
Non Linearity Form = 0.00
Non Linearity Gain Factor = NaN

CV = Output of PID in percent
K = gain ( proportional term )
L
-1
= Inverse of Laplace transform
PV = process input variables
PVP = PV in percent
a = 1/16 fixed rate amplitude
SP = set point value
SPP = SP in percent
T1 = Integral time constant in minutes
T2 = Derivative time constant in minutes
NaN = Not a number

CONTROL VALVE :
Control valves are used to control conditions such as
flow, pressure, temperature, and liquid level by fully or
partially opening or closing in response to signals
received from controllers that compare a "setpoint" to a
"process variable" whose value is provided by sensors
that monitor changes in such conditions.
The opening or closing of control valves is usually done
automatically by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
actuators. Positioners are used to control the opening or
closing of the actuator based on electric or pneumatic
signals.
These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi
(0.2 -1.0 bar), more common now are 4-20 mA signals for
industrial standard .
Construction :
This is an air operated valve which controls the
flow through an orifice by positioning
approximately a plug.

The plug is attached at the end of a steam which is
supported by a diaphragm at the other end.

The air controller output above the diaphragm
increases, the steam moves down and consequently
the plug restricts the flow through the orifice.

The control valve function is of two types,

i. Air fail to close ,
ii. Air fail to open .

Air fail to close :
The controller output above the diaphragm increase,
the steam moves downward means air to close
function.

It is also known as fail to open.

Air fail to open :
In ordering condition the control valve close the
function.
If the pressure increases, automatically open the
valve is called air to open.

It also known as a fail to close.


CONTROL VALVE CHARACTERISTICS :
Linear
Equal percentage
Quick opening

Linear :
Linear type control valve means the positioner
output increases or decreases simultaneously
control output changes.
This is plug arrangement of linear type control
valve.
F(x) = x
Equal percentage :
Equal percentage means the stem movement is
slow then the output gives a slow response .

F(x) =
x-1





Quick opening :
Quick opening also known as on-off function.
On - 100% - open
Off - 0% - close
The supply air is given by the solenoid valve.
F(x) =

Sensitivity :
Sensitivity = d f(x) / dx
X = fraction of open ( Stem position )
F(x) = fraction of maximum flow.

In feed water flow control, in soda recovery
plant, Globe valve is used which is of Equal percentage
characteristics where the flow increases , sensitivity
also increases .



I/P converter :
I - current
P - pressure(Air)
So that,
I/P





current Pressure
4mA 0.2kg/cm2 0%
8mA 0.4kg/cm2 25%
12mA 0.6kg/cm2 50%
16mA 0.8 kg/cm2 75%
20mA 1kg/cm2 100%


Differential Pressure Level Measurement :
This method is especially applied to steam boilers for
designing auxiliary level gauges .
Mercury filled U tube manometer is used as a
differential pressure sensor . It measures the pressure
difference between two columns of liquid . The one is
maintained at a constant reference level , while the other
is dependant upon the level inside the vessel .
Now, in cases where tanks or vessels are not open to the
atmosphere i.e. in pressurized tanks, both the high and
low pressure ends of the differential pressure detector are
required to be connected. These tanks are entirely covered
in order to avoid release of vapors or steam outside.
Flow sensor :



In the Differential Pressure Transmitter, as flow increases,
the differential pressure increases, and when flow
decreases the differential pressure decreases. For
example, an orifice plate is placed in a pipe to restrict the
fluid flow. This restriction creates a pressure drop that can
be converted to flow rate. The differential pressure
transmitter measures the pressure drop created, by
measuring pressure at two different points, upstream and
downstream. Differential pressure, then is the difference
between the higher pressure or upstream reading and the
lower pressure or downstream reading.
Differential Pressure = High Pressure - Low Pressure.

GLOBE VALVE :







A globe valve is a type of valve used for regulating flow
in a pipeline, consisting of a movable disk-type element
and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.
Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape
with the two halves of the body being separated by an
internal baffle. This has an opening that forms a seat onto
which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or shut)
the valve. The plug is also called a disk. In globe valves,
the plug is connected to a stem which is operated by
screw action using a hand wheel in manual valves.
Typically, automated globe valves use smooth stems
rather than threaded and are opened and closed by an
actuator assembly.
Body :
The body is the main pressure containing structure of the
valve and the most easily identified as it forms the mass
of the valve. The bonnet is connected to the body and
provides the containment of the fluid, gas, or slurry that is
being controlled.
Bonnet :
The bonnet provides a leak proof closure for the valve
body. The threaded section of the stem goes through a
hole with matching threads in the bonnet. Globe valves
may have a screw-in, union bonnet. Screw-in bonnet is
the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight
seal.
Plug or disk :
The closure member of the valve, plugs are connected to
the stem which is slid or screwed up or down to throttle
the flow. Plugs are typically of the balance or unbalanced
type. Unbalanced plugs are solid and are used with
smaller valves or with low pressure drops across the
valve.
Stem :
The stem serves as a connector from the actuator to the
inside of the valve and transmits this actuation force.
Stems are either smooth for actuator controlled valves or
threaded for manual valves..
Cage :
The cage is part of the valve that surrounds the plug and is
located inside the body of the valve. Typically, the cage is
one of the greatest determiners of flow within the valve.
As the plug is moved more of the openings in the cage are
exposed and flow is increased and vice versa Cages are
also used to guide the plug to the seat of the valve for a
good shutoff, substituting the guiding from the bonnet.
Seat ring :
The seat ring provides a stable, uniform and replaceable
shut off surface. Seat rings are usually held in place by
pressure from the fastening of the bonnet to the top of the
body. Economical globe valves or stop valves with a
similar mechanism used in plumbing often have a rubber
washer at the bottom of the disc for the seating surface, so
that rubber can be compressed against the seat to form a
leak-tight seal when shut.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS :
Capacitive transducers are nothing but the capacitors with
the variable capacitance. These are mainly used for
the measurement of displacement, pressure etc. It is a
Passive type of Transducer.
Principle of Operation:
The capacitive transducers works on the familiar
capacitance equation of parallel plate capacitor, which is
given by:
C= o x r x A / d
Where C is the value of the capacitor of the capacitance
transducer
o is the absolute permittivity
r is the relative permittivity .
The product of o & r is also called as the dielectric
constant of the capacitive transducer. A is the area of the
plated is the distance between the plates .

Flow nozzle :
Flange type flow nozzle :


The flow nozzle is a smooth, convergent section that
discharges the flow parallel to the axis of the downstream
pipe . The downstream pipe end of a nozzle approximates
a short tube and has a diameter of the venacontracta of an
orifice of equal capacity. Thus the diameter ratio for a
nozzle is smaller or it flow coefficient is larger . Pressure
recovery is better than that of an orifice .



Flow nozzles are usually made of gun metals, stainless
steel, bronze or monel metal. They are frequently
chromium plated. Sometimes slettite coating is provided
to have abrasion resistance.
Advantages :
Permanent pressure loss lower than that for
an orifice plate.
It is suitable for fluids containing solids that
settle.
It is widely accepted for high pressure and
temperature steam flow.









PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER :

Role of PLC in automation :
The Programmable logic controllers represent a key
factor in industrial automation. Its use permits flexible
adaptation to varying processes as well as rapid fault
finding and error elimination. Every system or machine
has a controller. Depending on type of technology used,
controllers can be divided into pneumatic, hydraulic,
electrical and electronic controllers. Frequently, a
combination of different technologies is used.
i) Hard-wired programmable (wiring of electro
mechanical or electronic components)
ii) Programmable logic controllers (software controls
the process and reprogrammed)

PLC BLOCK DIAGRAM :



PLC ARCHIETECTURE :
PLC is A Digitally operating electronic apparatus,
designed for industrial environment, which use
programmable memory for internal storage of user
instruction by implementing specific function such as
logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control through digital or analogue inputs & outputs,
various types of machines or process.

PROGRAMMING DEVICE
(OPERATOR INTERFACE)

INPUT MODULE

CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT

OUTPUT MODULE

SENSORS

ACTUATORS



INPUT FIELD DEVICES :

Sensors and Switches :
A sensor is a device that converts a physical condition
into an electrical signal for use by the PLC. Sensors are
connected to the input of a PLC. A push button is one
example of a sensor that is connected to the PLC input.
An electrical signal is sent from the pushbutton to the
PLC indicating the condition (open/closed) of the
pushbutton contacts.



CPU MODULE

CPU is the brain of PLC. The module consists of
ALU, Memory to store user program and I/O status and
connected to programming device which acts as an
operator interface. Inside CPU is simply a microprocessor
which has RAM, ROM and produces output in
microseconds. Very small microprocessors (or micros)
integrated circuits with tremendous computing and
control capabilityprovide the intelligence of todays
programmable controllers. They perform mathematical
operations, data handling, and diagnostic routines that
were not possible with relays or their predecessor, the
hardwired logic processor
Power module :
PLCs are powered by standard commercial AC
power lines. However, many PLC components, such as
the CPU and memory, utilize 5 VDC and 10A of power.
Most commonly 24VDC is used at I/O modules. The PLC
power supply converts AC power into DC power to
support those components of the PLC. PLC has a
tolerance of 10 to 15 % variation in line voltage
conditions. If power varies from beyond tolerance the
module gives a shutdown command to the processor. To
avoid such problems a constant transformer source is used
near to processor. Super capacitors are used to maintain a
charge for long period of time to protect data stored in
RAM and can be backed up for 100 hours.

SMPS is used to give constant input and power
supply to PLC. Normally 24V is used as input and power
supply. Variable AC line voltage is fed to the SMPS,
which gives a constant 24V at output. Variable
configurations are available with AC to DC and AC to
AC and vice versa. Based on user needs SMPS can be
selected.
INPUT MODULE :




Input module acts as an interface between field control
inputs and CPU. The voltage or current signals generated
by sensors, limit switches, push buttons etc are applied to
the terminals of input module. It converts the field signal
into a standard control signal for processing of CPU.
Depending on nature of signal, the input module could be
either AC/DC and analog/digital
OUTPUT MODULE :

Output modules are used to provide electrical
connection between internal processor unit of PLC and
field device to which it provides signals. The output
modules differ from type of electrical energy they
produce such as variable DC voltage, AC voltage and
(ON, OFF) discrete voltages. Most commonly used is
discrete output module.





Working of PLC :

The basic function of a programmable controller is to read
all of the field input devices and then execute the control
program, which according to the logic programmed, will
turn the field output devices ON or OFF.
Once the program is in the CPU - the PLC is then set to
"run", and the PLC executes the application program
repeatedly. In addition to executing the program, the CPU
regularly reads the status of the input devices, and sends
data to the output devices.
PLC LADDER DIAGRAMS :
SINGLE ELEMENT :

THIRD ELEMENT :

FLOW CONTROL OUTPUT :





SWITCH MODE :

SINGLE OR THIRD :




SCADA
(Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition ) :
An industrial measurement and control system
consisting of a central host or master (usually called a
master station, master terminal unit or MTU); one or more
field data gathering and control units or remotes (usually
called remote stations, remote terminal units, or RTU's);
and a collection of standard and/or custom software used
to monitor and control remotely located field data
elements. Contemporary SCADA systems exhibit
predominantly open-loop control characteristics and
utilize predominantly long distance communications,
although some elements of closed-loop control and/or
short distance communications may also be present.
Systems similar to SCADA systems are routinely seen
in factories, treatment plants etc. These are often referred
to as Distributed Control Systems (DCS). They have
similar functions to SCADA systems, but the field data
gathering or control units are usually located within a
more confined area.
SCADA systems on the other hand generally cover
larger geographic areas, and rely on a variety of
communications systems that are normally less reliable
than a LAN. Closed loop control in this situation is less
desirable.
It is used to monitor and control plant or equipment. The
control may be automatic, or initiated by operator
commands. The data acquisition is accomplished firstly
by the RTU's scanning the field inputs connected to the
RTU (it may be also called a PLC - programmable logic
controller). This is usually at a fast rate. The central host
will scan the RTU's (usually at a slower rate.) The data is
processed to detect alarm conditions, and if an alarm is
present, it will be displayed on special alarm lists.

PLC INTERFACED WITH SCADA :

SCADA Link Products and Modbus Protocol :
Modbus protocol (ASCII and RTU) originally
developed by Gould Modicon for their PLC family has
become a defacto standard in industrial control
communications.
A relatively simple protocol, Modbus has been
implemented by many manufacturers of instrumentation
PROGRAMMBLE
LOGIC
CONTROLLER
(PLC)
OUTPUT
UNIT
SCADA
SYSTEM
MONITOR
DISPLAY
INPUT
UNIT
and control equipment to offer system interoperability.
Equipment supporting Modbus protocol variants include
PLCs, RTUs, VFDs (Variable Frequency Drives),
SCADA Hosts, MMIs, Flow Computers, Power Meters,
Power Line Reclosers, Valve Actuators, Intelligent
Instruments, and Protocol Converters.
Supported by a wide range of manufacturers, Modbus
protocol has been the protocol of choice when a single
protocol is utilized in a SCADA communications
network. A majority of industrial equipment either
supports Modbus directly as a native protocol or via the
manufacturers or a third party communication cards.
More recently Modbus TCP developed by Modicon
has been adopted as industrial Ethernet protocol
transporting Modbus protocol over LAN networks.
Bentek Systems SCADA Link products support
Modbus RTU and Modbus TCP Protocol.
REFERENCES :
Mr. M. SURESH ( ENGINEER ) , SRP,TNPL
Mr. NIRANJAN ( ENGINEER ) , SRP,TNPL
Mr . DINESH ( TECHNICIAN ), SRP,TNPL
Mr. VIJAYA KUMAR (TECHNICIAN ),SRP,TNPL
Kraft Recovery Boilers by Terry N. ADAMS .
Chemical Process Control by GEORGE
STEPHANOPOLOUS .
Industrial Instrumentation by K. KRISHNASWAMY