Analyze how industrialization contributed to the development of consumer culture in the period of 1850

1914.
More means of production
Created more businesses
Jobs; more men to work
Cult of domesticity
Ads towards women
More money with the bourgeoisie
The dabeers diamond company; giving people diamond rings as engagement rings, control
population of diamonds going out to sell
Metals and steel ; means of transportation, more travelling; opened up markets in other areas
Better economy
Transporting soldiers
Continental railroad
Mass production; factories, greater production, more available products and cheaper
Bourgeois comfort homes
Opium from India to China, Tea from China to Britain
Indian companies
Expanded market; products more widely available in other areas
The Great War (AKA World War I)
Causes
National Darwinism.
Domestic political struggles. TENSION!
Arms race.
Imperialism.
Jingoism.
Alliances.
Sick Men of Europe vs. Nationalism.
Mobilization timetables.
Germans
Russia mobilized first. Its a defensive war.
Devised Schleiffen Plan.
War vs. France AND Russia.
Attack France through Belgium quickly, then attack slow mobilizing Russia.
Belgian guerilla warfare and reprisals.
War
Euphoria for (short) war.
Everybody home for Xmas.
New weapons insure quick war.
Wrong!
New Weaponry
Defensive weapons
o Machine guns
o Long range artillery
o Barbed wire and mines
Offensive weapons
o Airplanes (Zeppelins)
o Tanks
o Poison gas
o Flame-throwers
o Submarines
Defensive War Slaughter
Trenches
Barbed wire
Land mines
No mans land
Frontal attacks. Going over the top.
1914
Western Front
o Modified Schleiffen Plan.
o First Battle of the Marne.
o Trench Race: Switzerland to Sea 400 miles!
Eastern Front
o Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes.
o Crushing Russian defeats.
1915
Serbs knocked out of the war as Germans rescue AH from Russians.
Italy joined the Allies (Britain, France, Russia) for promises of land.
Romania and Greece joined the Allies too.
Bulgaria joined the Central Powers.
Gallipoli. B vs. T.
1916
Western Front
o Verdun. F vs. G (Attrition)
o Attrition warfare French.
o Battle of the Somme. B vs. G.
Eastern Front
o Brusilov Offensive. R vs. A-H then G.
Jutland one large naval battle of the war.
B vs. G ended in a draw.
1917
War weariness.
Nivelle Offensive resulted in 40k French troops mutinying.
Passchendale. B vs. G.
Caporetto G & A-H vs. It.
Eastern Front
War weariness.
Russia poorly led, poorly equipped, fighting for what?
1917 Russians quitting, two Revolutions.
1918 Russian participation finished.
Lost huge territory in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. March 1918. More later
Germans shift troops to Western Front.
Strategic Warfare
British blockade al trade to Germany.
Germany sinks ships with U-Boats.
After the Lusitania sunk 5/1915 Germany forced to change tactics.
Convoys worked well vs. subs.
Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed 2/1917 to starve Britain.
Zeppelins bombed London for a while.
The United States
British Propaganda.
Loans and sales to Allies.
Democratic side (March 1917 Russian Revolution).
Unrestricted submarine warfare resume February 1917.
Zimmerman telegram February 1917.
War declared April 1917.
Will take a year before troops ready.
1918
Race between German and American troops.
1918 Ludendorff Offensive.
German army quit.
November 1918 sailor and worker revolts force abdication of Kaiser.
German Republic declared by SPD.
Ludendorff forces democratic leaders to sue for peace. President Wilson agrees.
Balance
11(?) million (men) killed. (Mostly soldiers)
20 million (men) incapacitated. (Ditto)
Europe no longer center of world. (Capital)
Psychological damage to everyone.
Four empires destroyed.
Seemed like War to end all wars.
WWI Home Front
Home Front
War called for unprecedented mobilization of entire country and economy.
Government intervention in economy prevented shortages/bottlenecks.
Bureaucracies set production quotas, controlled wages, prices, materials, distribution.
o War Raw Materials Board, Ministry of Munitions, etc
Nationalization of transportation and energy sectors.
Isnt that all socialistic?
Government Control
Food rationing because farm man & beast power gone.
Rationing in Germany 1/1915 Britain 1917.
Hoarding and black markets.
1916 1917 Turnip Winter in Germany.
700,000 Germans died of hunger during war.
Women and the Poor
Critical to war effort, took mens jobs.
Pay increased some under war pressure. (not =)
Created independence (think flappers).
Many previously oppositional feminists became nationalists.
Germany, Austria, Britain, U.S. got post war suffrage.
Full employment for the first time ever.
New wealth for the poorest but at what cost?
War inflation hurt some people too.
Burgfrieden and Union Sacre
The beginning of the war created national unity.
Cheering crowds everywhere.
Kaiser Wilhelm saw no political parties, just Germans.
Even socialists rally around the nation.
What about working men of the world unite?
Labor
Labor unions more powerful and influential than ever.
Helped governments make decisions. Mostly loyal.
Collective bargaining established.
War weariness set in 1916 long hours, nothing to buy.
Later strikes and work stoppages and social peace between unions/socialist parties broke down.
Mobilizing Morale
Censorship and loss of civil rights. Sedition laws.
People upset by losses, long working hours, shortages.
Propaganda the enemy is evil!
Atrocities fabricated and exaggerated.
Disconnect between front and home front.
Churches support war effort too.
War Weariness in Central Powers
1917 German socialists and center party voted for peace without annexation.
1917 Ditto Austria.
1916 Franz Josef Symbol of AH unity died. Nationalities more restless.
Czechs and South Slavs (Yugoslavs, Serbians) demanded autonomy.
Germans control Austrian military to keep them fighting.
Stirring up Nationalities and Trouble
Germans encouraged Irish and non-Russians.
Irish Easter Rebellion 1916.
Germans sent Lenin to Russia. (Commu-bomb)
British encouraged Slavs vs. AH, encouraged Zionists and Arabs vs. Turks.
Defeatism and Desertion
Soldiers defeatism increasing everywhere.
Desertions esp. bad in Russia 1917.
French mutinies during Nivelle Offensive 1917.
Germans quit during Ludendorff Offensive 1918.
German sailors mutinied November 1918.
World War I
Showed planned economy worked.
Showed propaganda worked. (Advertising)
Showed totalitarianism worked.
Involved entire nation in the conflict. (Home front)
Initial patriotic unity fractured under war.
Old socio-political conflicts return.
Made brutality and death commonplace.
The Russian Revolution and the Creation of the Soviet Union
Political System
Revolution of 1905 followed by reform.
Duma (unequal voting) and political parties didnt have much power.
Dominated by nationalists and conservatives.
There were a few Bolsheviks and Mensheviks in the last Duma.
The Bolsheviks were arrested after they voted against war.
Workers councils (Soviets) formed 1905.
Trade unions increased in size/power.
War
Difficulty mobilizing everything.
Relied on numbers rather than technology.
Agricultural production fell shortages.
Working women burdened by long hours, good shortages, dying men.
Millions of men lost on battlefield.
Poor leadership, equipment, morale.
The Royal Family
Tsar out of touch and increasingly unpopular.
Tsarina a German spy?
Rasputin.
March 1917 Revolution
Sparked by women demonstrating and rioting.
Persuaded men to join their ranks.
Cossacks dont attack them.
Troops refused to fire on wives and mothers.
Military and advisors forced Nicholas II to abdicate.
Republic declared.
Provisional Government (March November 1917)
Bourgeois leaders (Cadets) wanted constitutional and democratic rule.
Alexander Kerensky (Socialist Revolutionary Party) led the government.
Government passed reforms freedom of the press, abolition of capital punishment.
Continued war. (2 million deserters by fall)
Armed deserters seized noble land.
Soviets and Bolsheviks
Worker councils (Soviets) wanted more socialism and peace.
Bolsheviks wanted revolution and socialism now.
Bolsheviks allied with Petrograd Soviet.
Lenins slogans show Bolsheviks program.
o All power to the Soviets
o All land to the peasants
o Stop the war now
o Peace, Land, Bread
October Revolution (November 7, 1917)
Provisional Government increasingly authoritarian until Kornilov revolt.
General Kornilov was marching on Petrograd.
Kerensky armed Petrograd Soviet to face threat.
Kornilov stopped by RR strike.
Trotsky, armed workers from Petrograd Soviet, and Kronstadt sailors seized power in Petrograd.
Bolshevik/Soviet Government
Congress of Soviets abolished all landlord property and divided yet unclaimed land. (land)
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed March 1918. (peace)
Russia lost Ukraine, Baltic States, Finland!
Lenin losses unimportant. World-wide revolution coming soon.
Elections 11/1917
No one had supported provisional government.
Electrons for Constituent Assembly proceed
SR party defeated Bolsheviks.
Constituent Assembly met one day before being dissolved by Bolsheviks 1/1918.
Civil War breaks out.
Bread?
Continued difficulties especially with disruptions of the civil war.
Requisitioning by armed forces.
Starvation and disease increase.
Russian Civil War (1917 21)
Bolsheviks and Soviets Reds.
Opposed by many parties Whites.
Landlords, army officers, churchmen, bourgeoisie, united only by hate.
White supplied by Allies who halfheartedly intervened in Russia (fear of Communism).
Brutal civil war millions died.
Russo Polish War (1920)
Poles invaded Russia to seize land.
Reds fought back to the gates of Warsaw.
Poles pushed them back and took some land.
Why/How did the Reds win?
Trotskys brilliance and brutality.
They held center enemies on fringes, enemies disunity geographically and politically.
Conservative program unappealing to masses. Give land back?
War Communism and Terror.
War Communism
Grain requisitioned (including seed grain).
Rationing.
Industry nationalized.
Uncontrolled printing of currency hyperinflation.
Price controls.
Forced labor for civilization.
All kept the Bolsheviks supplied and fighting.
It was the start of economic totalitarianism.
Terror
Cheka class enemies liquidated (killed).
Executions and torture.
Conscription (machine guns behind troops).
Concentration camps.
Famine.
Fear silenced opposition.
The Soviet Union
Russian power in new totalitarian state.
Complete social power shift.
Not Marxism realized new exploiters with totalitarianism.
Totalitarian state radically affects 20
th
century history.
Frightens capitalist nations Red Scare.
End of the Great War: Paris Peace Conference Jan June 1919 Treaty of Versailles
Armistice November 11, 1918
German army not fighting.
German sailors and workers striking.
Austria Hungary unraveling. Germans control it.
Kaiser forced into exile peaceful Revolution.
General Ludendorff orders civilians to make peace.
New German Republic asked for peace under the terms of Wilsons Fourteen Points.
Wilsons Fourteen Points
Open diplomacy.
Armament reduction.
National self determination for Italians, Balkan peoples. A-H ethnic groups, Poles.
Freedom of the seas.
League of Nations: international organization to keep the peace.
End the economic barriers.
Fair colonial readjustments.
Reality
Secret treaties and agreements.
Sacrifice should lead to a win.
Allies owed the US lots of money.
Losers to pay for the war.
French wanted to weaken Germany.
Winner ethnic groups and loser ethnic groups.
The Big Four Made Treaty
Clemenceau France
Lloyd George Britain
Wilson US
Orlando Italy
The Excluded
Germany (loser)
Austria-Hungary (loser gone)
Russia (pariah)
Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
Rhineland occupied for 15 years and demilitarized.
Saarland occupied and used for 15 years.
Alsace and Lorraine returned.
Some territory given to Poland and others.
Colonies divided.
Anschluss with Austria prohibited.
Article 231-war guilt clause.
Reparations (?)$35 billion
Army limited to 100 k soldiers.
No General staff or officer training schools.
No offensive weapons (tanks, gas, airplanes, subs, big artillery/ships).
Problems
J.M. Keynes warned against economic provisions would damage winners economies and
would lead to Germanys instability.
Winners peace.
Americans refused to sign defensive alliance with France no French security.
Germans Outraged
German politicians forced to sign (Diktat) under threat of invasion.
Shock! We were winning!
Stab in the Back Myth.
What happened to the 14 Points?
Little support for fledgling republic.
Left wing and right wing agitators.
New States
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Albania, Yugoslavia all
based on national self-determination.
Hungarians and Germans losers.
Jews also faced problems. Why?
Many dissatisfied minorities: irredentism.
AH economy divided.
No sense of democracy.
Problems
Americans (Republican Congress) refused Treaty of Versailles and League of Nations.
Russia now the Soviet Union. OMG!
Britain feared Bolsheviks more than Germans.
Frances security linked to new East European states.
Italians dissatisfied with gains.
German Weimar Republic tainted by treaty.
Germans irate about their fate.
Italian Fascism
Fascism as alternative to Liberalism and Marxism
Parliamentary democracy is interest group bickering.
Economy Social question and economic cycles.
Individualism and liberty is psychologically unfulfilling.
Marxism no property, no religion, dictatorship of the masses.
Fascism
Political strength Macho Strongman decides for all.
Economic security and fairness (language of the Left).
Generally conservative (women, society, etc).
Psychologically fulfilling (symbols of the Right).
Extreme nationalism the state above all and everyone together.
Militaristic.
Why Italy?
WWI winner wasnt rewarded for sacrifices.
No colonies for example.
Weak support for shifting governments.
Postwar depression and unemployment.
Social unrest in factories and on land.
Some strikes, some land seizures.
Fear of Bolshevism.
Benito Mussolinis path to power
Switched from socialist to nationalist.
From republican anti-clerical to upholder of monarchy and the church.
Squadristi black shirted thugs used violence, arson, murder against enemies.
Created chaos and them promised law and order.
Fascists Take Power
Fascists marched on Rome 10/22 threatened/demanded power.
King asked Mussolini to form cabinet with dictatorial power 1 year.
1924 Electoral law changed for political stability 2/3 of seats went to largest party.
Fascists received 60% of the vote.
Crisis Solidified Power
Anti-fascist socialist Matteoti killed.
Squadristi ban demanded.
150 deputies resigned in protest.
Mussolini increased power.
Opponents arrested, freedoms abolished, rule by decree, unions disbanded, secret police.
II Duce
Mussolini gave speeches and played the virile leader.
Proclaimed fascism to be modern.
Denounced liberalism, capitalism, and socialism.
National unity and state management of the economy.
Fascist Economy
Battle for wheat, public works projects, swamp reclamation, hydroelectric power.
Trying for autarky economy self-sufficiency.
In theory, worker and management worked in peace together.
A kind of syndicalism or corporative state.
Doesnt achieve industrialization needed for WWII.
Corporative State
Economy divided into 22 corporations with representation in a parliament.
Representation through occupation.
Each corporation decided wages, prices, policies, and controlled unions.
Strikes, lockouts, labor unrest banned.
State ends social and class conflict?
Dictatorship with all classes cooperating.
The Roman Question
What to do with the Pope?
Pope angry about 1860s and 1870 unification of Italy.
Good Catholics couldnt be good Italians.
Sound familiar?
2/29 Lateran Accord
Gave Pope (Pius XI) the Vatican.
State paid Pope for losses.
Catholic Church was the state church.
Church supported Italian state for the first time since unification.
Provided legitimacy to Fascists and Mussolini.
Church and Fascism both ideologically right wing.
Militarism and Glory
Military increased in 1930s.
Wanted return of Roman glory.
Attacked Ethiopia to unify African colonies.
Emperor Hailie Selassies troops defeated.
o 500 K Ethiopians and 5 K Italians killed.
League of Nations outraged but ineffective.
Supports nationalists in Spanish Civil War (50 K volunteers).
Italian Empire
Libya.
Eritrea.
Ethiopia.
Italian Somaliland.
Totalitarianism?
Italian culture prevents totalitarianism.
Some terror.
Trains run on time, unemployment reduced, and economy running during Great Depression.
Communism and Liberalism in check.
Italy seems like a well oiled machine.
Really just a paper tiger.
WWII destroys Fascist Italy.
The Soviet Union to WWII
Soviet Government
7 man Politburo as executive.
(Lenin, Trotsky, Bukharin, Stalin).
Central Committee of the Communist Party (Parliament).
Communist Party a new elite/exploiter class.
o Got better housing, positions, vacation, access to foodstuffs and consumer goods.
Bolsheviks lost popularity
Civil War devastating.
Famine, epidemics, war, terror.
Russo-Polish War 1920.
Kronstadt sailors and Petrograd workers revolted 1921 against housing shortages, short rations,
and Bolshevik privileges.
Rebels shot and
(NEP) New Economic Policy
To overcome unrest among peasantry.
To bring prosperity and peace in the cities.
Forced requisitioning ended.
Peasants could sell surplus.
Commanding Heights: heavy industry, bands, RRs, remained nationalized.
Foreign investment and rural wealth fuelled industry.
Its socialism with capitalism!
It works, 1927 = 1913 coal, grain, oil.
Crisis of leadership
1922 24 Lenin had strokes.
Slowly incapacitated.
Who would be Lenins successor?
Trotsky (Red Army), Bukharin (NEP), Stalin (?).
Lenin wanted Stalin removed from Politburo.
Lenin died 1924. Politburo ruled together.
Trotsky vs. Stalin
Economy:
o Trotsky: Collectivization to spur industrialization.
o Stalin and Bukharin: NEP and slower industrialization.
Revolution:
o Trotsky: Export it.
o Stalin: Finish it at home first.
Stalin
Georgian without European experience.
Commissar of Nationalities 1920-23.
Secretary General of Central Committee of the Communist Party 1922-53.
Ruthless Machiavellian.
Wrangling for Power
Stalin and Bukharin accused Trotsky of leftist deviation an had him expelled then exiled.
Stalin used his position to promote allies.
Bukharin was removed from Politburo in 1929.
Stalin in charge.
Stalin Takes Power
Stalin obsessed with control.
1933 purged 1/3 of Communist Party.
1934 Kirov assassination started
The Great Purge
Stalins opponents eliminated. (Real and imagined).
Anyone capable of leadership killed.
Bolsheviks from the revolution and army officers.
Show trials with confessions.
Initially believed in the West.
Bourgeois wreckers and Trotskyites purged too.
Millions tried, killed, millions exiled imprisoned.
Weakens Russia. (Army officers).
Gulag System
14 million went through between 1929-53.
Prisoners reeducated through forced labor in the worst of conditions.
Millions died.
DBQ 1998
Order
Unification
Change of system
Economic Order
Poor
Economy Changing
Social Order
Poor
Class Conflict
Cult of Personality
Stalin started Lenin cult.
o Leningrad.
o Remains in Kremlin mausoleum.
o Quotes
Stalin started his own cult
o Titles like Brilliant Genius of Humanity.
o Rewriting history, changing photos, Stalingrad.
o Focus of poetry, paintings, film, books.
o Deified.
First Five Year Plan 1929 32
Capitalist nations faced the Great Depression.
Stalin wanted modern economy workers, steel, machines, heavy industry, electricity, and to
out produce capitalists.
Rapid industrialization at rural expense.
300 600% increase in industrial output.
Communism
Like WWI centrally planned economy. (GOSPLAN)
Prices, distribution, wages, production, etcplanned.
Squeezed peasants for capital. (Trotskys idea!)
Collectivization of land and livestock.
Pooling of land and animals.
Mechanization of farms (free tractors).
How does this affect rural life?
Resistance to Collectivization
Peasants slaughtered animals rather than pool them.
Peasants reduced production (incentive?).
Wealthier/disobedient peasants labeled Kulaks (fist).
In response, Stalin ordered liquidation of Kulaks.
Kulaks killed and deported by government and poor peasants between 1929 32.
5 million died in famines government caused.
Rural life completely overturned.
Industrialization
20 million migrated from 1926 1939.
Soviet Union
o 1/6 urban 1926.
o 1/3 urban 1938.
1928 4.6 million workers in industry, construction, and transport.
1940 12.6 million.
New industrial bureaucracy created.
Managers and skilled workers profit.
Unskilled workers and peasants had crummy lives.
Second Five Year Plan 1933-37
More industrial growth.
Fewer consumer goods.
Hyper-industrialization 1928-38.
Iron and steel increased x4, coal x 3.5.
Third greatest industrial power.
Statistics reliable? Falsification a tradition.
Stakhanovite movement.
The Good
Modern industrial economy.
Free education (40% literacy pre-WWI).
Hygiene and efficiency promoted.
Affordable housing.
Free medical care.
Guaranteed employment with pensions.
Communist leisure opportunities (film, art).
Birth control, divorce, abortion, day care!
Workers and peasants promoted.
The Bad
Per capital produced less than anyone else.
Housing primitive and in short supply.
Conditions often worse than British industrialization.
Consumer goods lacking.
New elites/exploiters (party members, skilled workers, bureaucrats).
Propaganda influenced masses. (Film, art, writing).
No freedom (included religion).
TERROR!!! Purges, gulags, executions, etc
Nationalism attacked.
International Relations
Communist International (COMINTERN) created 1919.
Joined League of Nations 1934.
Supported Leftists during Spanish Civil War 1936-39.
Nazi-Soviet Mutual Non-Aggression Pact August 1939 shocked the world.
o Secret clauses to divide Poland and East Europe.
Soviet Union
Unprecedented totalitarianism.
Unprecedented terror and death.
Transformed Russia into modern industrial state.
Appeared to be socialist paradise especially during Great Depression (Lots of duped westerners).
Also appeared to be exactly what it was.
Totalitarian state under evil dictatorship.
Interwar France and Britain The Joyless Victors
France
Best army in Europe.
Security weaken Germany.
Enforce Treaty of Versailles.
North-Eastern France damaged.
Reparations needed.
Economy up and down.
Left-Right split.
Ruhr Occupation 1923
When Germans fell behind in reparations payments the French and Belgians occupied the
Ruhr Valley (industry) for two years.
1923 Dawes Plan fixed this problem.
New Alliances 1925
Threaten Germany with two fronts.
Alliances with Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia).
Alliance with Poland.
Spirit of Locarno
Locarno Treaty 1925
o Germany guaranteed French and Belgian borders.
o British and Italians backed borders promised intervention.
o Czech and Polish borders open to peaceful revision.
Germany joined League of Nations (1926).
Kellogg Briand Pact 1928
o 65 nations renounced war as a means to solve disputes.
Maginot Line 1931-40
Fortifications to protect Franco-German border.
Cheaper than large offensive army?
Seemingly stupid idea, or was it?
French Politics
Lots of coalitions. (27 cabinets 1918-33).
Left: Communists, Radical Socialists, Socialists.
Right: Conservatives, Action Franaise, Croix de Feu.
Internal war debt largely repudiated through inflation.
Left wing joined forces in Popular Front with socialist Leon Blum new premier.
Popular Front New Deal 1936
Armaments and aviation nationalized.
40 hour week, paid vacations, collective bargaining.
Bank of France put under government control.
Huge jump in union membership (1 to 5 million).
Agricultural price fixing and government purchase of wheat.
Right wing cries socialism! and Popular Front broken.
Colonies
France retained colonies in Africa and Asia.
Given Lebanon-Syria and mandate as well.
Britain
Still a great power, but slipping.
Everyone pulled together to win war.
A land fit for heroes not created.
Quite a bit of welfare though.
o Unemployment insurance (1911).
o Pensions, medical aid, subsidized housing.
Economy never really recovered trade disrupted WWI through Great Depression.
Labor unrest General Strike 1926. 6 million strikers.
General strikes made illegal.
British Politics
Coalition governments. (Conservative + Liberal).
First Labour government 1923!
Liberals declining.
Female suffrage 1918. (WWI).
All party coalition The National Government formed to deal with the Great Depression 1931.
Neither Communists nor British Fascist Party popular.
The Great Depression
1 million to 3 million unemployed.
Government tried to cut social spending!
Exports couldnt pay for imports.
Britain went off the Gold Standard 1931.
This set off worldwide abandonment and devaluation of currencies.
Tariffs increased!
No Alliances
Felt Germany had been treated unfairly.
Afraid of Bolshevik threat.
Locarno as willing as Britain got to promise support.
Ireland
Home Rule of 1914 put off.
Easter uprising 1916 crushed.
Irish Parliamentarians (Sinn Fein) refused to go to London. Declared independence 1919.
IRA vs. British Army and Black and Tans.
South granted autonomy.
Colonies
Maintained pre-War colonies.
Started to consider home rule for India.
Protectorates (mandates) over Middle East.
Balfour Declaration 1917 thanks for Jewish support. Homeland someday.
Joyless Victors
Plodding along as usual white totalitarian states seemed energized.
Left-Right divide in France.
Capital vs. Labour in Britain.
Outmaneuvered in 1930s by Nazi Germany.
Eastern European Successor States From hopeful nationalism to dictatorship
National Self-determination created
Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.
Hungary and Austria.
And modified the borders of Greece, Romania, Albania, and Bulgaria.
Problems
Irredentism everywhere.
Disaffected Germans.
Improvised democratic governments.
Large landowners and impoverished peasants.
Small middle classes and little industry.
Behind Western Europe in every way.
Tariffs increased to protect national industries.
Land Reforms Biggest Issue
Some land reform, especially when taken from Germans.
Inefficient agriculture with falling prices.
Liberal farmers vs. conservative landlords.
French Alliances
Little Entente (Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia).
Poland.
But
Germans dominated trade
Countries economies tied closely to Germany.
Germany has a lot of industry and other countries have a lot of agricultural stuff.
Dictatorship
Difficulties led to all but Czechoslovakia becoming dictatorships.
Poland
Lots of ethnic groups with mutual dislike: Poles, Ukrainians, Jews, Germans, Lithuanians.
Coup by Josef Pilsudski in 1926 led to authoritarian government.
Czechoslovakia
Stronger economy with industry.
Land reform led to smallholders.
Czechs, Slovaks, Germans (Sudetenland), Ukrainians, Magyars, Jews.
Democratic government under TJ Masaryk.
Sudetenland Nazis a problem.
Hungary
Dissatisfied, disgruntled, Magyars.
1919 Bela Kuns Hungarian Soviet Republic put down by Romanian troops.
Admiral Mikls Horthy regent until 1944.
Anti-Semitism under right wing government.
Yugoslavia
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
Bosnian Muslims, Hungarians, Germans, and Jews.
Serbo-Croatian conflict main problem.
King Alexander established dictatorship in 1926 that outlived his assassination 1934.
Romania
WWI loser, but winner at peace table.
Royal dictatorship.
Magyars, Germans, Jews, and Roma principle minorities.
Sad fates
Czechs will be taken by Germans 1938-39.
Poles will be taken by Germans and Soviets 1939.
Lithuania. Estonia, Latvia taken by Stalin in 1939.
Slovaks, Hungarians, Romanians, Finns, Bulgarians with ally with Axis powers. (Germans and
Italians).
Yugoslavians will be conquered and occupied 1941.
The Weimar Republic Germany 1919-1933
New German Government
Super-moderate revolution.
No invasion of Germany.
SPD and Center Party had majority in the Reichstag.
Reforms: democratic republic, female suffrage.
Lots of parties: chancellor, president, bicameral legislature.
Old elites remained.
Pillars of Society.
1926 by George Grosz.
Treaty of Versailles
Most of Reichstag supported republic.
Treaty undermined support for republic.
War debt and reparations a problem.
Germany had its own war costs.
Trade and influence with new Eastern European states substantial.
Everyones goal revise Treaty.
Some Left and Right radicals revolted 1919-23.
Spartacist Revolt 1919
SPD split between socialists and communists.
The Communists rose up in Berlin under Rosa Luxemburg and and Liebknecht.
SPD led government asks army and Freikorps to crush the revolt!
Luxemburg and Liebknecht murdered.
Freikorps (Free Corps)
Much like Mussolinis Squadristi.
Ultra-conservative veterans who were defending against Bolshevism.
Violence was their way of life.
Bavarian Soviet Republic 4/1919
Communist took over Bavaria for a few weeks.
Army and Freikorps destroyed Communists.
Mostly more funny than scary.
Bavaria not ripe for Bolshevism.
Kapp Putsch 3/1920
Right wing coup of army officers and journalist trying to topple government.
Army refused to fire upon Freikorps.
Only failed because workers went on strike.
Beer Hall Putsch November 1923
Right wing nationalist anti-Semites (Nazis) attempted to take over Munich government.
Police fired into marching Nazis and arrested leaders.
Hitler sentenced to prison.
Overcoming Treaty
Treaty of Rapallo 1922 with Soviet Union
o Ended war and normalized relations.
o German manufactures for military advisors and an area where army could test banned
weapons.
1923 Stresemanns friendly policy towards Britain and France hoping for American loans,
revision of treaty and revision of eastern borders.
Spirit of Locarno
Treaty of Locarno 1925 Britain, France, Belgium, and Germany promised to never go to war
again. Britain and Italy guaranteed in Western Europe (France, Belgium, and Germany).
1926: Germany joined League of Nations (Starting to secretly rearm).
1928: Kellogg-Briand Pact 65 nations renounced war to solve problems.
Hyperinflation 1923
The Germans fell behind in reparations payments.
The French invaded Ruhr region.
German government paid workers to strike.
They printed money to pay them.
4 RM-$ to 4 trillion RM-$.
Ruined middle class.
1924 ended by Dawes Plan American loans.
Dawes (1924) and Young (1929) Plans
Reduced reparations payments.
Young Plan set repayment at 58 years.
Americans loaned money to Germans to pay Allies to pay back Americans.
Weimar Successes
Loans from Americans overcome economic problems. (Dawes/Young).
Economy doing relatively well.
Trade with Eastern Europe booming.
Social welfare gains.
Unions strong and successful.
Wages and productivity increasing.
Great Depression coming. Uh-oh.
Great Depression
Young Plan replaced Dawes Plan. Everything fine.
Loans from US dry up due to Wall Street skyrocket and then crash.
From 8.5% to 30% unemployment (6 million).
Communist and Nazi vote increased.
Dangerous situation for shaky Weimar Republic.
Presidential election 1932
Paul von Hindenburg (Independence) 19.3 m 53.1%.
Adolf Hitler (NSDAP) 13.4 m 36.7%.
Ernst Thlmann (KPD) 3.7 m 10.1%.
Weimar Summary
Revolution not that revolutionary.
Treaty of Versailles and economic problems doomed it.
Left and Right radicals tried to topple it.
Man moved more left and right as situation worsened.
Creation of the Third Reich
Adolph Hitler
Austrian loser and WWI veteran.
Turned politician/speaker for NSDAP.
Railed against Versailles, Democracy, Communism, Jews.
Racist-Nationalist ideology from Austria-Hungary.
State based on blood ties.
Aryans were the master race.
1920s
Beer Hall Putsch led to prison.
Wrote Mein Kampf.
Hitlers goals:
o Undo Treaty of Versailles.
o Rearm/
o Expand borders eastward (Lebensraum).
o Solve Jewish problem.
Nazis insignificant until Great Depression.
Great Depression
Center and SPD coalition dissolved over how to react.
President Hindenburg appointed chancellors to rule by emergency decree 1930.
End to reparations didnt help with decreased credit, trade, etc
German unemployment 2.2 m 1930 to 6 m 1932.
Coming to Power
Nazis in the Reichstag 1928 12 seats, 1930 107 seats, 1932 230 seats!
Shows support for Right and fear of Left.
Unemployed swelled political armies.
Brown Shirts (SA) vs. Communist (RFB).
Fear of Left-Right civil war.
Chaos led to Nazi government
Elites wanted to use Hitler and burden him with responsibility.
President Hindenburg appointed him chancellor January 1933.
Old elites underestimated Hitler and the Nazi Revolution.
Seizure of Power
The Reichstag fire is the first step in Communist revolution!
March 1933 Enabling Act passed without Communists enacted.
All freedoms repealed, opponents jailed, concentration camps set up by Nazi Party.
March 1933 election. Nazis 44%.
Received support from all kinds of Germans.
Coordination of Society
Labor unions to National Labor Front.
Non-Nazi political parties outlawed.
State government replaced by Gaus. (Nazi regions).
All organizations Nazified.
Boys enrolled in Hitler Youth.
Girls enrolled in Organization of German Girls.
Young people very important to Nazism
Consolidating Power
1 million Brownshirts!
Led by Ernst Roehm.
Army (and Hitler) felt threatened.
Night of the Long Knives decapitated SA leadership (June/July 1934).
President Hindenburg died.
Hitler became Pres-Chancellor Fhrer.
Nazi Ideology
Revolutionary romanticism.
Anti-Semitism and Anti-Bolshevism pillars.
Fhrer cult.
Germans should be strong and obedient.
Women KKK.
Christianity tolerated. Nazism better.
Twisted Darwinism
Racial science twisted Darwinism divided people into racial types and classes.
Forced sterilization started in 1934 300-400 thousand people. (Eugenics).
Lives not worth living ended starting in October 1939.
T3 program gassed, starved, injected 100,000 people.
Anti-Semitism also pillar of Nazism.
Plan for Lebensraum in Eastern Europe.
Police State
1933 30-40,000 SA and SS men made auxiliary police.
SS went from elite bodyguard to state within the state.
Would eventually have army units and control concentration camps.
Heinrich Himmler (1900-1945).
GeStaPo (Secret State Police) above the law.
Increasing Anti-Semitism
1933 Jews excluded from civil service.
1933 Boycott of Jewish businesses.
1933 Jews cant own land or be newspaper editors.
1934 Jews not allowed health insurance.
1935 Jews banned from military.
1935 Nuremberg Laws passed.
Nuremburg Laws
Jews not citizens now subjects.
No marriage or sex between Aryans and Jews.
No female domestics under 45 years.
Jews couldnt fly Nazi flag.
Who is a Jew?
Increasing Anti-Semitism
1936 respite during Olympic Games.
1937 Jewish businesses Aryanized.
Jewish doctors couldnt treat Aryans, Jewish lawyers couldnt practice law.
1938 Ditto Jewish teachers, accountants, dentists.
Israel and Sarah added to Jewish legal names.
J stamped in passports.
Night of Broke Glass November 9-10, 1938.
Kristallnacht
Minor diplomat in Paris assassinated by a Jew.
November 1938 Spontaneous destruction of Jewish property and abuse of Jews.
30,000 Jewish men arrested and sent to concentration camps until ransomed.
1 billion marks insurance money went to state as fine.
Increasing Anti-Semitism
1938 Jewish students expelled from schools.
All businesses are aryanized.
1939 Jews forced into Jewish houses.
Jewish curfew, radios forbidden, yellow stars.
1940 German Jewish deportations started.
Majority of the 560,000 German Jews had already fled.
Nazi Economic Policy
Amazing recovery from Great Depression.
Massive public works projects and military spending.
Unemployment solved.
1936 Four Year Plan to prepare for war.
Capitalism assisted by state control.
War (plunder and taxation) necessary to maintain army.
National SOCIALISM
Policies to promote children.
Payments and Mothers Crosses for children.
Loans to families.
KdF (Strength through Joy) provided low cost opportunities for entertainment.
Volkswagen not realized until after WWII.
Propaganda
Joseph Goebbels minister of propaganda.
Art, theater, music, film, radio, books, the press transmit propaganda.
Reinforce Nazi ideology and war support.
Third Reich
Amazing recovery from problems.
End to Left-Right struggle.
Terror and Anti-Semitism.
Everything accomplished for war and Hitlers ideology.
Thousand year Aryan Reich is goal.
Totalitarianism accomplished.
Events Leading to WWII Hitlers War
Spanish Civil War 1936-1939
Monarchy overthrown 1931.
Democratic republic in country with serious Left-Right split.
Leftist government attacked rightist power church, landowners.
Rightist government unpopular.
1936 elections won by Leftist Popular Front coalition. (Republican, Socialist, Organized Anarchist,
Communist).
Civil War July 1936
General Francisco Franco led Rightist coalition of old regime supporters and Spanish fascists
Falangists.
Invaded Spain with troops from Morocco.
Nationalists vs. Republicans.
Horrible atrocities.
International Response
Britain, France, US stayed out.
French and British arms embargo.
Germany and Italy supported nationalists.
Soviet Union supported communists.
Thousands of leftists fought in Spain.
Dress rehearsal for WWII.
Equipment and tactics tested. Guernica.
Spain
Nationalists won 1939.
Dictatorship under Franco until the 1970s.
Hitlers War
Revision (Destruction) of Treaty of Versailles.
Rearmament.
Bringing ethnic Germans home to the Reich.
Goal: Lebensraum.
1933
Pulled Germany out of the League of Nations.
Nazis busy coordinating German society.
1934
Supported Nazi Putsch against Austria.
o Mussolini threatens war!
o Hitler backed down.
1935
Plebiscite in the Saar returned it to Germany.
Repudiated Treaty of Versailles disarmament clauses.
o Weimar had violated them first.
1936
Reoccupied the Rhineland.
Violated Versailles and Locarno treaties.
German generals feared French invasion.
Hitler was right and gutsy.
French didnt get British support to keep Germans from occupying Germany.
Rome-Berlin Axis signed.
1938 Gathering the Germans
Nazis forced German-Austrian Anschluss in March of 1938. 6m Austrians cheer.
Nazis start trouble over Sudentenland Germans. 3m Germans.
Czechoslovakia Strong, democratic, French ally.
Was Hitler bluffing?
Munich Crisis: Appeasement
War coming? September 1938.
British PM Neville Chamberlain secured peace in our time at Munich Conference.
Czechs and Soviets not consulted.
War to prevent national self-determination?
Germans Joining Germany.
End of Czechoslovakia 1939
Slovakia wanted a break-up. Other nations made demands on Czechs for territory.
Germans invaded Bohemia and Moravia to protect Slovakia.
Slovakia became puppet state.
Hitler!!!!!
German generals impressed.
French and British outraged. Never again!
British and French signed treaties with Poland, Romania, and Greece.
Couldnt sign one with Stalin
Soviets signed Nazi-Soviet Pact 8/1939.
Demands made on Poland
Same old story.
Germans belong in Germany.
Hitler demands the Polish Corridor.
Will the Allies help the Poles?
Hitler doubts it, but is willing to risk it.
Mein Kampf
Hitler planned this war from the 1920s.
Step by step towards goal.
Opportunities and situations changed pace.
All part of his Lebensraum plans.
Thousand Year Reich.
World War II
Blitzkrieg and Sitzkrieg
Germans defeated Poles using lightning tactics air and armor to smash opposition.
France and Britain declared war but did nothing. (Phony War).
The Soviet Union invaded Poland and took a third as well as the Baltic States.
Both Germans and Soviets destroyed Polish leadership class. Einsatzgruppen + NKVD.
Blitzkrieg April-June 1940
Germans invaded Denmark and Norway.
Germans invaded BeNeLux(Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg) countries.
Germans smashed through French and British armies with tanks and planes.
Italy invaded France June 1940.
French surrendered June 1940.
300,000 British and French troops evacuated at Dunkirk.
France
Why did the French collapse? Left vs. Right?
Blitzkrieg?
3/5 France occupied by Germans.
2/5 Vichy France (collaborators) under Hero of Verdun Petain.
French government in exile under Charles de Gaulle (Free French).
Battle of Britain 1940
Feisty Winston Churchill became Prime Minister in May 1940.
Churchill inspired Britain. We will fight
Britain did not make peace with Germans.
Air campaign before invasion. (B of B).
British able to defeat Germans in the air.
Mussolinis Blunders
Mussolini invaded Greece without warning Germans, and then started to lose.
Germans rescued them by invading Greece and Yugoslavia.
Yugoslavia remained nasty battleground.
Italian invasion of Egypt crushed.
Germans rescued them in North Africa too.
Operation Barbarossa 6/1941 Nazism was Anti-Bolshevism
Germans invaded Soviet Union.
Early success Blitzkrieg with 3m soldiers vs. Stalins purges and personal depression.
Reached Gates of Moscow.
2.5 m Russian casualties
Unprepared Germans met General Winter + scorched earth policy. (Dj vu?)
Eastern Front 1942
1942 renewed advances towards industrial towns and oil fields (SE).
6
th
Army cut off in Stalingrad told to stay and fight. Supply impossible surrender.
Increasing Russian troops and equipment overwhelmed German army and pushed them back.
It helped that Japan attacked USA and not Soviets.
Great Patriotic War
Russians gave all to defeat invaders.
Germans helped Stalin through atrocities, racial beliefs, and Lebensraum plan.
20 million (10% of population) lost!
Stalingrad and Kursk major battles.
Enduring fear of invasion.
Belief in Stalin as the great hero!
United States
United States attacked by Japanese.
Germans declared war on country already an arsenal of democracy.
US needed time to prepare industry, equipment, and soldiers.
Concentrate on Europe first.
Soviets wanted second front ASAP.
1942-43
US and Britain invaded North Africa, Sicily, and Italy.
Mussolini overthrown Italy surrendered 9/43.
Germans continue to fight in Italy.
Mussolini rescued and made head of North Italian Socialist Republic.
1944
As Russians advanced Westward
US and Britain invaded France D-Day.
Liberated France and pushed Germans back to border.
Battle of the Bulge Unsuccessful German counter attack. 12/44.
Rhine bridged, the end of the war near.
Strategic Wars
Germans attempted to starve the British with submarines.
Technology and convoys defeated them.
The Blitz German terror air campaign vs. Britain.
US and Britain attempted to destroy German industry and morale through strategic bombing.
One third of German buildings destroyed.
Production not seriously affected!
1945
Germans in Eastern Europe fled before the Soviet army revenge!
German preferred to surrender to/occupation by American and British troops.
Soviets battle for Berlin.
Hitler committed suicide, April 30.
German unconditional surrender May 8.
Summary
20+ million military deaths?
20+ million civilian deaths?
Europe devastated.
Right wing dictatorships discredited.
Racism discredited.
German irredentism and balance of power problems solved.
Hour zero chance to start over.
Two superpowers.
Technology advanced quickly.
2006 AP European History FRQ
How did Europeans perceive the role of organized sports in Europe during the Period from 1860 to 1940?
Thesis: The role of organized sports was to increase nationalism, represent war, and improve
mental and physical health.
Group 1: Increase Nationalism. Documents 1, 4, 7, 9.
Group 2: Represent war in an international competition without actual war. Documents 5, 11.
Group 3: Improve mental and physical health. Documents 3, 8, 12.
POV: Documents 1(Said by a member of the Czech National Gymnastics Organization. Czech
citizen, so he would want to raise the status of the Czechs to what they once were), 11(Said by a
sports association member), 8(Said by a health minister, so reliable. Credible source).
WWII and the Domestic Front Germany, France, Britain, Soviet Union, Italy
Germany
Success increased Nazi support.
Conquered Europe exploited by Germans.
Hitler careful to keep home front happy.
Rationing and total war production 1942.
Women especially praised, but position difficult.
Labor shortage solved by slave labor.
Slave Labor
12 million in total (25% of labor force 1944).
Worked in industry, farming, repairing war damage.
Concentration camp inmates, prisoners of war, and Eastern Europeans (Lebensraum).
Little or no pay and poor living conditions.
Hierarchy of workers, pay, living conditions, etc
Germany
Goebbels propaganda: radio, film, newsreels, papers.
Major air bombing May 1943 Stiffened support.
Children sent to safer areas.
Nazis had complete control of country.
Opponents sent to concentration camps.
July 1944 attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler.
Fear of Soviets kept army fighting and civilians fleeing when they could.
Holocaust/Genocide
People euthanized and sterilized in late 1930s.
Polish leadership class liquidated by Nazis and Soviets.
Jews crowded into ghettos starting in 1939.
Mortality in ghettos high from hunger and disease.
Hundreds of thousands killed (shot) by special police units in Eastern Europe 1939-42.
Lots of assistance from local populations in finding denouncing, and rounding up Jews.
Majority of Soviet Prisoners Of War died during the War.
Wannsee Conference 1942
Planned Final Solution to the Jewish Problem.
All part of Hitlers plan but also practical solution.
Ghettos emptied into death camps by train.
Prisoners chosen for death by Zyklon B gas of work.
Bodies cremated after bodies plundered.
Technology and totalitarianism made scale of genocide possible. (Trains, gas, bureaucracy).
Air War Crimes
Blitzkrieg included attacks on civilians.
The Blitz over Britain destroyed a million homes. 43k.
Break the will of the enemy? Opposite effect.
People spend time in shelters.
Children sent to safer areas.
Anglo-American bombing started 1943.
1/3 of German buildings destroyed.
Fire bombings of Dresden and Hamburg.
Germans continue with V1 and V2 weapons.
Atrocities and War Crimes
Germans battle partisans and execute lots of civilians.
Croats killed 350,000+ Serbs, Roma, Jews.
Lots of local collaboration with Germans.
Soviet advance into Germany also nasty. 2m Germans died.
Rape of civilians popular. Soviet soldiers encouraged.
10-12 million Germans fled-forced from Eastern Europe by 1946.
France
France split to protect coasts and keep fleet out of British hands. 3/5 occupied and 2/5
autonomous.
Marshall Petain and conservatives collaborated with the Nazis through Vichy government.
Right wing blamed left for defeat in WWII.
Anti-Semitism (Nuremberg Laws) followed by mass deportations.
All France had to work for German war effort.
Resistance movement increased after D-Day.
Collaborators persecuted and humiliated.
Charles de Gaulle, leader of Free French, great hero of WWII.
Britain
Government involved in peoples lives like WWI.
Poorest benefited, social differences lessen.
Rationing, gardens, scrap collections.
Survived with US help (billions $ lend Lease Act) until US joined war.
Submarine threat overcome with technology and convoys.
Britain invaded by Yanks.
Soviet Union
Nazi liberation (from Stalin) turned to oppression.
Massive destruction and loss of life. (20 million!)
Great Patriotic War with Stalin as the great hero.
Already totalitarian dictatorship with planned economy.
Soviets conquered Eastern Europe. WOW!
Italy
Poor showing in war led to declining popularity of Mussolini.
After Sicily invaded, Mussolini overthrown.
Italians surrendered September 1943.
Germans continued fighting in Italy.
Mussolini made head of Italian Social Republic.
Mussolini captured and killed April 1945.
Effects
War affects every state whether occupied or not.
War against civilians unprecedented. (20+ million killed).
Occupied states experience totalitarianism and genocide.
Once again propaganda, mobilization, rationing, all part of civilian life.
Alliance and Agreements Western capitalist democracies vs The totalitarian communist Soviet Union
Atlantic Charter August 1941 Wilsonian Peace
Roosevelt and Churchill met (as did military leaders) on secure ships off Newfoundland.
o No territorial gains.
o Territorial adjustments must be in accord with the wishes of the peoples concerned.
o All peoples had a right to self determination.
o Trade barriers were to be lowered.
o There was to be global economic cooperation and advancement of social welfare.
o Freedom from want and fear.
o Freedom of the seas.
o Disarmament of aggressor nations, postwar common disarmament.
Tehran Conference 1943
Big Three met.
Britain and U.S. agreed to western front in 1944.
Tried to encourage Turkey to join the war.
Iran would be helped by all three.
Soviets to attack Japan after German defeat.
German and polish borders discussed.
Anglo-Soviet dealings October 1944
Churchill and Stalin met in Moscow.
Spheres of influence?
Britain and Soviet Union to share Balkans.
Soviets influence in Romania and Bulgaria.
Britain influence in Greece.
Equal influence in Hungary and Yugoslavia.
Disagreements
Stalin wanted reparations and forced labor.
Stalin also wanted friendly Eastern European governments.
Roosevelt and Churchill wanted democracy, self-determination and capitalism in Eastern Europe.
Roosevelt suspected British and Soviet plans for spheres of influence.
Stalin wanted to shoot 50-100k German officers.
Yalta, February 1945
Stalin had military advantage.
Soviets to get Asian land for attacking Japan.
Roosevelt pushed for a United Nations (League of Nations).
Soviet demanded $10 billion in reparations or half of whatever was eventually set.
Stalin agreed to free elections and self-determination in Eastern Europe.
Russian-Polish borders moved West.
Germany would be disarmed, de-Nazified, and divided into zones of occupation.
What didnt happen
Bismarcks unification not undone.
Morgenthau Plan Turn Germany into divided agricultural state.
Postdam, July 1945
Big Three now Stalin, Truman, and Atlee.
Each could take reparations from own zone. Soviets supposed to get $10 billion more from
Western zones.
Soviet and polish borders pushed even farther west.
Orderly and humane transfer of Germans (not).
War Crimes (Nuremberg) Trials
Nazi top leaders, doctors, judges, etc tried.
Victors Justice?
A number sentenced to death, imprisonment, many sentences commuted in the 1950s.
o 1. Conspiracy for crimes against peace.
o 2. Planning/waging war of aggression.
o 3. War crimes.
o 4. Crimes against humanity.
Peace?
Treaties signed and reparations paid by Axis countries.
No final peace treaty with Germany.
Finland and Austria neutral.
Other countries divided between capitalist and communist worlds.
United Nations
To insure peace and security.
Permanent members of the Security Council: Soviets, US, Britain, France, and China had veto.
All countries represented in General Assembly.
Cold War fought in Security Council.
Cold War and Eastern Europe US and Allies vs. Soviet Union and Clients
Two Superpowers
Capitalist democracy vs. Communist dictatorship.
US superiority: 400% greater GNP, no damage from war, atomic bombs.
Soviet advantage larger military, Eastern Europe.
Marshall Plan 1947-51
Economic aid ($12b) to rebuild Europe.
America needed markets and feared lure of communism (France/Italy).
Ensures capitalism.
Conditions:
o Break down trade barriers.
o Align economic policies with others.
Soviet Desires
Soviets wanted buffer from capitalists and control of former enemies.
Would not allow free elections after all.
Soviets dont allow participation in Marshall Plan.
Containment
Greek Civil War 1944-49 Nationalists vs. Communists. Britain broke couldnt help.
Truman Doctrine: 1947 aid for Greece and Turkey to halt Communism.
Containment of Communism became official US policy.
Nuclear Weapons prevent war?
American monopoly 1945-49.
Soviets got atomic bomb 1949.
US hydrogen bomb 1952 Soviet 1953.
Very dangerous situation kept in check with Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD).
Arms race nonetheless.
Nuclear Club: France, Britain, China, India
Bombers, rockets (ICBMs InterContinental Ballistic Missiles), sub launched rockets, cruise
missiles.
What to do with Germany?
Question divided US and Soviets further.
U.S. wanted German recovery and democratization.
Welfare Germany?
Soviets wanted reparations and control.
1948
Three Western zones got new currency.
Step towards creating stable West Germany.
Angry Soviets blockaded Berlin.
War averted with amazing Berlin Airlift.
2.5 m people supplied 9 months from air.
Two Germanies
Federal Republic of Germany (West) with Chancellor Konrad Adenauer.
German Democratic Republic (East) Walter Ulbricht.
It just happened.
Alliances and Pacts
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 1949 US and Western Europe. An attack on one is an
attack on all.
Comecon 1949 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance like Marshall Plan and European
Economic Community but made Eastern European economies dependant on Soviet Union.
Warsaw Pact 1955 Soviets with Eastern Europe also kept members in pact.
West German Rearmament
American pressure to rearm Germany during Korean War 1950.
Opposed by France and many Germans.
Germans admitted into NATO 1954 and rearmed 1955.
World Cold War
Cant fight with nukes so
Chinese Civil War, Korea, Vietnam, Middle East, Africa, Central America.
Much of conflict and decolonization.
Dtente
1970s easing of tensions.
Too much money spent on arms race.
Vietnam.
Sino-Soviet relations sour.
SALT reduces nuclear forces.
Summary
Europe divided into two hostile camps.
War meant possible end of humankind.
Very different post-war Europe.
Control from two superpowers.
European countries not leading the world.
Decolonization Giving Up Empire
WWII killed Empire
European countries couldnt afford empires.
Nazis discredited racism.
War for democracy while countries enslaved.
Nationalist movements based on European ideas.
India 1947
Indian National Congress with Gandhi and Nehru pressed for independence.
India supported British in WWII for promises of independence.
Horrible violence civil war, migration.
India divided into Hindu and Muslim states.
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Britain gives up
Wanted to maintain links and create democracy.
Development programs cost money.
Britons dont want to pay for colonies.
Violent independence movements hastened withdrawal.
Indonesia 1949
Japanese ousted Dutch during WWII.
Indonesians fought for independence when Dutch returned.
Gained it.
IndoChina
Ho Chi Minhs nationalists/communists demanded independence after WWII.
French fought 1946-1954.
They didnt want to give up their empire.
Dien Bien Phu led to French giving up.
Vietnam divided between North and South.
US took over fight until the 1970s.
Cold War proxy fight.
Algeria
Algeria revolted in 1954.
1 million Frenchmen and 9 million Algerians.
French had all the land and power.
French-Algerian War 1954-1961:
o Hundreds of thousands killed.
o Atrocities committed.
o De Gaulle let Algeria go.
o Europeans (pied noirs) and Muslim soldiers (harkis) fled at the end of the war.
Africa
Late 1950s and 1960s European countries gave independence to Africans.
Some African states became a battleground between SU and US during Cold War.
Middle East
Britain gave nations independence.
Israel created 1948.
Arab-Israeli Wars 1948, 1956, 1967, 1973.
US supports Israel, Soviets support Arabs.
1956 Egypt nationalized Suez Canal.
Britain, France took canal then had to give it up due to US/Soviet pressure. Ouch!
Legacy
Countries still culturally and economically tied to former masters.
Suppliers of raw materials.
Indebted to industrial nations.
Independence without democracy.
Lots of ethnic strife and dictatorship.
Poverty and natural disasters.
Europe
Decolonization proves Europe no longer master of the world.
Colonization ideologically unsustainable.
European countries accepted former colonials into their societies. (Immigration).
Lots of problems with integration and unemployment.
Eastern Europe 1945-1980s Marxism? Stalinism?
Eastern Europe between 1945-53
Electrons fraudulent.
Stalinization:
Five year plans.
Industrialization.
Collectivization.
One party dictatorship, repression.
Dissatisfaction with Stalinism.
Czechoslovakia coup 1948 ended multiparty system.
Revolts in Eastern Europe
Desire for more freedom and better standard of living.
1953 East Germany.
1956 Poland.
1956 Hungary.
1968 Czechoslovakia.
East Germany
1953 General strike in Berlin over workplace conditions and increased goals without increased
pay.
Quickly put down with Russian troops.
3.5 million East Germans left for West. (Capitalism and Freedom).
1961 Berlin Wall built Anti-Fascist Protection Wall.
Poland and Hungary 1956
1956 Polands Gomulka attempted liberalization, decollectivization, better relations with
Catholic Church. Stayed with Warsaw Pact and Soviet control.
That encouraged Hungarians.
Hungary Liberal communist Nagy attempted liberalization but also democratization and
withdrawal from Warsaw Pact.
Russians sent in tanks followed by brutal repression.
Czechoslovakia 1968 Prague Spring
A. Dubeck tried socialism with a human face.
Liberal reforms less police repression, more freedom of the press, non-Communist political
groups legalized.
USSR and Warsaw Pact invaded Czechoslovakia.
Brezhnev Doctrine legalized intervention.
Yugoslavia
Not liberated by the Soviet Union.
Partisan leader and Communist Tito.
Nationalist/Communist movement.
Broke with Stalin and Cominform 1948.
Ethnic and religious divisions squashed.
Fairly successful existence between East and West.
Soviet Empire
Some progress in society and economy.
o Workers and farmers advanced in society.
o Women given equal right.
o Industrial development promoted.
Still behind Western Europe.
o No freedoms (speech, belief, travel).
o Lower standard of living.
Dont want to be a part of Soviet sphere.
Desire for freedom and better standard of living.
Soviet Union after WWII
Rebuilding after WWII. Reparations and slave labor.
Soviet post-war (Stalinist) economy boomed with heavy industry.
Consumer items were neglected.
Population was also booming:
1939 170 million.
1967 234 million!
Soviet Welfare State
Almost free housing, health care, higher education, public transportation, culture, and
entertainment.
Poverty eliminated.
Increased prosperity in the 60s meant lives better than ever, but
Shoddy goods, little choice, and long lines led to dissatisfaction.
Religion and dissent discouraged.
No travel possible.
Khrushchevs reign 1953-1964
De-Stalinization 1956.
Criticism of personality cult.
Reduction of Gulag system.
Crushing of Hungary 1956.
Sputnik 1957 and Yuri Gagarin 1961.
Cuban Missile Crisis 10-11 1962.
Brezhnevs Reign 1966-82
Government rigidity, stagnation, and repression all led to more dissatisfaction and quiet protest.
Dissidents existed and were repressed.
(Andrei Sakharov created sodium hydrogen bomb, sent to mental hospital after becoming a
dissident/Alexander Solzhenitsyn sent to Gulags after insulting Stalin, eventually kicked out of
SU and ended up in Vermont).
Samizdat self-published critical manuscripts important means of critique.
Dtente: decrease in Cold War tension. Salt I 1972.
Dtente Ended
1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
1980 Moscow Olympics boycott.
1981 USA rearming, saver rattling, Evil Empire.
Mini arms race in Europe SS-20s vs. Pershing II missiles, SDI-Star Wars.
Growing Dissatisfaction
Growing disparity between capitalist and communist worlds.
Slower economic growth.
o 1950s 6%
o 1980s 1.5%
How could the Soviet Union keep up with the West economically and militarily?
Communist Bloc
Officially Marxist, unofficially socialist dictatorships.
Cradle to the grave welfare states.
No (bourgeois) freedoms.
Unable to match capitalist economies.
Worthy adversaries for West.
Western Europe After WWII Reconstruction, Reconciliation, Welfare States, Multi-Cultural Societies,
Protest, Economic Slowdown Unification, Terrorism
Destruction and rebirth
Needed to rebuild war damage.
Hard work plus American Marshall Plan work.
1948-52 $12 billion in new equipment and raw materials from the United States.
American aid to create European stability and markets for American goods.
1950 output 30% above pre-war levels.
Rapid increase in standard of living and consumerism.
Social Welfare States
To avoid social conflicts that led to totalitarianism.
Generous employee protection, unemployment insurance, vacation, pay, health insurance,
payments for children, etc
Paid for high taxes lessens gap between classes.
Higher education generally free (ditto).
Housing a problem. New buildings constructed.
More wealthy/northern states more intervention.
Baby booms and busts
Baby boom occurred after war. (welfare).
Countries interested in promoting birth and health families (Pro-Natalism) to replace war deaths.
Baby bust after 1980.
Consumerism?
All major European countries under 2.1 births per woman.
Only immigration will sustain population.
Immigration to Germany
10 Million Germans forced from Eastern Europe.
Ethnic Germans supposed casus belli of WWII.
Turks and southern Europeans starting 1960s.
Immigration after Decolonization
Decolonization, economic opportunity, and social welfare states led to immigration to Europe.
o One million Algerians to France. (Franco-Algerian War).
o One million North Africans to France.
o 300K Indonesians to Netherlands.
o Hundreds of thousands Indians, Pakistanis, West Indians, and Africans to Britain.
Immigrant workers needed
Rebuilding economies short on labor.
German unemployment 1950 8% 1965 0.4%!
Guest workers invited to fill in.
Turks and Southern Europeans to Germany.
Previously mentioned immigrants to others.
Workers bring families to stay.
Multi-Cultural Societies Created
Up to about 10% of population non-Caucasian and non-Christian.
Difficulties with integration as immigrants continue to live at bottom of society.
Immigrant children trapped between cultures.
Security
States join NATO.
United States, Britain, and France all have nuclear arsenals. (ICBM, Air, Sub).
Medium range nuclear weapons throughout NATO countries controversial 1980s.
US, British, and French soldiers continue occupation of Germany.
Politics
Multi-party democracies in parliamentary systems friendly left-right rivalry.
Communist parties in France and Italy lost popularity with intensifying Cold War.
Nationalist/Anti-Immigrant parties resulted from immigration. (minority).
Western European Countries
West Germany
France
Britain
Italy
West Germany
A huge success. Democracy in Germany!
Cooperated with US reconciled with France and linked to East.
Compensation for Holocaust to victims and Israel.
Cold War/Korea led to rearming West Germany and admitted into NATO 1955!
Reconciliation
Chancellor Adenauer friendly towards France.
o Economic unions.
Chancellor Brandt (SPD!) tried Ostpolitik 1970s.
o Engaging GDR through recognition, recognizing borders, loans, and trade.
o Brandy government fell due to secretary being East German spy.
Chancellor Kohl continued reconciliation.
o Pays off in later reunification.
German Economic Miracle
Hard work and Marshall Plan rebuilt Germany.
German migrants helped rebuilt.
1955 GNP exceeded pre-war with only 50% land and 75% population.
Management and Labor work together to avoid social conflict.
Unemployment 1950 8% 1965 0.4%!
Invited hundreds of thousands of guest workers. They and families stayed.
Britain
Massive economic problems some rationing until 1954.
Shortage of housing and consumer goods.
Churchill defeated by Labours Atlee.
Labour promised welfare state. (Cradle to the grave).
Nationalized B of E, coal, steel transportation, and utilities.
National Insurance Act and National Health Service Act 1946 provided SS and national medical
care.
Britains Difficulties
Welfare State costly.
Economic recovery slower because of lost pre-war trade and empire.
Dismantled empire (too expensive) and reduced military spending.
Union wage demands outstripped productivity and expensive labor force with lots of strikes.
1970s economic crisis.
Thatchers Britain 1980s
Iron Lady prime minister.
Reduced government intervention, taxes, union power, promoted free markets and
privatization.
Increased Cold War rhetoric.
Fought successful war with Argentina over Falkland Islands 1982 (and saved her career).
Frances Fifth Republic
Reluctant to give up empire.
Algeria led to 1958 much stronger presidency under de Gaulle.
President chose prime minister, could dissolve parliament, led defense and foreign policy.
Frances Napoleon Complex
Didnt like Anglo-Saxon powers dominating Europe.
De Gaulle pulled French forces out of US dominated NATO 1966.
Joined the nuclear club 1960 and had French arsenal.
Twice vetoed British joining Common Market.
Western European Developments post 1960
Youth Revolution.
Protest.
Economic slowdown + the Welfare State.
Terrorism.
Protest in the late 1960s
Post WWII huge numbers of university students.
Complained of conservative and overcrowded universities.
Prosperity led to rejection of materialism and conservative society.
Anti-Vietnam War movement.
Students and counter-culture and hippies.
Fear of dead end life metro, boulot, dodo.
Sought freedom through sex, drugs, and rock and roll.
Youth Culture
Long hair, communal living, repudiation of personal hygiene, rejection of parents sexual
morality (the pill).
France May 1968
French workers joined students in general strike.
10 million on strike.
Mini-revolution broken by De Gaulle with promised elections and wage increases.
Split between workers and students.
Educational reforms introduced.
More liberal society afterwards?
Protest in the 1980s
Green parties react to environmental problems including nuclear power.
Nuclear weapons and revived Cold War rhetoric (Reagan) another focus of protest.
Economic slowdown
1973 energy crisis due to increasing oil price.
Lowered growth rates.
Higher unemployment.
Welfare state and generous work rules expensive.
Economic unity as measure to compete. (EU)
Attempts to reduce welfare state controversial.
Terrorism Nationalists/communists
Spain ETA Basque Separatists.
Britain IRA Irish Republican Army.
West Germany RAF Red Army Fraction.
Italy Red Brigades.
Committed acts of terror assassinations, bombing, kidnappings, hijackings, etc
States react with counter-violence.
Western Europe After WWII
Incredible recovery.
New start in domestic (social welfare) and international relations (reconciliation) overcoming
the past.
Better lives for most, but protest and terror continue.
Economic issues to be resolved.
Eastern Europe and the End of the Cold War Peaceful revolutions in Eastern Europe
Process
Economy declines international debts.
People wanted better standard of living and more freedom.
Gorbachev encourages/allows reform.
o Glasnost and Perestroika.
Communist leaders try to share power.
Removed through popular will of people.
Poland
Always a bit more liberal.
Gomulka 1956, less collectivization.
Poles no fans of Russians.
Very Catholic.
1978 Karol Wojtyla elected pope.
John Paul II pressed for freedom in 1979 tour.
Solidarity Trade Union
8/80 Strikes in Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk.
Wanted free trade unions, right to strike, freedom of speech, release of political prisoners,
economic reforms.
Led by electrician Lech Walesa.
Government signed Gdansk Agreement.
Catholic Church supported Solidarity.
Soviet Intervention?
Solidarity didnt demand too much.
Fear of Brezhnev Doctrine.
Opposition increased economic crisis 12/81.
General Jaruzelski saved Poland through martial law people arrested.
Solidarity went underground.
Power Sharing?
Worsening economy and Gorbachevs example encouraged Solidarity and government to
negotiate.
Power sharing seen as a way out of economic morass and political stalemate.
Elections!
1989 Solidarity legalized.
Controlled elections (Communist majority).
General Jaruzelsky president for 4 years.
Solidarity won a huge victory.
Communists crossed out on ballots.
Communism Dismantled
Step by step Communism dismantled.
Secret police eliminated, price controls abolished, state planning scrapped, private property an
free market encouraged.
Severe unemployment and discontent followed.
Hungary
1968-1988 Janos Kadar led government.
Goulash Communism Liberal planned economy in return for political obedience.
Economy sagged.
Communism Dismantled
5/88 Kadar replaced with reform Communist Party agreed to free elections early 1990 and
pandered to votes by opening Iron Curtain.
Confident Communists got 8.5% of vote (4
th
) while East German tourists fled
East Germany
GDR Ulbricht replaced by Honecker 1971 who also ruled with Iron Fist.
Stasi Secret police. Big Brother.
Best economy in East and generous social welfare.
BUT economic problems persisted and West German example attractive.
The End of East Germany
40
th
Anniversary celebration ruined when Gorbachev warned Honecker.
Honecker replaced by reformist communists.
The Wall Comes Tumbling Down
Confusion led to minister announcing Berlin Wall could be opened.
November 9, 1989 East Germans streamed through wall to West.
Reunification
New parties and new elections in 3/90.
FRG Chancellor Helmut Kohl negotiated for reunification. Controversial!
One currency 7/1/90.
WWII allies convinced to allow a Germany.
Reunification10/3/90.
Soviets bought off with FRG money.
Czechoslovakias Velvet Revolution
Berlin Wall fell. Czechs wanted reform!
Velvet revolution 11/89 popular demonstrations took over streets.
Communists forced into power sharing then resigned.
Vaclav Havel (famous dissident) became president.
Czechoslovakias Velvet Divorce
Nation divided into two republics 1990.
Free elections held.
Slovak autonomy movement increased.
1993 Two independent nations.
o Czech Republic.
o Slovakia.
Romania
Nicolae Ceausescu dictator since 1965.
Little Stalin with Cult of Personality and wife.
Huge state secret police Securitate.
Industrialization through western borrowing.
Paying interest through peoples sacrifice.
Member of Warsaw Pact but independent.
Reform?
Military refused to fire on demonstrators.
Securitate killed hundreds.
Ceausescus speech met with heckling.
Ceausescu fled in helicopter.
Securitate s. army and the people.
Romanian Revolution
Ceausescu captured and executed by soldiers.
National Salvation Front (Communists and protestors) restored order and dismantled
Communism.
Repressive dictatorship ends.
Summary
People wanted freedom and better economic situation.
Refusal of SU to intervene doomed dictatorships.
Most regimes went peacefully.
Freedom with continued problems economic and political.
Eastern block countries join NATO and EU!
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
Gorbachevs Plan
Mikhail Gorbachev made General Secretary of Common Party.
Young Technocrat Knew of Soviet weaknesses.
Gorbachev and Soviets wanted more consumer goods, better economy in order to compete.
Gorbachev tried perestroika (reconstructing) and glasnost (openness).
Perestroika
De-centralization of economic decision making.
Limited open markets and incentives.
Restrictions on foreign trade loosened.
Private businesses encouraged.
Private plots of land allowed.
Didnt work so well.
Little individual initiative.
Glasnost
Openness or publicity of problems.
Economy couldnt be reformed without open debate.
Allowed educated elite a voice reform.
Loosened censorship and allowed criticism of the past.
Decreasing the power of old guard: party, military, and KGB.
Gorbachevs Popularity
Made peace overtures to West (reduced nuclear arsenals).
Walked around in West Gorbi! Gorbi!
Had a visible wife Raisa Gorbachev.
Pulled troops out of Afghanistan.
Reduced Communist aid to whole world.
Wouldnt use Brezhnev doctrine.
From hope to criticism
1985-1988 rising food/consumer good production not enough.
Dissatisfaction and ability to criticize.
Gorbachev criticized.
Reform out of control
Congress of Peoples Deputies created 3/89. One third of seats reserved for Communists.
No longer one party monopoly!
Congress elected the Supreme Soviet.
Supreme Soviet made Gorbachev president.
(Presidency had no connection to Communist Party).
Boris Yeltsin (President Russian Representative 6/91) Gorbachevs critic and rival for power.
1991 Marxism-Leninism (Planned economy) dropped as official philosophy Free market!
Nationalism!
1988 Fighting between Armenians and Azerbaijanis.
Spring 1990 Baltic States demanded autonomy.
Riots in Azerbaijan and Tajikistan.
Ethnic Russians were in all those places.
Tried an economic embargo against Baltic States and even sent in tanks to seize media.
The Hardliners Strike Back
August 1991 hardliners attempted coup to overthrow reforms.
Gorbi held prisoner in Crimea.
Army troops moved into major cities.
Babushkas Does your mother know what you are doing?
The Hours of Yeltsin
Demonstrators out in the streets.
Yeltsin organized resistance.
Army wont shoot at demonstrators.
Coup collapsed after two days.
Yeltsin forced Gorbachev to ban Communist Party!
The Unraveling of the Soviet Union
Yeltsin eclipsed Gorbachev in popularity and in power as Russian president.
Gorbachev resigned.
One by one 15 Republics declared independence from Soviet Union.
Nationalism!
Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine formed Commonwealth of Independent States.
The Soviet Union 1917-1991 RIP
Attempted Marxist/Communist State.
Reality was socialist dictatorship.
Russia became a modern superpower.
Modernity caught up with Soviets.
People wanted more freedom/comfort.
Freedom included nationalist aspirations.
Soviet Union/Russian Empire disintegrated.
Yeltsins Reign 1992-2000
Russian Parliament vs. Yeltsin 1993.
o Yeltsin suspended Parliament.
o Parliament tried to depose Yeltsin.
o Russian military attacked Parliament building.
War in Chechnya as Islamic state tried to break away (oil) Chechen terrorism result.
Oligarchs profited from dismantling Communism.
Putins Reign 2000
Strongman Ex-KGB officer.
Renewed war in Chechnya.
Increasing government control and centralization.
Combating oligarchs, crime, and corruption.
Resurgent Russia based on natural resources.
Decline in social welfare, education system, life expectancy.
Resurgent Russian nationalism to regain empire?
Russia
Large and powerful state that played a huge role in European history.
Will continue to play a large role based on size and population.
Seems to be a little differenta little more authoritarian.
Future?????
The Road to European Union Integration: Promotes economic prosperity, Promotes political
strength, Keeps nations from going to war
1947 Integration
BeNeLux countries created a tariff union.
Marshall Plan required economic coordination and open markets.
Integration of Coal and Steel
Products of war.
Schuman Plan 1950 joined France and FRG (Germany) in pooling coal and steel markets.
ECSC European Coal and Steel Community 1951.
Formed by BeNeLux, France, Italy, and FRG (West Germany).
Made a steel and coal common market.
Treaty of Rome 1957 European Economic Community (EEC) Common Market
Area with common external tariff.
Free movement of labor and capital.
Cooperation and standardization.
National agricultural interests protected.
BeNeLux, France, Italy, and FRG (Germany).
Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined 1973; Greece 1981; Spain and Portugal 1986.
European Free Trade Association 1960
Britain and other non-members of EEC.
Austria, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and Britain.
Removed most tariffs but retained agricultural and fish tariffs.
Maastricht Treaty 1992 (EU)
An area without frontiers in which the free movement of good and persons, services and capital
is ensured.
Merger of European Community and most of European Free Trade Association. (Austria, Finland,
Sweden 1995).
380 million European consumers!
Most important economic unifier.
The Euro-WOW!
European Central Bank created 1998 in Frankfurt.
Encouraged reducing inflation and budget deficits.
Common currency circulation 2002.
European Unions Three Branches
European Parliament (Brussels and Strasbourg)
o Representation according to population/importance.
Council of Ministers.
European Court of Justice.
NOT ALL THAT POWERFUL YET.
Additions to the Union
10 New states joined in 2004.
Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the
Mediterranean islands of Cyprus and Malta.
Poorer than the rest not equal yet.
Not all on the Euro.
No free movement of labor.
Turkey, Croatia, and Iceland would like to join.
Present and Future
EU created a huge tariff free market, powerful currency, and less division between European
nations.
What about sovereignty? Culture?
Plans for European army, same social welfare and immigration policies, a constitution, real
power.
Continuing Problems
Problems: Nationalism Reluctance to give up power to Eurocrats.
Great Britain always reluctant to give up sovereignty. Still have pound.
Turkey: Is it Europe? Poor Muslim country and lack of democracy.
Spendthrift countries P.I.G.S. (Portugal, Italy, Greece, Spain). Spending too much, borrowing
costs too high, need richer countries to bail them out.
European Union
Worlds most powerful trading block
37% of global trade.
33% of worlds money reserves.
6% worlds population.
Future?
The Yugoslavian Civil War Nationalism!
Historical Background
Balkan region has always been ethnically and religiously diverse and subjected to others.
o Serbians = Orthodox Christians.
o Croatians, Slovenians Roman Catholics.
o Bosnians, Kosovars, Albanians = Muslims.
Turks Expanded and contracted
Victories Kosovo 1389, Constantinople 1453, Belgrade 1521, Mohacs 1526, Buda 1541.
Defeats Vienna 1529, Vienna 1683.
Habsburgs vs. Russians after 1850
While nationalism grew.
Great powers vied for sick mans newly freed territory. Sparked WWI.
Post WWI Yugoslavia
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes established Serbian King Peter in 1921.
Peters successor, Alexander I, threw out constitution and established Serbian dictatorship.
Croatian fascists (Ustashe) assassinate Alexander in 1934.
WWII
Germans invaded Yugoslavia in 1941.
Nazis put Croatians in charge. Brutal rule with atrocities.
Almost 500,000 Serbs killed.
2 groups resist:
o 1) Chetniks Extreme Serb nationalists.
o 2) Partisans Communists led by Josip Broz Tito.
Post WWII Titos rule
Titos dominance kept ethnic tensions under control until his death.
Yugoslavia rejected Soviet domination, though still communist.
nonaligned, since they didnt join with either superpower.
Tito died in 1980, uh-oh.
Serious Problems
Economy saddled with huge foreign debts.
Weak federation.
Old ethnic and religious hatreds emerge.
Use nationalism to stay in power.
o Serbias Slobodan Milosevic.
Yugoslavias Civil War
Collapse of Communism pushes Yugoslavia into chaos.
New constitution allows secession, but Milosevic uses Yugoslav army to block Croatia and
Slovenia from leaving.
Slovenes win independence, Croats dont.
Croatia and Bosnia
In Croatia, Serb minority joins Yugoslav army.
Most of Croatia falls to Serb control.
Bosnia secedes in 1992, Serbs begin ethnic cleansing of Catholic Croatians and Muslim
Bosnians.
Not quite genocide, but close.
Atrocities against Bosnians
1992: Independent Bosnia.
Serbs begin shelling Sarajevo.
Siege lasted 3 years!
Also Srebrenica, 1995, 7,000 Muslim males killed in UN Safe Haven.
UN Intervention
UN sends ineffective peacekeepers in 1992, fighting continues.
Atrocities are common, including rape as a weapon of war.
Serb rapists sought to product little Chetniks.
1995 NATO airstrikes bring Serbs to negotiate.
Dayton Accord
In 1995, U.S. led peace talks in Dayton, Ohio.
Milosevic agrees to peace terms, though rebels fight on.
Muslim Bosnians get 51% of Bosnia, Serbs get 49%.
60,000 NATO/UN/EU peacekeepers enter Bosnia.
Kosovo, 1998
Kosovo, a republic within Serbia-Montenegro, declared independence.
Kosovos population: 90% Muslim Albanians, 10% Orthodox Serbs.
Milosevic ordered new ethnic cleansing campaign to drive out Kosovar Albanians.
NATO bombed Belgrade and military targets for 37 days until ethnic cleansing stopped.
Balkans Today
No more Yugoslavia.
All six original republics independent, plus Kosovo.
UN peacekeepers.
War criminals sought and tried.
Still lots of minorities.
Irredentism?
Nationalism
Slow to develop in many countries.
Suppressed by central government.
Once government weakens, it allows nationalism to surface.
Can result in especially nasty, very personal conflict.
20
th
Century Art
Dada
Hobbyhorse or father.
Anti-art movement.
Attacked rational civilized standards.
Civilization had failed.
Surrealism
War shook faith in what was real.
Portrays fantasies and dreams of the subconscious (Freudian).
Search for subconscious forces that molded reality.
Cubism
Painters emphasized geometric patterns.
Treat nature as a cylinder, sphere, or cone.
A robotic image of man reflects the loss of personality after a century of industrialism.
Religion, Philosophy, and Women
Christianity
Decreasing belief and church attendance.
Horrors of wars?
Right-wing stain?
Comforts of welfare state?
Science and technology?
Permissive society?
Catholic Church
Christian Democratic movements.
Vatican II Council (1959-1965).
o Vernacular
o Laity
o Ecumenical
o International
Still socially conservative (womens issues).
John Paul II fought for East European freedom.
Existentialism
Life is meaningless and absurd.
No reason, progress, God, just existence.
Man is condemned to be free. Anxiety!
Man acts, chooses, exists and creates nothing.
Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980).
Womens Revolution
Women needed in economies:
o War
o Post-war
o Information age.
Womens lives less about motherhood.
o Declining birthrate.
o The pill
Desire for psychological satisfaction.
The Second Sex (1949)
Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986).
Women the (inferior) other.
Free, but trapped in role.
Existentialism action!
Betty Friedan (1921-2006).
o The Feminine Mystique (1963).
o The problem that has no name.
Change
Counter-culture led to action in the 70s.
Political involvement led to:
o More equal pay for equal work.
o Abortion.
o Divorce.
o Child care and job protections.
o More female politicians and business leaders.
Thatcher, Merkel
Al-Qaeda
A loosely organized Islamist movement which seeks to rid the Muslim world of non-Muslim
influences.
Wants to implement Sharia law under political unity of the Muslim world.
Global jihad (holy war) seeks to achieve goals through terror attacks.
Thos who dont share their beliefs are considered apostates and worthy of death.
Taliban
A fundamentalist Sunni Islamist group which controlled much of Afghanistan 1996-2001.
Came to power in the wake of the Afghan Civil War and received support from the Pakistani ISI.
Initially supported by many because of corruption of local warlords.
Advocate strict interpretation of Sharia law including anti-modernism, extreme male dominance,
medieval justice, and strict dress codes.
2001: U.S. and coalition forces allied with Northern Alliance Warlords to overthrow Taliban for
their support of Al-Qaeda.
2006 present: Resurgent Taliban has been fighting in both Afghanistan and Pakistan fuelled by
opium trade.
Factors Contributing to Tension
Settlements/Outposts
Roads/Transportation
Separation Barrier
ID Cards
House Demolitions
Refugee Displacement
Healthcare access
Checkpoints/Barriers
West Bank Key Issues
Protection/Human Dignity
o House demolitions/displacement
o Settler violence
Access and Movement
o System and obstacles and closed areas
o Fragmentation of the West Bank
Israeli West Bank Barrier
A 436 mile series of fences, concrete walls, trenches, and no mans land (60m) being built by
Israel to separate Israelis from Palestinians.
Its controversial and seen either as protection against suicide bombers and terrorists or an
illegal land grab by the Israelis.
Arab-Israeli conflict vs. India-Pakistan conflict
Similarities
o *Started after British left
o People forced out of their homes
o Wanted separate state
o Slaughter and murder of the other religion
o Separated by religion
o Catch, kill, burn
Differences
o India-Pakistan conflict British intervened to try to end the conflict with no violence
o India-Pakistan conflict no suicide bombers
o India-Pakistan conflict Beheading
o India-Pakistan conflict Religious cleansing
China
Falun Gong
Philosophy that focuses on the mind-body connection.
Tai Chi like exercises part of rituals.
Introduced in 1992 by Li Hongzhi.
Anti-materialism against Chinas direction.
10,000 adherents showed up at Communist Party HQ in Beijing in 1999.
Anti-Communist organization?
Banned ever since; adherents persecuted.
One Child Policy
Introduced in 1979 to increase standard of living.
One child is the rule but there are exceptions.
Parents who have second children are fined and parents have to pay for kids schooling and
familys health insurance.
Preference for males has led to abortion, infanticide, and adoption, and thus a greater number
of males to females in the young population.