Capacitance and Dielectrics

804 CHAPT E R 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics
nthischapter,wediscusscapacitors devicesthatstoreelectriccharge.Capaci-
tors are commonly used in a variety of electric circuits. For instance, they are
used to tune the frequency of radio receivers, as lters in power supplies, to
eliminatesparkinginautomobileignitionsystems,andasenergy-storingdevicesin
electronicashunits.
Acapacitorconsistsoftwoconductorsseparatedbyaninsulator.Weshallsee
thatthecapacitanceofagivencapacitordependsonitsgeometryandonthema-
terial calledadielectric thatseparatestheconductors.
DEFINITION OF CAPACITANCE
Consider two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude but of opposite
sign,asshowninFigure26.1.Suchacombinationoftwoconductorsiscalledaca-
pacitor. Theconductorsarecalledplates. ApotentialdifferenceV existsbetween
the conductors due to the presence of the charges. Because the unit of potential
differenceisthevolt,apotentialdifferenceisoftencalledavoltage. Weshalluse
thistermtodescribethepotentialdifferenceacrossacircuitelementorbetween
twopointsinspace.
Whatdetermineshowmuchchargeisontheplatesofacapacitorforagiven
voltage? In other words, what is the capacity of the device for storing charge at a
particular value of V ? Experiments show that the quantity of charge Q on a ca-
pacitor
1
is linearly proportional to the potential difference between the conduc-
tors;thatis, Theproportionalityconstantdependsontheshapeandsepa-
rationoftheconductors.
2
Wecanwritethisrelationshipas ifwedene
capacitanceasfollows:
Q CV
Q V.
26.1
ThecapacitanceC ofacapacitoristheratioofthemagnitudeofthechargeon
eitherconductortothemagnitudeofthepotentialdifferencebetweenthem:
(26.1) C
Q
V
I
Notethatbydenitioncapacitanceisalwaysapositivequantity. Furthermore,thepo-
tentialdifferenceV isalwaysexpressedinEquation26.1asapositivequantity.Be-
cause the potential difference increases linearly with the stored charge, the ratio
Q/V is constant for a given capacitor. Therefore, capacitance is a measure of a
capacitorsabilitytostorechargeandelectricpotentialenergy.
FromEquation26.1,weseethatcapacitancehasSIunitsofcoulombspervolt.
TheSIunitofcapacitanceisthefarad(F),whichwasnamedinhonorofMichael
Faraday:
The farad is a very large unit of capacitance. In practice, typical devices have ca-
pacitancesrangingfrommicrofarads(10
6
F)topicofarads(10
12
F).Forpracti-
calpurposes,capacitorsoftenarelabeledmFformicrofaradsandmmFformi-
cromicrofaradsor,equivalently,pFforpicofarads.
1F 1C/V
Denitionofcapacitance
1
Although the total charge on the capacitor is zero (because there is as much excess positive charge
ononeconductorasthereisexcessnegativechargeontheother),itiscommonpracticetorefertothe
magnitudeofthechargeoneitherconductorasthechargeonthecapacitor.
2
TheproportionalitybetweenV andQ canbeprovedfromCoulombslaworbyexperiment.
13.5
Q
+Q
Figure 26.1 Acapacitorconsists
oftwoconductorscarryingcharges
ofequalmagnitudebutopposite
sign.
26.2 Calculating Capacitance 805
Letusconsideracapacitorformedfromapairofparallelplates,asshownin
Figure 26.2. Each plate is connected to one terminal of a battery (not shown in
Fig.26.2),whichactsasasourceofpotentialdifference.Ifthecapacitorisinitially
uncharged, the battery establishes an electric eld in the connecting wires when
theconnectionsaremade.Letusfocusontheplateconnectedtothenegativeter-
minalofthebattery.Theelectriceldappliesaforceonelectronsinthewirejust
outside this plate; this force causes the electrons to move onto the plate. This
movementcontinuesuntiltheplate,thewire,andtheterminalareallatthesame
electric potential. Once this equilibrium point is attained, a potential difference
no longer exists between the terminal and the plate, and as a result no electric
eld is present in the wire, and the movement of electrons stops. The plate now
carries a negative charge. A similar process occurs at the other capacitor plate,
with electrons moving from the plate to the wire, leaving the plate positively
charged. In this nal conguration, the potential difference across the capacitor
platesisthesameasthatbetweentheterminalsofthebattery.
Supposethatwehaveacapacitorratedat4 pF.Thisratingmeansthattheca-
pacitorcanstore4 pCofchargeforeachvoltofpotentialdifferencebetweenthe
twoconductors.Ifa9-Vbatteryisconnectedacrossthiscapacitor,oneofthecon-
ductors ends up with a net charge of 36 pC and the other ends up with a net
chargeof36 pC.
CALCULATING CAPACITANCE
Wecancalculatethecapacitanceofapairofoppositelychargedconductorsinthe
followingmanner:WeassumeachargeofmagnitudeQ,andwecalculatethepo-
tential difference using the techniques described in the preceding chapter. We
then use the expression to evaluate the capacitance. As we might ex-
pect,wecanperformthiscalculationrelativelyeasilyifthegeometryofthecapaci-
torissimple.
Wecancalculatethecapacitanceofanisolatedsphericalconductorofradius
R andchargeQ ifweassumethatthesecondconductormakingupthecapacitoris
aconcentrichollowsphereofinniteradius.Theelectricpotentialofthesphere
ofradiusR issimplyk
e
Q/R,andsetting atinnityasusual,wehave
(26.2)
This expression shows that the capacitance of an isolated charged sphere is pro-
portional to its radius and is independent of both the charge on the sphere and
thepotentialdifference.
C
Q
V
Q
k
e
Q/R
R
k
e
4
0
R
V 0
C Q/V
26.2
QuickLab
Rollsomesocksintoballsandstuff
themintoashoebox.Whatdeter-
mineshowmanysockstinthebox?
Relatehowhardyoupushonthe
sockstoV foracapacitor.Howdoes
thesizeoftheboxinuenceitssock
capacity?
Acollectionofcapacitorsusedinavarietyofapplica-
tions.
d
Q
+Q
Area=A
Figure 26.2 Aparallel-plateca-
pacitorconsistsoftwoparallelcon-
ductingplates,eachofareaA,sepa-
ratedbyadistanced.Whenthe
capacitorischarged,theplates
carryequalamountsofcharge.
Oneplatecarriespositivecharge,
andtheothercarriesnegative
charge.
Thecapacitanceofapairofconductorsdependsonthegeometryofthecon-
ductors. Let us illustrate this with three familiar geometries, namely, parallel
plates,concentriccylinders,andconcentricspheres.Intheseexamples,weassume
thatthechargedconductorsareseparatedbyavacuum.Theeffectofadielectric
materialplacedbetweentheconductorsistreatedinSection26.5.
Parallel-PlateCapacitors
TwoparallelmetallicplatesofequalareaA areseparatedbyadistanced,asshown
inFigure26.2.OneplatecarriesachargeQ , andtheothercarriesachargeQ.
Let us consider how the geometry of these conductors inuences the capacity of
the combination to store charge. Recall that charges of like sign repel one an-
other.Asacapacitorisbeingchargedbyabattery,electronsowintothenegative
plate and out of the positive plate. If the capacitor plates are large, the accumu-
lated charges are able to distribute themselves over a substantial area, and the
amountofchargethatcanbestoredonaplateforagivenpotentialdifferencein-
creases as the plate area is increased. Thus, we expect the capacitance to be pro-
portionaltotheplateareaA.
Now let us consider the region that separates the plates. If the battery has a
constantpotentialdifferencebetweenitsterminals,thentheelectriceldbetween
theplatesmustincreaseasd isdecreased.Letusimaginethatwemovetheplates
closer together and consider the situation before any charges have had a chance
tomove inresponseto this change. Becauseno charges have moved, the electric
eld between the plates has the same value but extends over a shorter distance.
Thus,themagnitudeofthepotentialdifferencebetweentheplates (Eq.
25.6) is now smaller. The difference between this new capacitor voltage and the
terminalvoltageofthebatterynowexistsasapotentialdifferenceacrossthewires
connectingthebatterytothecapacitor.Thispotentialdifferenceresultsinanelec-
tric eld in the wires that drives more charge onto the plates, increasing the po-
tential difference between the plates. When the potential difference between the
plates again matches that of the battery, the potential difference across the wires
fallsbacktozero,andtheowofchargestops.Thus,movingtheplatescloserto-
gethercausesthechargeonthecapacitortoincrease.Ifd isincreased,thecharge
decreases. As a result, we expect the devices capacitance to be inversely propor-
tionaltod.
V Ed
Figure 26.3 (a)Theelectriceldbetweentheplatesofaparallel-platecapacitorisuniform
nearthecenterbutnonuniformneartheedges.(b)Electriceldpatternoftwooppositely
chargedconductingparallelplates.Smallpiecesofthreadonanoilsurfacealignwiththeelec-
triceld.
+Q
Q
(a) (b)
26.2 Calculating Capacitance 807
Wecanverifythesephysicalargumentswiththefollowingderivation.Thesur-
face charge density on either plate is If the plates are very close to-
gether(incomparisonwiththeirlengthandwidth),wecanassumethattheelec-
triceldisuniformbetweentheplatesandiszeroelsewhere.Accordingtothelast
paragraphofExample24.8,thevalueoftheelectriceldbetweentheplatesis
Because the eld between the plates is uniform, the magnitude of the potential
differencebetweentheplatesequalsEd (seeEq.25.6);therefore,
SubstitutingthisresultintoEquation26.1,wendthatthecapacitanceis
(26.3)
That is, the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is proportional to the
area of its plates and inversely proportional to the plate separation, just as
weexpectfromourconceptualargument.
Acarefulinspectionoftheelectriceldlinesforaparallel-platecapacitorre-
vealsthattheeldisuniforminthecentralregionbetweentheplates,asshownin
Figure 26.3a. However, the eld is nonuniform at the edges of the plates. Figure
26.3b is a photograph of the electric eld pattern of a parallel-plate capacitor.
Note the nonuniform nature of the electric eld at the ends of the plates. Such
end effects can be neglected if the plate separation is small compared with the
lengthoftheplates.
Many computer keyboard buttons are constructed of capacitors, as shown in Figure 26.4.
When a key is pushed down, the soft insulator between the movable plate and the xed
plateiscompressed.Whenthekeyispressed,thecapacitance(a)increases,(b)decreases,
or(c)changesinawaythatwecannotdeterminebecausethecomplicatedelectriccircuit
connectedtothekeyboardbuttonmaycauseachangeinV.
Quick Quiz 26.1
C
0
A
d
C
Q
V
Q
Qd/
0
A
V Ed
Qd
0
A
E
0
A
Q/A.
Key
Movable
plate
Soft
insulator
Fixed
plate
B
Parallel-PlateCapacitor EXAMPLE 26.1
Exercise What is the capacitance for a plate separation of
3.00 mm?
Answer 0.590 pF.
1.77pF 1.77 10
12
F
A parallel-plate capacitor has an area
andaplateseparation mm.Finditscapacitance.
Solution FromEquation26.3,wendthat
C
0
A
d
(8.85 10
12
C
2
/N m
2
)
2.00 10
4
m
2
1.00 10
3
m

d 1.00
A 2.00 10
4
m
2
Figure 26.4 Onetypeofcom-
puterkeyboardbutton.
TheCylindricalCapacitor EXAMPLE 26.2
by (b/a), a positive quantity. As
predicted, the capacitance is proportional to the length of
the cylinders. As we might expect, the capacitance also de-
pends on the radii of the two cylindrical conductors. From
Equation26.4,weseethatthecapacitanceperunitlengthof
acombinationofconcentriccylindricalconductorsis
(26.5)
Anexampleofthistypeofgeometricarrangementisacoaxial
cable, which consistsoftwo concentric cylindricalconductors
separated by an insulator. The cable carries electrical signals
in the inner and outer conductors. Such a geometry is espe-
ciallyusefulforshieldingthesignalsfromanypossibleexter-
nalinuences.
C
1
2k
e
ln
b
a

V V
b
V
a
2k
e
ln A solid cylindrical conductor of radius a and charge Q is
coaxial with a cylindrical shell of negligible thickness, radius
and charge Q (Fig. 26.5a). Find the capacitance of
thiscylindricalcapacitorifitslengthis.
Solution It is difcult to apply physical arguments to this
conguration,althoughwecanreasonablyexpectthecapaci-
tancetobeproportionaltothecylinderlength forthesame
reasonthatparallel-platecapacitanceisproportionaltoplate
area: Stored charges have more room in which to be distrib-
uted.Ifweassumethat ismuchgreaterthana andb,wecan
neglect end effects. In this case, the electric eld is perpen-
diculartothelongaxisofthecylindersandisconnedtothe
regionbetweenthem(Fig.26.5b).Wemustrstcalculatethe
potentialdifferencebetweenthetwocylinders,whichisgiven
ingeneralby
whereE istheelectriceldintheregion InChap-
ter24,weshowedusingGaussslawthatthemagnitudeofthe
electriceldofacylindricalchargedistributionhavinglinear
charge density is (Eq. 24.7). The same result
appliesherebecause,accordingtoGaussslaw,thechargeon
theoutercylinderdoesnotcontributetotheelectriceldin-
sideit.UsingthisresultandnotingfromFigure26.5bthatE
isalongr,wendthat
SubstitutingthisresultintoEquation26.1andusingthefact
that weobtain
(26.4)
whereV isthemagnitudeofthepotentialdifference,given
2k
e
ln
b
a

C
Q
V
Q
2k
e
Q
ln
b
a

Q/,
V
b
V
a

b
a
E
r
dr 2k
e

b
a
dr
r
2k
e
ln
b
a

E
r
2k
e
/r
a r b.
V
b
V
a

b
a
E ds
b a,
TheSphericalCapacitor EXAMPLE 26.3
Solution As we showed in Chapter 24, the field outside
a spherically symmetric charge distribution is radial and
given by the expression In this case, this result ap-
plies to the field between the spheres From (a r b).
k
e
Q /r
2
.
Asphericalcapacitorconsistsofasphericalconductingshell
ofradiusb andchargeQ concentricwithasmallerconduct-
ingsphereofradiusa andchargeQ (Fig.26.6).Findtheca-
pacitanceofthisdevice.
b
a
(a) (b)
Gaussian
surface
Q
a
Q
b
r
Figure 26.5 (a)Acylindricalcapacitorconsistsofasolidcylindri-
calconductorofradiusa andlength surroundedbyacoaxialcylin-
dricalshellofradiusb.(b)Endview.Thedashedlinerepresentsthe
endofthecylindricalgaussiansurfaceofradiusr andlength.
CylindricalandSphericalCapacitors
From the denition of capacitance, we can, in principle, nd the capacitance of
any geometric arrangement of conductors. The following examples demonstrate
theuseofthisdenitiontocalculatethecapacitanceoftheotherfamiliargeome-
triesthatwementioned:cylindersandspheres.
26.3 Combinations of Capacitors 809
Whatisthemagnitudeoftheelectriceldintheregionoutsidethesphericalcapacitorde-
scribedinExample26.3?
COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS
Two or more capacitors often are combined in electric circuits. We can calculate
the equivalent capacitance of certain combinations using methods described in
this section. The circuit symbols for capacitors and batteries, as well as the color
codes used for them in this text, are given in Figure 26.7. The symbol for the ca-
pacitorreectsthegeometryofthemostcommonmodelforacapacitor apair
of parallel plates. The positive terminal of the battery is at the higher potential
andisrepresentedinthecircuitsymbolbythelongerverticalline.
ParallelCombination
TwocapacitorsconnectedasshowninFigure26.8aareknownasaparallelcombina-
tionofcapacitors.Figure26.8bshowsacircuitdiagramforthiscombinationofca-
pacitors. The left plates of the capacitors are connected by a conducting wire to
thepositiveterminalofthebatteryandarethereforebothatthesameelectricpo-
tentialasthepositiveterminal.Likewise,therightplatesareconnectedtotheneg-
ativeterminalandarethereforebothatthesamepotentialasthenegativetermi-
nal.Thus,theindividualpotentialdifferencesacrosscapacitorsconnectedin
parallel are all the same and are equal to the potential difference applied
acrossthecombination.
In a circuit such as that shown in Figure 26.8, the voltage applied across the
combination is the terminal voltage of the battery. Situations can occur in which
26.3
Quick Quiz 26.2
Figure 26.6 Asphericalcapacitorconsistsofaninnersphereof
radiusa surroundedbyaconcentricsphericalshellofradiusb.The
electriceldbetweenthespheresisdirectedradiallyoutwardwhen
theinnersphereispositivelycharged.
a
b
Q
+Q
Exercise Show that as the radius b of the outer sphere ap-
proaches innity, the capacitance approaches the value
a/k
e
4
0
a.
Figure 26.7 Circuitsymbolsfor
capacitors,batteries,andswitches.
Notethatcapacitorsareinblue
andbatteriesandswitchesarein
red.
Capacitor
symbol
Battery
symbol
+
Switch
symbol
13.5
Gausss law we see that only the inner sphere contributes
to this field. Thus, the potential difference between the
spheresis
Themagnitudeofthepotentialdifferenceis
SubstitutingthisvalueforV intoEquation26.1,weobtain
(26.6)
ab
k
e
(b a)
C
Q
V
V V
b
V
a
k
e
Q
(b a)
ab
k
e
Q
1
b
1
a

V
b
V
a

b
a
E
r
dr k
e
Q
b
a
dr
r
2
k
e
Q
1
r

b
a
the parallel combination is in a circuit with other circuit elements; in such situa-
tions,wemustdeterminethepotentialdifferenceacrossthecombinationbyana-
lyzingtheentirecircuit.
When the capacitors are rst connected in the circuit shown in Figure 26.8,
electronsaretransferredbetweenthewiresandtheplates;thistransferleavesthe
left plates positively charged and the right plates negatively charged. The energy
source for this charge transfer is the internal chemical energy stored in the bat-
tery,whichisconvertedtoelectricpotentialenergyassociatedwiththechargesep-
aration.Theowofchargeceaseswhenthevoltageacrossthecapacitorsisequal
to that across the battery terminals. The capacitors reach their maximum charge
when the ow of charge ceases. Let us call the maximum charges on the two ca-
pacitorsQ
1
andQ
2
.ThetotalchargeQ storedbythetwocapacitorsis
(26.7)
Thatis,thetotalchargeoncapacitorsconnectedinparallelisthesumofthe
chargesontheindividualcapacitors.Becausethevoltagesacrossthecapacitors
arethesame,thechargesthattheycarryare
Supposethatwewishtoreplacethesetwocapacitorsbyoneequivalentcapacitor
havingacapacitanceC
eq
,asshowninFigure26.8c. The effectthis equivalentca-
pacitor has on the circuit must be exactly the same as the effect of the combina-
tionofthetwoindividualcapacitors.Thatis,theequivalentcapacitormuststoreQ
unitsofchargewhenconnectedtothebattery.WecanseefromFigure26.8cthat
thevoltageacrosstheequivalentcapacitoralsoisV becausetheequivalentcapac-
Q
1
C
1
V Q
2
C
2
V
Q Q
1
Q
2
(a)
+
C
2
+
C
1
+
(b)
V
+
Q
2
C
2
Q
1
C
1
V
1
=V
2
=V
V
+
C
eq
=C
1
+C
2
(c)
V
Figure 26.8 (a)Aparallelcombinationoftwocapacitorsinanelectriccircuitinwhichthepo-
tentialdifferenceacrossthebatteryterminalsisV.(b)Thecircuitdiagramfortheparallelcom-
bination.(c)TheequivalentcapacitanceisC
eq
C
1
C
2
.
26.3 Combinations of Capacitors 811
itorisconnecteddirectlyacrossthebatteryterminals.Thus,fortheequivalentca-
pacitor,
SubstitutingthesethreerelationshipsforchargeintoEquation26.7,wehave
Ifweextendthistreatmenttothreeormorecapacitorsconnectedinparallel,
wendtheequivalentcapacitancetobe
(26.8)
Thus, the equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination of capacitors is
greaterthananyoftheindividualcapacitances. Thismakessensebecausewe
are essentially combining the areas of all the capacitor plates when we connect
themwithconductingwire.
SeriesCombination
Two capacitors connected as shown in Figure 26.9a are known as a series combina-
tion of capacitors. The left plate of capacitor 1 and the right plate of capacitor 2
areconnectedtotheterminalsofabattery.Theothertwoplatesareconnectedto
eachotherandtonothingelse;hence,theyformanisolatedconductorthatisini-
tiallyunchargedandmustcontinuetohavezeronetcharge.Toanalyzethiscom-
bination, let us begin by considering the uncharged capacitors and follow what
happens just after a battery is connected to the circuit. When the battery is con-
C
eq
C
1
C
2
C
3
(parallelcombination)
C
eq
C
1
C
2

parallel
combination
C
eq
V C
1
V C
2
V
Q C
eq
V
(a)
+
C
2
V
C
1
V
1
V
2
+Q Q +Q Q
(b)
+
V
C
eq
Figure 26.9 (a)Aseriescombinationoftwocapacitors.Thechargesonthetwocapacitorsare
thesame.(b)Thecapacitorsreplacedbyasingleequivalentcapacitor.Theequivalentcapaci-
tancecanbecalculatedfromtherelationship
1
C
eq
1
C
1
1
C
2
nected,electronsaretransferredoutoftheleftplateofC
1
andintotherightplate
ofC
2
.AsthisnegativechargeaccumulatesontherightplateofC
2
,anequivalent
amount of negative charge is forced off the left plate of C
2
, and this left plate
thereforehasanexcesspositivecharge.Thenegativechargeleavingtheleftplate
of C
2
travels through the connecting wire and accumulates on the right plate of
C
1
.Asaresult,alltherightplatesendupwithachargeQ,andalltheleftplates
endupwithachargeQ.Thus,thechargesoncapacitorsconnectedinseries
arethesame.
From Figure 26.9a, we see that the voltage V across the battery terminals is
splitbetweenthetwocapacitors:
(26.9)
where V
1
and V
2
are the potential differences across capacitors C
1
and C
2
, re-
spectively. In general, the total potential difference across any number of ca-
pacitors connected in series is the sum of the potential differences across
theindividualcapacitors.
Supposethatanequivalentcapacitorhasthesameeffectonthecircuitasthe
series combination. After it is fully charged, the equivalent capacitor must have a
chargeofQ onitsrightplateandachargeofQ onitsleftplate.Applyingthe
denitionofcapacitancetothecircuitinFigure26.9b,wehave
Becausewecanapplytheexpression toeachcapacitorshowninFigure
26.9a,thepotentialdifferenceacrosseachis
Substituting these expressions into Equation 26.9 and noting that
wehave
CancelingQ,wearriveattherelationship
Whenthisanalysisisappliedtothreeormorecapacitorsconnectedinseries,the
relationshipfortheequivalentcapacitanceis
(26.10)
This demonstrates that the equivalent capacitance of a series combination is
alwayslessthananyindividualcapacitanceinthecombination.
1
C
eq
1
C
1
1
C
2
1
C
3

series
combination
1
C
eq
1
C
1
1
C
2

series
combination
Q
C
eq
Q
C
1
Q
C
2
V Q/C
eq
,
V
1

Q
C
1
V
2

Q
C
2
Q CV
V
Q
C
eq
V V
1
V
2
EquivalentCapacitance EXAMPLE 26.4
Solution Using Equations 26.8 and 26.10, we reduce the
combination step by step as indicated in the gure. The
1.0-F and 3.0-F capacitors are in parallel and combine ac-
Findtheequivalentcapacitancebetweena andb forthecom-
bination of capacitors shown in Figure 26.10a. All capaci-
tancesareinmicrofarads.
26.4 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor 813
ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR
Almost everyone who works with electronic equipment has at some time veried
that a capacitor can store energy. If the plates of a charged capacitor are con-
nected by a conductor, such as a wire, charge moves between the plates and the
connectingwireuntilthecapacitorisuncharged.Thedischargecanoftenbeob-
servedasa visible spark.If youshouldaccidentallytouchthe opposite plates of a
chargedcapacitor,yourngersactasapathwayfordischarge,andtheresultisan
electric shock. The degree of shock you receive depends on the capacitance and
onthevoltageappliedtothecapacitor.Suchashockcouldbefatalifhighvoltages
are present, such as in the power supply of a television set. Because the charges
canbestoredinacapacitorevenwhenthesetisturnedoff,unpluggingthetelevi-
siondoesnotmakeitsafetoopenthecaseandtouchthecomponentsinside.
Consideraparallel-platecapacitorthatisinitiallyuncharged,suchthattheini-
tialpotentialdifferenceacrosstheplatesiszero.Nowimaginethatthecapacitoris
connected to a battery and develops a maximum charge Q. (We assume that the
capacitorischargedslowlysothattheproblemcanbeconsideredasanelectrosta-
tic system.) When the capacitor is connected to the battery, electrons in the wire
just outside the plate connected to the negative terminal move into the plate to
giveitanegativecharge.Electronsintheplateconnectedtothepositiveterminal
move out of the plate into the wire to give the plate a positive charge. Thus,
chargesmoveonlyasmalldistanceinthewires.
Tocalculatetheenergyofthecapacitor,weshallassumeadifferentprocess
onethatdoesnotactuallyoccurbutgivesthesamenalresult.Wecanmakethis
26.4
cording to the expression F. The
2.0-Fand6.0-Fcapacitorsalsoareinparallelandhavean
equivalent capacitance of 8.0 F. Thus, the upper branch in
Figure 26.10b consists of two 4.0-F capacitors in series,
whichcombineasfollows:
C
eq

1
1/2.0F
2.0F
1
C
eq
1
C
1
1
C
2
1
4.0F

1
4.0F

1
2.0F
C
eq
C
1
C
2
4.0 Thelower branchinFigure 26.10b consists of two 8.0-Fca-
pacitors in series, which combine to yield an equivalent ca-
pacitance of 4.0 F. Finally, the 2.0-F and 4.0-F capacitors
in Figure 26.10c are in parallel and thus have an equivalent
capacitanceof6.0 F.
Exercise Consider three capacitors having capacitances of
3.0 F, 6.0 F, and 12 F. Find their equivalent capacitance
whentheyareconnected(a)inparalleland(b)inseries.
Answer (a)21 F;(b)1.7 F.
4.0
4.0
8.0
8.0
b a
(b)
4.0
b a
(c)
2.0
6.0
b a
(d)
4.0
8.0
b a
(a)
2.0
6.0
3.0
1.0
Figure 26.10 Tondtheequivalentcapacitanceofthecapacitorsinpart(a),we
reducethevariouscombinationsinstepsasindicatedinparts(b),(c),and(d),using
theseriesandparallelrulesdescribedinthetext.
13.5
assumptionbecausetheenergyinthenalcongurationdoesnotdependonthe
actual charge-transfer process. We imagine that we reach in and grab a small
amountofpositivechargeontheplateconnectedtothenegativeterminalandap-
plyaforcethatcausesthispositivechargetomoveovertotheplateconnectedto
the positive terminal. Thus, we do work on the charge as we transfer it from one
plate to the other. At rst, no work is required to transfer a small amount of
chargedq fromoneplatetotheother.
3
However,oncethischargehasbeentrans-
ferred, a small potential difference exists between the plates. Therefore, work
must be done to move additional charge through this potential difference. As
moreandmorechargeistransferredfromoneplatetotheother,thepotentialdif-
ferenceincreasesinproportion,andmoreworkisrequired.
Suppose that q is the charge on the capacitor at some instant during the
chargingprocess.Atthesameinstant,thepotentialdifferenceacrossthecapacitor
isV q/C.FromSection25.2,weknowthattheworknecessarytotransferanin-
crement of charge dq from the plate carrying charge q to the plate carrying
chargeq (whichisatthehigherelectricpotential)is
ThisisillustratedinFigure26.11.Thetotalworkrequiredtochargethecapacitor
from tosomenalcharge is
The work done in charging the capacitor appears as electric potential energy U
storedinthecapacitor.Therefore,wecanexpressthepotentialenergystoredina
chargedcapacitorinthefollowingforms:
(26.11)
This result applies to any capacitor, regardless of its geometry. We see that for a
given capacitance, the stored energy increases as the charge increases and as the
potentialdifferenceincreases.Inpractice,thereisalimittothemaximumenergy
U
Q
2
2C
1
2
QV
1
2
C(V )
2
W

Q
0
q
C
dq
1
C
Q
0
qdq
Q
2
2C
q Q q 0
dW Vdq
q
C
dq
Energystoredinacharged
capacitor
QuickLab
Hereshowtondoutwhetheryour
calculatorhasacapacitortoprotect
valuesorprogramsduringbattery
changes:Storeanumberinyourcal-
culatorsmemory,removethecalcu-
latorbatteryforamoment,andthen
quicklyreplaceit.Wasthenumber
thatyoustoredpreservedwhilethe
batterywasoutofthecalculator?
(Youmaywanttowritedownanycrit-
icalnumbersorprogramsthatare
storedinthecalculatorbeforetrying
this!)
3
Weshalluselowercaseq forthevaryingchargeonthecapacitorwhileitischarging,todistinguishit
fromuppercaseQ,whichisthetotalchargeonthecapacitorafteritiscompletelycharged.
V
dq
q
Figure 26.11 Aplotofpotentialdifferenceversuschargefor

acapacitorisastraightlinehavingaslope1/C.Theworkre-
quiredtomovechargedq throughthepotentialdifferenceV
acrossthecapacitorplatesisgivenbytheareaoftheshaded
rectangle.Thetotalworkrequiredtochargethecapacitortoa
nalchargeQ isthetriangularareaunderthestraightline,
.(Dontforgetthat J/C;hence,theunit
fortheareaisthejoule.)
1V 1 W
1
2
QV
(or charge) that can be stored because, at a sufciently great value of V, dis-
chargeultimatelyoccursbetweentheplates.Forthisreason,capacitorsareusually
labeledwithamaximumoperatingvoltage.
You have three capacitors and a battery. How should you combine the capacitors and the
batteryinonecircuitsothatthecapacitorswillstorethemaximumpossibleenergy?
We can consider the energy stored in a capacitor as being stored in the elec-
triceldcreatedbetweentheplatesasthecapacitorischarged.Thisdescriptionis
reasonable in view of the fact that the electric eld is proportional to the charge
on the capacitor. For a parallel-plate capacitor, the potential difference is related
to the electric eld through the relationship V Ed. Furthermore, its capaci-
tanceis (Eq.26.3).SubstitutingtheseexpressionsintoEquation26.11,
weobtain
(26.12)
Because the volume V (volume, not voltage!) occupied by the electric eld is Ad,
theenergyperunitvolume knownastheenergydensity, is
(26.13)
AlthoughEquation26.13wasderivedforaparallel-platecapacitor,theexpression
is generally valid. That is, the energy density in any electric eld is propor-
tionaltothesquareofthemagnitudeoftheelectriceldatagivenpoint.
u
E

1
2
0
E
2
u
E
U/V U/Ad,
U
1
2

0
A
d
(E
2
d
2
)
1
2
(
0
Ad)E
2
C
0
A/d
Quick Quiz 26.3
Energystoredinaparallel-plate
capacitor
Energydensityinanelectriceld
Thisbankofcapacitorsstoreselectricalen-
ergyforuseintheparticleacceleratorat
FermiLab,locatedoutsideChicago.Be-
causetheelectricutilitycompanycannot
providealargeenoughburstofenergyto
operatetheequipment,thesecapacitors
areslowlychargedup,andthentheenergy
israpidlydumpedintotheaccelerator.In
thissense,thesetupismuchlikeare-
protectionwatertankontopofabuilding.
Thetankcollectswaterandstoresitforsit-
uationsinwhichalotofwaterisneededin
ashorttime.
RewiringTwoChargedCapacitors EXAMPLE 26.5
Asnotedearlier,
ToexpressV
f
intermsofthegivenquantities and
wesubstitutethevalueofQ fromEquation(1)toobtain
(b) Find the total energy stored in the capacitors before
andaftertheswitchesareclosedandtheratioofthenalen-
ergytotheinitialenergy.
Solution Before the switches are closed, the total energy
storedinthecapacitorsis
After the switches are closed, the total energy stored in the
capacitorsis
UsingEquation(1),wecanexpressthisas
Therefore, the ratio of the nal energy stored to the initial
energystoredis
C
1
C
2
C
1
C
2
2 U
f
U
i
1
2

(C
1
C
2
)
2
(V
i
)
2
(C
1
C
2
)
1
2
(C
1
C
2
)(V
i
)
2
1
2

(C
1
C
2
)
2
(V
i
)
2
(C
1
C
2
)
U
f

1
2

Q
2
(C
1
C
2
)

1
2
(C
1
C
2
)
Q
C
1
C
2
1
2

Q
2
C
1
C
2
U
f

1
2
C
1
(V
f
)
2
1
2
C
2
(V
f
)
2
1
2
(C
1
C
2
)(V
f
)
2
1
2
(C
1
C
2
)(V
i
)
2
U
i

1
2
C
1
(V
i
)
2
1
2
C
2
(V
i
)
2
V
f

C
1
C
2
C
1
C
2
V
i
V
i
,
C
1
,C
2
,
V
1f
V
2f
V
f
.
V
2f

Q
2f
C
2
C
2
C
1
C
2
C
2
Q
C
1
C
2
Two capacitors C
1
and C
2
(where are charged to
the same initial potential difference V
i
, but with opposite
polarity. The charged capacitors are removed from the bat-
tery, and their plates are connected as shown in Figure
26.12a. The switches S
1
and S
2
are then closed, as shown in
Figure26.12b.(a)FindthenalpotentialdifferenceV
f
be-
tweena andb aftertheswitchesareclosed.
Solution Letusidentifytheleft-handplatesofthecapaci-
tors as an isolated system because they are not connected to
theright-handplatesbyconductors.Thechargesontheleft-
handplatesbeforetheswitchesareclosedare
ThenegativesignforQ
2i
isnecessarybecausethechargeon
the left plate of capacitor C
2
is negative. The total charge Q
inthesystemis
(1)
After the switches are closed, the total charge in the system
remainsthesame:
(2)
Thechargesredistributeuntiltheentiresystemisatthesame
potential V
f
. Thus, the nal potential difference across C
1
mustbethesameasthenalpotentialdifferenceacrossC
2
.
To satisfy this requirement, the charges on the capacitors af-
tertheswitchesareclosedare
Dividingtherstequationbythesecond,wehave
(3)
CombiningEquations(2)and(3),weobtain
UsingEquation(3)tondQ
1 f
intermsofQ,wehave
Finally,usingEquation26.1tondthevoltageacrosseachca-
pacitor,wendthat
V
1f

Q
1f
C
1
C
1
C
1
C
2
C
1
Q
C
1
C
2
Q
1f

C
1
C
2
Q
2f

C
1
C
2
Q
C
2
C
1
C
2
C
1
C
1
C
2
Q
2f
Q
C
2
C
1
C
2
Q Q
1f
Q
2f

C
1
C
2
Q
2f
Q
2f
Q
2f
1
C
1
C
2
Q
1f

C
1
C
2
Q
2f
Q
1f
Q
2f
C
1
V
f
C
2
V
f
C
1
C
2
Q
1f
C
1
V
f
and Q
2f
C
2
V
f
Q Q
1f
Q
2f
Q Q
1i
Q
2i
(C
1
C
2
)V
i
Q
1i
C
1
V
i
and Q
2i
C
2
V
i
C
1
C
2
)
+
Q
1i
+
b a
(a)
C
1
Q
2i
+
C
2
S
1
S
2
+
b a
(b)
S
1
S
2
Q
1f
C
1
Q
2f
C
2
Figure 26.12
Youchargeaparallel-platecapacitor,removeitfromthebattery,andpreventthewirescon-
nectedtotheplatesfromtouchingeachother.Whenyoupulltheplatesapart,dothefol-
lowing quantities increase, decrease, or stay the same? (a) C; (b) Q; (c) E between the
plates;(d)V ;(e)energystoredinthecapacitor.
Repeat Quick Quiz 26.4, but this time answer the questions for the situation in which the
batteryremainsconnectedtothecapacitorwhileyoupulltheplatesapart.
Onedeviceinwhichcapacitorshaveanimportantroleisthedebrillator(Fig.
26.13).Upto360 Jisstoredintheelectriceldofalargecapacitorinadebrilla-
torwhenitisfullycharged.Thedebrillatorcandeliverallthisenergytoapatient
in about 2 ms. (This is roughly equivalent to 3 000 times the power output of a
60-Wlightbulb!)Thesuddenelectricshockstopsthebrillation(randomcontrac-
tions) of the heart that often accompanies heart attacks and helps to restore the
correctrhythm.
A cameras ash unit also uses a capacitor, although the total amount of en-
ergystoredismuchlessthanthatstoredinadebrillator.Aftertheashunitsca-
pacitor is charged, tripping the cameras shutter causes the stored energy to be
sent through a special lightbulb that briey illuminates the subject being pho-
tographed.
Quick Quiz 26.5
Quick Quiz 26.4
web
To learn more about defibrillators, visit
www.physiocontrol.com
This ratio is less than unity, indicating that the nal energy
is less than the initial energy. At rst, you might think that
the law of energy conservation has been violated, but this
is not the case. The missing energy is radiated away in
the form of electromagnetic waves, as we shall see in Chap-
ter34.
Figure 26.13 Inahospital
oratanemergencyscene,you
mightseeapatientbeingre-
vivedwithadebrillator.The
debrillatorspaddlesareap-
pliedtothepatientschest,
andanelectricshockissent
throughthechestcavity.The
aimofthistechniqueistore-
storetheheartsnormal
rhythmpattern.
CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRICS
A dielectric is a nonconducting material, such as rubber, glass, or waxed paper.
Whenadielectricisinsertedbetweentheplatesofacapacitor,thecapacitancein-
creases. If the dielectric completely lls the space between the plates, the capaci-
tance increases by a dimensionless factor , which is called the dielectric con-
stant. The dielectric constant is a property of a material and varies from one
materialtoanother.Inthissection,weanalyzethischangeincapacitanceinterms
ofelectricalparameterssuchaselectriccharge,electriceld,andpotentialdiffer-
ence;inSection26.7,weshalldiscussthemicroscopicoriginofthesechanges.
Wecanperformthefollowingexperimenttoillustratetheeffectofadielectric
in a capacitor: Consider a parallel-plate capacitor that without a dielectric has a
charge Q
0
and a capacitance C
0
. The potential difference across the capacitor is
Figure 26.14a illustrates this situation. The potential difference is
measuredbyavoltmeter,whichweshallstudyingreaterdetailinChapter28.Note
that no battery is shown in the gure; also, we must assume that no charge can
owthroughanidealvoltmeter,asweshalllearninSection28.5.Hence,thereis
nopathbywhichchargecanowandalterthechargeonthecapacitor.Ifadielec-
tric is now inserted between the plates, as shown in Figure 26.14b, the voltmeter
indicatesthatthevoltagebetweentheplatesdecreasestoavalueV.Thevoltages
withandwithoutthedielectricarerelatedbythefactor asfollows:
BecauseV V
0
,weseethat
Because the charge Q
0
on the capacitor does not change, we conclude that
thecapacitancemustchangetothevalue
(26.14)
Thatis,thecapacitanceincreasesbythefactor whenthedielectriccompletelylls
the region between the plates.
4
For a parallel-plate capacitor, where
(Eq. 26.3), we can express the capacitance when the capacitor is lled with a di-
electricas
(26.15)
From Equations 26.3 and 26.15, it would appear that we could make the ca-
pacitanceverylargebydecreasingd,thedistancebetweentheplates.Inpractice,
thelowestvalueofd islimitedbytheelectricdischargethatcouldoccurthrough
thedielectricmediumseparatingtheplates.Foranygivenseparationd,themaxi-
mum voltage that can be applied to a capacitor without causing a discharge de-
pendsonthedielectricstrength(maximumelectriceld)ofthedielectric.Ifthe
magnitude of the electric eld in the dielectric exceeds the dielectric strength,
then the insulating properties break down and the dielectric begins to conduct.
Insulating materials have values of greater than unity and dielectric strengths
C
0
A
d
C
0

0
A/d
C C
0
C
Q
0
V
Q
0
V
0
/

Q
0
V
0
1.
V
V
0
V
0
Q
0
/C
0
.
26.5
Thecapacitanceofalled
capacitorisgreaterthanthatofan
emptyonebyafactor.
4
Ifthedielectricisintroducedwhilethepotentialdifferenceisbeingmaintainedconstantbyabattery,
thechargeincreasestoavalueQ Q
0
.Theadditionalchargeissuppliedbythebattery,andtheca-
pacitanceagainincreasesbythefactor.
26.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics 819
greaterthanthatofair,asTable26.1indicates.Thus,weseethatadielectricpro-
videsthefollowingadvantages:
Increaseincapacitance
Increaseinmaximumoperatingvoltage
Possible mechanical support between the plates, which allows the plates to be
closetogetherwithouttouching,therebydecreasingd andincreasingC
C
0 Q
0
+

C
Q
0
Dielectric
V V
0
+

(a) (b)
Figure 26.14 Achargedcapacitor(a)beforeand(b)afterinsertionofadielectricbetweenthe
plates.Thechargeontheplatesremainsunchanged,butthepotentialdifferencedecreasesfrom
V
0
toV V
0
/.Thus,thecapacitanceincreasesfromC
0
toC
0
.
TABLE 26.1 DielectricConstantsandDielectricStrengths
ofVariousMaterialsatRoomTemperature
Dielectric Dielectric
Material Constant Strength
a
(V/m)
Air(dry) 1.00059 3 10
6
Bakelite 4.9 24 10
6
Fusedquartz 3.78 8 10
6
Neoprenerubber 6.7 12 10
6
Nylon 3.4 14 10
6
Paper 3.7 16 10
6
Polystyrene 2.56 24 10
6
Polyvinylchloride 3.4 40 10
6
Porcelain 6 12 10
6
Pyrexglass 5.6 14 10
6
Siliconeoil 2.5 15 10
6
Strontiumtitanate 233 8 10
6
Teon 2.1 60 10
6
Vacuum 1.00000
Water 80
a
Thedielectricstrengthequalsthemaximumelectriceldthatcanexistina
dielectricwithoutelectricalbreakdown.Notethatthesevaluesdepend
stronglyonthepresenceofimpuritiesandawsinthematerials.
TypesofCapacitors
Commercial capacitors are often made from metallic foil interlaced with thin
sheets of either parafn-impregnated paper or Mylar as the dielectric material.
These alternate layers of metallic foil and dielectric are rolled into a cylinder to
formasmallpackage(Fig.26.15a).High-voltagecapacitorscommonlyconsistofa
numberofinterwovenmetallicplatesimmersedinsiliconeoil(Fig.26.15b).Small
capacitorsareoftenconstructedfromceramicmaterials.Variablecapacitors(typi-
cally 10 to 500 pF) usually consist of two interwoven sets of metallic plates, one
xedandtheothermovable,andcontainairasthedielectric.
Often, an electrolytic capacitor is used to store large amounts of charge at rela-
tivelylowvoltages.Thisdevice,showninFigure26.15c,consistsofametallicfoilin
contactwithanelectrolyte asolutionthatconductselectricitybyvirtueofthemo-
tionofionscontainedinthesolution.Whenavoltageisappliedbetweenthefoil
andtheelectrolyte,athinlayerofmetaloxide(aninsulator)isformedonthefoil,
(a)Kirlianphotographcreatedbydroppingasteelballintoahigh-energyelectriceld.Kirlian
photographyisalsoknownaselectrophotography. (b)Sparksfromstaticelectricitydischargebe-
tweenaforkandfourelectrodes.Manysparkswereusedtocreatethisimagebecauseonlyone
sparkformsforagivendischarge.Notethatthebottomprongdischargestobothelectrodesat
thebottomright.Thelightofeachsparkiscreatedbytheexcitationofgasatomsalongitspath.
(a) (b)
Metalfoil
Paper
Plates
Oil
Electrolyte
Case
Metallicfoil+oxidelayer
Contacts
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 26.15 Threecommercialcapacitordesigns.(a)Atubularcapacitor,whoseplatesare
separatedbypaperandthenrolledintoacylinder.(b)Ahigh-voltagecapacitorconsistingof
manyparallelplatesseparatedbyinsulatingoil.(c)Anelectrolyticcapacitor.
26.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics 821
APaper-FilledCapacitor EXAMPLE 26.6
the paper is 1.0 mm, the maximum voltage that can be ap-
pliedbeforebreakdownis
Hence,themaximumchargeis
Exercise What is the maximum energy that can be stored
inthecapacitor?
Answer 2.6 10
3
J.
0.32C Q
max
CV
max
(20 10
12
F)(16 10
3
V)
16 10
3
V
V
max
E
max
d (16 10
6
V/m)(1.0 10
3
m)
A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of dimensions 2.0 cm by
3.0 cmseparatedbya1.0-mmthicknessofpaper.(a)Findits
capacitance.
Solution Because 3.7 for paper (see Table 26.1), we
have
(b) What is the maximum charge that can be placed on
thecapacitor?
Solution From Table 26.1 we see that the dielectric
strength of paper is 16 10
6
V/m. Because the thickness of
20pF 20 10
12
F
C
0
A
d
3.7(8.85 10
12
C
2
/N m
2
)
6.0 10
4
m
2
1.0 10
3
m

and this layer serves as the dielectric. Very large values of capacitance can be ob-
tainedinanelectrolyticcapacitorbecausethedielectriclayerisverythin,andthus
theplateseparationisverysmall.
Electrolytic capacitors are not reversible as are many other capacitors they
haveapolarity,whichisindicatedbypositiveandnegativesignsmarkedonthede-
vice.Whenelectrolyticcapacitorsareusedincircuits,thepolaritymustbealigned
properly. If the polarity of the applied voltage is opposite that which is intended,
theoxidelayerisremovedandthecapacitorconductselectricityinsteadofstoring
charge.
Ifyouhaveevertriedtohangapicture,youknowitcanbedifculttolocateawoodenstud
inwhichtoanchoryournailorscrew.Acarpentersstud-nderisbasicallyacapacitorwith
its plates arranged side by side instead of facing one another, as shown in Figure 26.16.
Whenthedeviceismovedoverastud,doesthecapacitanceincreaseordecrease?
Quick Quiz 26.6
Capacitor
plates
Stud-finder
Wallboard
Stud
(b) (a)
Figure 26.16 Astud-nder.(a)Thematerialsbetweentheplatesofthecapacitorarethewall-
boardandair.(b)Whenthecapacitormovesacrossastudinthewall,thematerialsbetweenthe
platesarethewallboardandthewood.Thechangeinthedielectricconstantcausesasignallight
toilluminate.
EnergyStoredBeforeandAfter EXAMPLE 26.7
Exercise Suppose that the capacitance in the absence of a
dielectricis8.50 pFandthatthecapacitorischargedtoapo-
tentialdifferenceof12.0 V.Ifthebatteryisdisconnectedand
a slab of polystyrene is inserted between the plates, what is
Answer 373 pJ.
U
0
U
?
Aparallel-platecapacitorischargedwithabatterytoacharge
Q
0
,asshowninFigure26.17a.Thebatteryisthenremoved,
and a slab of material that has a dielectric constant is in-
serted between the plates, as shown in Figure 26.17b. Find
theenergystoredinthecapacitorbeforeandafterthedielec-
tricisinserted.
Solution The energy stored in the absence of the dielec-
tricis(seeEq.26.11):
After the battery is removed and the dielectric inserted, the
charge on the capacitor remains the same. Hence, the energy
storedinthepresenceofthedielectricis
But the capacitance in the presence of the dielectric is
soU becomes
Because 1,thenalenergyislessthantheinitialenergy.
We can account for the missing energy by noting that the
dielectric,wheninserted,getspulledintothedevice(seethe
following discussion and Figure 26.18). An external agent
must do negative work to keep the dielectric from accelerat-
ing.Thisworkissimplythedifference (Alternatively,
thepositiveworkdonebythesystemontheexternalagentis
U
0
U.)
U U
0
.
U
Q
0
2
2 C
0
U
0
C C
0
,
U
Q
0
2
2C
U
0

Q
0
2
2C
0
As we have seen, the energy of a capacitor not connected to a battery is low-
ered when a dielectric is inserted between the plates; this means that negative
work is done on the dielectric by the external agent inserting the dielectric into
the capacitor. This, in turn, implies that a force that draws it into the capacitor
must be acting on the dielectric. This force originates from the nonuniform na-
ture of the electric eld of the capacitor near its edges, as indicated in Figure
26.18.Thehorizontalcomponentofthisfringeeldactsontheinducedchargeson
the surface of the dielectric, producing a net horizontal force directed into the
spacebetweenthecapacitorplates.
Afullychargedparallel-platecapacitorremainsconnectedtoabatterywhileyouslideadi-
electricbetweentheplates.Dothefollowingquantitiesincrease,decrease,orstaythesame?
(a)C;(b)Q;(c)E betweentheplates;(d)V;(e)energystoredinthecapacitor.
Quick Quiz 26.7
Figure 26.17
+
Q
0
C
0
V
0
(a)
Dielectric
+
Q
0
(b)
26.6 Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 823
Optional Section
ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
Wehavediscussedtheeffectonthecapacitanceofplacingadielectricbetweenthe
plates of a capacitor. In Section 26.7, we shall describe the microscopic origin of
thiseffect.Beforewecandoso,however,weneedtoexpanduponthediscussion
oftheelectricdipolethatwebeganinSection23.4(seeExample23.6).Theelec-
tricdipoleconsistsoftwochargesofequalmagnitudebutoppositesignseparated
by a distance 2a, as shown in Figure 26.19. The electric dipole moment of this
conguration is dened as the vector p directed from q to q along the line
joiningthechargesandhavingmagnitude2aq:
(26.16)
NowsupposethatanelectricdipoleisplacedinauniformelectriceldE,as
shown in Figure 26.20. We identify E as the eld external to the dipole, distin-
guishing it from the eld due to the dipole, which we discussed in Section 23.4.
The eldE isestablishedbysomeotherchargedistribution,andweplacethedi-
pole into this eld. Let us imagine that the dipole moment makes an angle
withthe eld.
Theelectricforcesactingonthetwochargesareequalinmagnitudebutop-
positeindirectionasshowninFigure26.20(eachhasamagnitude Thus,
thenetforceonthedipoleiszero.However,thetwoforcesproduceanettorque
onthedipole;asaresult,thedipolerotatesinthedirectionthatbringsthedipole
momentvectorintogreateralignmentwiththeeld.Thetorqueduetotheforce
onthepositivechargeaboutanaxisthrough O inFigure26.20isFa sin,where
a sin is the moment arm of F about O. This force tends to produce a clockwise
rotation. The torque about O on the negative charge also is Fa sin ; here again,
theforcetendstoproduceaclockwiserotation.Thus,thenettorqueaboutO is
Because and wecanexpress as
(26.17) 2aqEsin pEsin
p 2aq, F qE
2Fasin
F qE).
p 2aq
26.6
+Q
Q
+
Figure 26.18 Thenonuniformelectriceldneartheedgesofaparallel-platecapacitorcauses

adielectrictobepulledintothecapacitor.Notethattheeldactsontheinducedsurface
chargesonthedielectric,whicharenonuniformlydistributed.
+q
q
F
E
F
O
+
Figure 26.20 Anelectricdipole

inauniformexternalelectriceld.
Thedipolemomentp isatanan-
gle totheeld,causingthedi-
poletoexperienceatorque.
+q
q
2a
p
+
Figure 26.19 Anelectricdipole
consistsoftwochargesofequal
magnitudebutoppositesignsepa-
ratedbyadistanceof2a.Theelec-
tricdipolemomentp isdirected
fromq toq.
It is convenient to express the torque in vector form as the cross product of the
vectorsp andE:
(26.18)
We can determine the potential energy of the system of an electric dipole in
anexternalelectriceldasafunctionoftheorientationofthedipolewithrespect
totheeld.Todothis,werecognizethatworkmustbedonebyanexternalagent
torotatethedipolethroughananglesoastocausethedipolemomentvectorto
become less aligned with the eld. The work done is then stored as potential en-
ergy in the system of the dipole and the external eld. The work dW required to
rotate the dipole through an angle d is (Eq. 10.22). Because
andbecausetheworkistransformedintopotentialenergyU,wend
that,forarotationfrom
i
to
f
,thechangeinpotentialenergyis
Thetermthatcontainscos
i
isaconstantthatdependsontheinitialorienta-
tion of the dipole. It is convenient for us to choose so that cos
90 0.Furthermore,letuschoose at asourreferenceofpoten-
tialenergy.Hence,wecanexpressageneralvalueof as
(26.19)
Wecanwritethisexpressionforthepotentialenergyofadipoleinanelectriceld
asthedotproductofthevectorsp andE:
(26.20)
TodevelopaconceptualunderstandingofEquation26.19,letuscomparethis
expressionwiththeexpressionforthepotentialenergyofanobjectinthegravita-
tionaleldoftheEarth, (seeChapter8).Thegravitationalexpressionin-
cludes a parameter associated with the object we place in the eldits mass m.
Likewise,Equation26.19includesaparameteroftheobjectintheelectriceld
its dipole moment p. The gravitational expression includes the magnitude of the
gravitationaleldg.Similarly,Equation26.19includesthemagnitudeoftheelec-
triceldE.Sofar,thesetwocontributionstothepotentialenergyexpressionsap-
pear analogous. However, the nal contribution is somewhat different in the two
cases. In the gravitational expression, the potential energy depends on how high
welifttheobject,measuredbyh.InEquation26.19,thepotentialenergydepends
ontheangle throughwhichwerotatethedipole.Inbothcases,wearemakinga
changeinthesystem.Inthegravitationalcase,thechangeinvolvesmovinganob-
jectinatranslationalsense,whereasintheelectricalcase,thechangeinvolvesmov-
ing an object in a rotational sense. In both cases, however, once the change is
made,thesystemtendstoreturntotheoriginalcongurationwhentheobjectis
released: the object of mass m falls back to the ground, and the dipole begins to
rotatebacktowardthecongurationinwhichitwasalignedwiththeeld.Thus,
apart from the type of motion, the expressions for potential energy in these two
casesaresimilar.
U mgh
U p E
U pEcos
U U
f
i
90 U
i
0
i
cos
i
90,
pE
cos
i
pE(cos
i
cos
f
)
U
f
U
i

i
d

i
p sind pE
i
sind
pEsin
dW d
p E
Torqueonanelectricdipoleinan
externalelectriceld
Potentialenergyofadipoleinan
electriceld
26.6 Electric Dipole in an Electric Field 825
Moleculesaresaidtobepolarizedwhenaseparationexistsbetweentheaverage
positionofthenegativechargesandtheaveragepositionofthepositivechargesin
themolecule.Insomemolecules,suchaswater,thisconditionisalwayspresent
such molecules are called polar molecules. Molecules that do not possess a per-
manentpolarizationarecallednonpolarmolecules.
We can understand the permanent polarization of water by inspecting the
geometry of the water molecule. In the water molecule, the oxygen atom is
bondedtothehydrogenatomssuchthatanangleof105 isformedbetweenthe
twobonds(Fig.26.21).Thecenterofthenegativechargedistributionisnearthe
oxygenatom,andthecenterofthepositivechargedistributionliesatapointmid-
wayalongthelinejoiningthehydrogenatoms(thepointlabeled inFig.26.21).
We can model the water molecule and other polar molecules as dipoles because
theaveragepositionsofthepositiveandnegativechargesactaspointcharges.Asa
result,wecanapplyourdiscussionofdipolestothebehaviorofpolarmolecules.
Microwave ovens take advantage of the polar nature of the water molecule.
When in operation, microwave ovens generate a rapidly changing electric eld
that causes the polar molecules to swing back and forth, absorbing energy from
theeldintheprocess.Becausethejostlingmoleculescollidewitheachother,the
energy they absorb from the eld is converted to internal energy, which corre-
spondstoanincreaseintemperatureofthefood.
Another household scenario in which the dipole structure of water is ex-
ploited is washing with soap and water. Grease and oil are made up of nonpolar
molecules,whicharegenerallynotattractedtowater.Plainwaterisnotveryuseful
forremovingthistypeofgrime.Soapcontainslongmoleculescalledsurfactants. In
alongmolecule,thepolaritycharacteristicsofoneendofthemoleculecanbedif-
ferent from those at the other end. In a surfactant molecule, one end acts like a
nonpolar molecule and the other acts like a polar molecule. The nonpolar end
canattachtoagreaseoroilmolecule,andthepolarendcanattachtoawatermol-
ecule. Thus, the soap serves as a chain, linking the dirt and water molecules to-
gether.Whenthewaterisrinsedaway,thegreaseandoilgowithit.
Asymmetricmolecule(Fig.26.22a)hasnopermanentpolarization,butpolar-
izationcanbeinducedbyplacingthemoleculeinanelectriceld.Aelddirected
to the left, as shown in Figure 26.22b, would cause the center of the positive
chargedistributiontoshifttotheleftfromitsinitialpositionandthecenterofthe
negativechargedistributiontoshifttotheright.Thisinducedpolarizationistheef-
fectthatpredominatesinmostmaterialsusedasdielectricsincapacitors.
TheH
2
OMolecule EXAMPLE 26.8
obtain
Because there are 10
21
molecules in the sample, the total
workrequiredis
1.6 10
3
J W
total
(10
21
)(1.6 10
24
J)
1.6 10
24
J
pE (6.3 10
30
C m)(2.5 10
5
N/C)
W U
90
U
0
(pEcos90) (pEcos0)
Thewater(H
2
O)moleculehasanelectricdipolemomentof
6.3 10
30
C m. A sample contains 10
21
water molecules,
with the dipole moments all oriented in the direction of an
electric eld of magnitude 2.5 10
5
N/C. How much work
is required to rotate the dipoles from this orientation
tooneinwhichallthedipolemomentsareperpen-
diculartotheeld
Solution Theworkrequiredtorotateonemolecule90 is
equal to the difference in potential energy between the 90
orientationandthe0 orientation.UsingEquation26.19,we
( 90)?
( 0)
O
H
H
105
+
+
E
(a)
(b)
+ +
+ +
Figure 26.21 Thewatermole-
cule,H
2
O,hasapermanentpolar-
izationresultingfromitsbent
geometry.Thecenteroftheposi-
tivechargedistributionisatthe
point.
Figure 26.22 (a)Asymmetric
moleculehasnopermanentpolar-
ization.(b)Anexternalelectric
eldinducesapolarizationinthe
molecule.
Optional Section
AN ATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF DIELECTRICS
InSection26.5wefoundthatthepotentialdifferenceV
0
betweentheplatesofa
capacitorisreducedto V
0
/ whenadielectricisintroduced.Becausethepoten-
tial difference between the plates equals the product of the electric eld and the
separationd,theelectriceldisalsoreduced.Thus,ifE
0
istheelectriceldwith-
outthedielectric,theeldinthepresenceofadielectricis
(26.21)
Let us rst consider a dielectric made up of polar molecules placed in the
electriceldbetweentheplatesofacapacitor.Thedipoles(thatis,thepolarmol-
eculesmakingupthedielectric)arerandomlyorientedintheabsenceofanelec-
triceld,asshowninFigure26.23a.WhenanexternaleldE
0
duetochargeson
thecapacitorplatesisapplied,atorqueisexertedonthedipoles,causingthemto
partiallyalignwiththeeld,asshowninFigure26.23b.Wecannowdescribethe
dielectric as being polarized. The degree of alignment of the molecules with the
electricelddependsontemperatureandonthemagnitudeoftheeld.Ingen-
eral, the alignment increases with decreasing temperature and with increasing
electriceld.
If the molecules of the dielectric are nonpolar, then the electric eld due to
the plates produces some charge separation and an induced dipole moment. These
induceddipolemomentstendtoalignwiththeexternaleld,andthedielectricis
polarized. Thus, we can polarize a dielectric with an external eld regardless of
whetherthemoleculesarepolarornonpolar.
Withtheseideasinmind,consideraslabofdielectricmaterialplacedbetween
theplatesofacapacitorsothatitisinauniformelectriceldE
0
,asshowninFig-
ure 26.24a. The electric eld due to the plates is directed to the right and polar-
izes the dielectric. The net effect on the dielectric is the formation of an induced
positivesurfacechargedensity
ind
ontherightfaceandanequalnegativesurface
charge density
ind
on the left face, as shown in Figure 26.24b. These induced
surface charges on the dielectric give rise to an induced electric eld E
ind
in the
directionoppositetheexternaleldE
0
.Therefore,thenetelectriceldE inthe
E
E
0
26.7
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(a)
(b)
E
0
Figure 26.23 (a)Polarmole-
culesarerandomlyorientedinthe
absenceofanexternalelectric
eld.(b)Whenanexternaleldis
applied,themoleculespartially
alignwiththeeld.
Figure 26.24 (a)Whenadielectricispolarized,thedipolemomentsofthemoleculesinthe
dielectricarepartiallyalignedwiththeexternaleldE
0
.(b)Thispolarizationcausesaninduced
negativesurfacechargeononesideofthedielectricandanequalinducedpositivesurface
chargeontheoppositeside.Thisseparationofchargeresultsinareductioninthenetelectric
eldwithinthedielectric.
E
0
+
+
+
+
+
(a)
E
0
(b)
+
+
+
+
+
ind

ind
E
ind

26.7 An Atomic Description of Dielectrics 827
dielectrichasamagnitude
(26.22)
In the parallel-plate capacitor shown in Figure 26.25, the external eld E
0
is
relatedtothechargedensity ontheplatesthroughtherelationship
Theinducedelectriceldinthedielectricisrelatedtotheinducedchargedensity
ind
throughtherelationship Because substitu-
tionintoEquation26.22gives
(26.23)
Because thisexpressionshowsthatthechargedensity
ind
inducedonthe
dielectricislessthanthechargedensity ontheplates.Forinstance,if we
seethattheinducedchargedensityistwo-thirdsthechargedensityontheplates.
Ifnodielectricispresent,then and asexpected.However,ifthedi-
electric is replaced by an electrical conductor, for which then Equation
26.22 indicates that this corresponds to That is, the surface
charge induced on the conductor is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to
thatontheplates,resultinginanetelectriceldofzerointheconductor.
ind
. E
0
E
ind
;
E 0,
ind
0 1
3,
1,
ind

ind
0
E E
0
/ /
0
, E
ind

ind
/
0
.
E
0
/
0
.
E E
0
E
ind
EffectofaMetallicSlab EXAMPLE 26.9
Solution Intheresultforpart(a),weleta :0:
whichistheoriginalcapacitance.
C lim
a :0
0
A
d a
0
A
d
A parallel-plate capacitor has a plate separation d and plate
area A. An uncharged metallic slab of thickness a is inserted
midway between the plates. (a) Find the capacitance of the
device.
Solution We can solve this problem by noting that any
charge that appears on one plate of the capacitor must in-
duce a charge of equal magnitude but opposite sign on the
near side of the slab, as shown in Figure 26.26a. Conse-
quently, the net charge on the slab remains zero, and the
electric eld inside the slab is zero. Hence, the capacitor is
equivalenttotwocapacitorsinseries,eachhavingaplatesep-
aration asshowninFigure26.26b.
Using the rule for adding two capacitors in series (Eq.
26.10),weobtain
NotethatC approachesinnityasa approachesd.Why?
(b)Showthatthecapacitanceisunaffectedifthemetallic
slabisinnitesimallythin.
C
0
A
d a
1
C
1
C
1
1
C
2
0
A
(d a)/2
0
A
(d a)/2
(d a)/2,
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

ind

ind

Figure 26.25 Inducedchargeon
adielectricplacedbetweenthe
platesofachargedcapacitor.Note
thattheinducedchargedensityon
thedielectricisless thanthecharge
densityontheplates.
(b)
(da)/2
(da)/2
(a)
d a
(da)/2
(da)/2

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
Figure 26.26 (a)Aparallel-platecapacitorofplateseparationd

partiallylledwithametallicslabofthicknessa.(b)Theequivalent
circuitofthedeviceinpart(a)consistsoftwocapacitorsinseries,
eachhavingaplateseparation(d a)/2.
APartiallyFilledCapacitor EXAMPLE 26.10
Solution InExample26.9,wefoundthatwecouldinserta
metallic slab between the plates of a capacitor and consider
thecombinationastwocapacitorsinseries.Theresultingca-
pacitance was independent of the location of the slab. Fur-
thermore, if the thickness of the slab approaches zero, then
the capacitance of the system approaches the capacitance
when the slab is absent. From this, we conclude that we can
insert an innitesimally thin metallic slab anywhere between
the plates of a capacitor without affecting the capacitance.
Thus, let us imagine sliding an innitesimally thin metallic
slab along the bottom face of the dielectric shown in Figure
26.27a.Wecanthenconsiderthissystemtobetheseriescom-
bination of the two capacitors shown in Figure 26.27b: one
havingaplateseparationd/3andlledwithadielectric,and
theotherhavingaplateseparation2d/3andairbetweenits
plates.
From Equations 26.15 and 26.3, the two capacitances are
Using Equation 26.10 for two capacitors combined in series,
wehave
Becausethecapacitancewithoutthedielectricis
weseethat
C
3
2 1

C
0
C
0

0
A/d,
C
3
2 1

0
A
d
d
3
0
A

d
3
0
A
1 2
1
C
1
C
1
1
C
2
d/3
0
A
2d/3
0
A
C
1

0
A
d/3
and C
2

0
A
2d/3
A parallel-plate capacitor with a plate separation d has a ca-
pacitanceC
0
intheabsenceofadielectric.Whatisthecapac-
itancewhenaslabofdielectricmaterialofdielectricconstant
and thickness is inserted between the plates (Fig.
26.27a)?
1
3
d
(c) Show that the answer to part (a) does not depend on
wheretheslabisinserted.
Solution Let us imagine that the slab in Figure 26.26a is
moved upward so that the distance between the upper edge
of the slab and the upper plate is b. Then, the distance be-
tween the lower edge of the slab and the lower plate is
Asinpart(a),wendthetotalcapacitanceofthe
seriescombination:
d b a.
Thisisthesameresultasinpart(a).Itisindependentofthe
valueofb,soitdoesnotmatterwheretheslabislocated.
C
0
A
d a
0
A
d b a
0
A
d a
0
A
1
C
1
C
1
1
C
2
0
A
b
0
A
d b a
1
3
d
2
3
d
d
(a)
(b)
C
1
C
2
1
3
d
2
3
d
Figure 26.27 (a)Aparallel-platecapacitorofplateseparationd

partiallylledwithadielectricofthicknessd/3.(b)Theequivalent
circuitofthecapacitorconsistsoftwocapacitorsconnectedinseries.
Summary 829
SUMMARY
A capacitor consists of two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude but
oppositesign.ThecapacitanceC ofanycapacitoristheratioofthechargeQ on
eitherconductortothepotentialdifferenceV betweenthem:
(26.1)
Thisrelationshipcanbeusedinsituationsinwhichanytwoofthethreevariables
areknown.Itisimportanttorememberthatthisratioisconstantforagivencon-
guration of conductors because the capacitance depends only on the geometry
oftheconductorsandnotonanexternalsourceofchargeorpotentialdifference.
The SI unit of capacitance is coulombs per volt, or the farad (F), and
CapacitanceexpressionsforvariousgeometriesaresummarizedinTable26.2.
Iftwoormorecapacitorsareconnectedinparallel,thenthepotentialdiffer-
enceisthesameacrossallofthem.Theequivalentcapacitanceofaparallelcom-
binationofcapacitorsis
(26.8)
Iftwoormorecapacitorsareconnectedinseries,thechargeisthesameonall
ofthem,andtheequivalentcapacitanceoftheseriescombinationisgivenby
(26.10)
Thesetwoequationsenableyoutosimplifymanyelectriccircuitsbyreplacingmul-
tiplecapacitorswithasingleequivalentcapacitance.
Workisrequiredtochargeacapacitorbecausethechargingprocessisequiva-
lenttothetransferofchargesfromoneconductoratalowerelectricpotentialto
anotherconductoratahigherpotential.Theworkdoneinchargingthecapacitor
toachargeQ equalstheelectricpotentialenergyU storedinthecapacitor,where
(26.11) U
Q
2
2C
1
2
QV
1
2
C(V )
2
1
C
eq
1
C
1
1
C
2
1
C
3

C
eq
C
1
C
2
C
3

1F 1C/V.
C
Q
V
TABLE 26.2 CapacitanceandGeometry
Geometry Capacitance Equation
Isolatedchargedsphereofradius
R(secondchargedconductor 26.2
assumedatinnity)
Parallel-platecapacitorofplate
areaAandplateseparationd
26.3
Cylindricalcapacitoroflength
andinnerandouterradii 26.4
a andb,respectively
Sphericalcapacitorwithinner
andouterradiia andb, 26.6
respectively
C
ab
k
e
(b a)
C 4
0
R
C

2k
e
ln
b
a

C
0
A
d
Whenadielectricmaterialisinsertedbetweentheplatesofacapacitor,theca-
pacitanceincreasesbyadimensionlessfactor,calledthedielectricconstant:
(26.14)
whereC
0
isthecapacitanceintheabsenceofthedielectric.Theincreaseincapac-
itanceisduetoadecreaseinthemagnitudeoftheelectriceldinthepresenceof
thedielectricandtoacorrespondingdecreaseinthepotentialdifferencebetween
theplates ifweassumethatthechargingbatteryisremovedfromthecircuitbe-
forethedielectricisinserted.ThedecreaseinthemagnitudeofE arisesfroman
internal electric eld produced by aligned dipoles in the dielectric. This internal
eld produced by the dipoles opposes the applied eld due to the capacitor
plates,andtheresultisareductioninthenetelectriceld.
Theelectricdipolemomentp ofanelectricdipolehasamagnitude
(26.16)
Thedirectionoftheelectricdipolemomentvectorisfromthenegativechargeto-
wardthepositivecharge.
ThetorqueactingonanelectricdipoleinauniformelectriceldE is
(26.18)
Thepotentialenergyofanelectricdipoleinauniformexternalelectriceld
E is
(26.20) U p E
p E
p 2aq
C C
0
Problem-Solving Hints
Capacitors
Becarefulwithunits.Whenyoucalculatecapacitanceinfarads,makesure
thatdistancesareexpressedinmetersandthatyouusetheSIvalueof
0
.
Whencheckingconsistencyofunits,rememberthattheunitforelectric
eldscanbeeitherN/CorV/m.
Whentwoormorecapacitorsareconnectedinparallel,thepotentialdiffer-
enceacrosseachisthesame.Thechargeoneachcapacitorisproportional
toitscapacitance;hence,thecapacitancescanbeaddeddirectlytogivethe
equivalentcapacitanceoftheparallelcombination.Theequivalentcapaci-
tanceisalwayslargerthantheindividualcapacitances.
Whentwoormorecapacitorsareconnectedinseries,theycarrythesame
charge,andthesumofthepotentialdifferencesequalsthetotalpotential
differenceappliedtothecombination.Thesumofthereciprocalsoftheca-
pacitancesequalsthereciprocaloftheequivalentcapacitance,whichisal-
wayslessthanthecapacitanceofthesmallestindividualcapacitor.
Adielectricincreasesthecapacitanceofacapacitorbyafactor (thedielec-
tricconstant)overitscapacitancewhenairisbetweentheplates.
Forproblemsinwhichabatteryisbeingconnectedordisconnected,note
whethermodicationstothecapacitoraremadewhileitisconnectedtothe
batteryorafterithasbeendisconnected.Ifthecapacitorremainscon-
nectedtothebattery,thevoltageacrossthecapacitorremainsunchanged
(equaltothebatteryvoltage),andthechargeisproportionaltothecapaci-
Problems 831
tance,althoughitmaybemodied(forinstance,bytheinsertionofadi-
electric).Ifyoudisconnectthecapacitorfromthebatterybeforemaking
anymodicationstothecapacitor,thenitschargeremainsxed.Inthis
case,asyouvarythecapacitance,thevoltageacrosstheplateschangesac-
cordingtotheexpressionV Q/C.
QUESTIONS
10. ExplainwhytheworkneededtomoveachargeQ
throughapotentialdifferenceV is whereas
theenergystoredinachargedcapacitoris
Wheredoesthe factorcomefrom?
11. Ifthepotentialdifferenceacrossacapacitorisdoubled,
bywhatfactordoesthestoredenergychange?
12. Whyisitdangeroustotouchtheterminalsofahigh-
voltagecapacitorevenaftertheappliedvoltagehasbeen
turnedoff ?Whatcanbedonetomakethecapacitorsafe
tohandleafterthevoltagesourcehasbeenremoved?
13. Describehowyoucanincreasethemaximumoperating
voltageofaparallel-platecapacitorforaxedplatesepa-
ration.
14. Anair-lledcapacitorischarged,disconnectedfromthe
powersupply,and,nally,connectedtoavoltmeter.Ex-
plainhowandwhythevoltagereadingchangeswhena
dielectricisinsertedbetweentheplatesofthecapacitor.
15. Usingthepolarmoleculedescriptionofadielectric,ex-
plainhowadielectricaffectstheelectriceldinsideaca-
pacitor.
16. Explainwhyadielectricincreasesthemaximumoperat-
ingvoltageofacapacitoreventhoughthephysicalsizeof
thecapacitordoesnotchange.
17. Whatisthedifferencebetweendielectricstrengthand
thedielectricconstant?
18. Explainwhyawatermoleculeispermanentlypolarized.
Whattypeofmoleculehasnopermanentpolarization?
19. Ifadielectric-lledcapacitorisheated,howdoesitsca-
pacitancechange?(Neglectthermalexpansionandas-
sumethatthedipoleorientationsaretemperaturedepen-
dent.)
1
2
U
1
2
QV.
W QV,
1. Ifyouwereaskedtodesignacapacitorinasituationfor
whichsmallsizeandlargecapacitancewererequired,
whatfactorswouldbeimportantinyourdesign?
2. Theplatesofacapacitorareconnectedtoabattery.What
happenstothechargeontheplatesiftheconnecting
wiresareremovedfromthebattery?Whathappenstothe
chargeifthewiresareremovedfromthebatteryandcon-
nectedtoeachother?
3. Afaradisaverylargeunitofcapacitance.Calculatethe
lengthofonesideofasquare,air-lledcapacitorthathas
aplateseparationof1 m.Assumethatithasacapaci-
tanceof1 F.
4. Apairofcapacitorsareconnectedinparallel,whilean
identicalpairareconnectedinseries.Whichpairwould
bemoredangeroustohandleafterbeingconnectedto
thesamevoltagesource?Explain.
5. IfyouaregiventhreedifferentcapacitorsC
1
,C
2
,C
3
,
howmanydifferentcombinationsofcapacitancecanyou
produce?
6. Whatadvantagemighttherebeinusingtwoidenticalca-
pacitorsinparallelconnectedinserieswithanotheriden-
ticalparallelpairratherthanasinglecapacitor?
7. Isitalwayspossibletoreduceacombinationofcapacitors
tooneequivalentcapacitorwiththeruleswehavedevel-
oped?Explain.
8. Becausethenetchargeinacapacitorisalwayszero,what
doesacapacitorstore?
9. Becausethechargesontheplatesofaparallel-plateca-
pacitorareofoppositesign,theyattracteachother.
Hence,itwouldtakepositiveworktoincreasetheplate
separation.Whathappenstotheexternalworkdonein
thisprocess?
PROBLEMS
2. Twoconductorshavingnetchargesof10.0 Cand
10.0 Chaveapotentialdifferenceof10.0 V.Deter-
mine(a)thecapacitanceofthesystemand(b)thepoten-
tialdifferencebetweenthetwoconductorsifthecharges
oneachareincreasedto100 Cand100 C.
Section 26.1 DenitionofCapacitance
1. (a)Howmuchchargeisoneachplateofa4.00-Fca-
pacitorwhenitisconnectedtoa12.0-Vbattery?
(b)Ifthissamecapacitorisconnectedtoa1.50-Vbat-
tery,whatchargeisstored?
1,2,3 =straightforward,intermediate,challenging =fullsolutionavailableintheStudentSolutionsManualandStudyGuide
WEB =solutionpostedathttp://www.saunderscollege.com/physics/ =Computerusefulinsolvingproblem =InteractivePhysics
=pairednumerical/symbolicproblems
WEB
WEB
Section 26.2 CalculatingCapacitance
3. Anisolatedchargedconductingsphereofradius
12.0 cmcreatesanelectriceldof4.90 10
4
N/Cata
distance21.0 cmfromitscenter.(a)Whatisitssurface
chargedensity?(b)Whatisitscapacitance?
4. (a)Ifadropofliquidhascapacitance1.00 pF,whatis
itsradius?(b)Ifanotherdrophasradius2.00 mm,what
isitscapacitance?(c)Whatisthechargeonthesmaller
dropifitspotentialis100 V?
5. Twoconductingsphereswithdiametersof0.400 mand
1.00 mareseparatedbyadistancethatislargecom-
paredwiththediameters.Thespheresareconnectedby
athinwireandarechargedto7.00 C.(a)Howisthis
totalchargesharedbetweenthespheres?(Neglectany
chargeonthewire.)(b)Whatisthepotentialofthesys-
temofsphereswhenthereferencepotentialistakento
be at
6. RegardingtheEarthandacloudlayer800 mabovethe
Earthastheplatesofacapacitor,calculatethecapaci-
tanceifthecloudlayerhasanareaof1.00km
2
.Assume
thattheairbetweenthecloudandthegroundispure
anddry.Assumethatchargebuildsuponthecloudand
onthegrounduntilauniformelectriceldwithamag-
nitudeof3.00 10
6
N/Cthroughoutthespacebe-
tweenthemmakestheairbreakdownandconduct
electricityasalightningbolt.Whatisthemaximum
chargethecloudcanhold?
7. Anair-lledcapacitorconsistsoftwoparallelplates,
eachwithanareaof7.60cm
2
,separatedbyadistance
of1.80 mm.Ifa20.0-Vpotentialdifferenceisappliedto
theseplates,calculate(a)theelectriceldbetweenthe
plates,(b)thesurfacechargedensity,(c)thecapaci-
tance,and(d)thechargeoneachplate.
8. A1-megabitcomputermemorychipcontainsmany
60.0-fFcapacitors.Eachcapacitorhasaplateareaof
21.0 10
12
m
2
.Determinetheplateseparationof
suchacapacitor(assumeaparallel-platecongura-
tion).Thecharacteristicatomicdiameteris10
10
m
0.100nm.Expresstheplateseparationinnanometers.
9. Whenapotentialdifferenceof150 Visappliedtothe
platesofaparallel-platecapacitor,theplatescarryasur-
facechargedensityof30.0nC/cm
2
.Whatisthespacing
betweentheplates?
10. Avariableaircapacitorusedintuningcircuitsismade
ofN semicircularplateseachofradiusR andpositioned
adistance d fromeachother.AsshowninFigure
P26.10,asecondidenticalsetofplatesisenmeshedwith
itsplateshalfwaybetweenthoseoftherstset.Thesec-
ondsetcanrotateasaunit.Determinethecapacitance
asafunctionoftheangleofrotation,where
correspondstothemaximumcapacitance.
11. A50.0-mlengthofcoaxialcablehasaninnerconductor
thathasadiameterof2.58 mmandcarriesachargeof
8.10 C.Thesurroundingconductorhasaninnerdi-
ameterof7.27 mmandachargeof8.10 C.
(a)Whatisthecapacitanceofthiscable?(b)Whatis
0
r ? V 0
thepotentialdifferencebetweenthetwoconductors?
Assumetheregionbetweentheconductorsisair.
12. A20.0-Fsphericalcapacitoriscomposedoftwometal-
licspheres,onehavingaradiustwiceaslargeasthe
other.Iftheregionbetweenthespheresisavacuum,
determinethevolumeofthisregion.
13. Asmallobjectwithamassof350 mgcarriesachargeof
30.0 nCandissuspendedbyathreadbetweentheverti-
calplatesofaparallel-platecapacitor.Theplatesare
separatedby4.00 cm.Ifthethreadmakesanangleof
15.0 withthevertical,whatisthepotentialdifference
betweentheplates?
14. Asmallobjectofmassm carriesachargeq andissus-
pendedbyathreadbetweentheverticalplatesofa
parallel-platecapacitor.Theplateseparationisd.Ifthe
threadmakesanangle withthevertical,whatisthe
potentialdifferencebetweentheplates?
15. Anair-lledsphericalcapacitorisconstructedwithin-
nerandoutershellradiiof7.00and14.0 cm,respec-
tively.(a)Calculatethecapacitanceofthedevice.
(b)Whatpotentialdifferencebetweenthespheresre-
sultsinachargeof4.00 Conthecapacitor?
16. FindthecapacitanceoftheEarth.(Hint: Theouter
conductorofthesphericalcapacitormaybeconsid-
eredasaconductingsphereatinnitywhereV ap-
proacheszero.)
Section 26.3 CombinationsofCapacitors
17. Twocapacitors andC
2
12.0 Farecon-
nectedinparallel,andtheresultingcombinationiscon-
nectedtoa9.00-Vbattery.(a)Whatisthevalueofthe
equivalentcapacitanceofthecombination?Whatare
(b)thepotentialdifferenceacrosseachcapacitorand
(c)thechargestoredoneachcapacitor?
18. ThetwocapacitorsofProblem17arenowconnectedin
seriesandtoa9.00-Vbattery.Find(a)thevalueofthe
equivalentcapacitanceofthecombination,(b)thevolt-
ageacrosseachcapacitor,and(c)thechargeoneach
capacitor.
19. Twocapacitorswhenconnectedinparallelgivean
equivalentcapacitanceof9.00 pFandanequivalentca-
C
1
5.00F
R
d
Figure P26.10
Problems 833
pacitanceof2.00 pFwhenconnectedinseries.Whatis
thecapacitanceofeachcapacitor?
20. Twocapacitorswhenconnectedinparallelgivean
equivalentcapacitanceofC
p
andanequivalentcapaci-
tanceofC
s
whenconnectedinseries.Whatisthecapac-
itanceofeachcapacitor?
21. FourcapacitorsareconnectedasshowninFigure
P26.21.(a)Findtheequivalentcapacitancebetween
pointsa andb.(b)Calculatethechargeoneachcapaci-
torifV
ab
15.0V.
24. Accordingtoitsdesignspecication,thetimercircuit
delayingtheclosingofanelevatordooristohaveaca-
pacitanceof32.0 FbetweentwopointsA andB.
(a)Whenonecircuitisbeingconstructed,theinexpen-
sivecapacitorinstalledbetweenthesetwopointsis
foundtohavecapacitance34.8 F.Tomeetthespeci-
cation,oneadditionalcapacitorcanbeplacedbetween
thetwopoints.Shoulditbeinseriesorinparallelwith
the34.8-Fcapacitor?Whatshouldbeitscapacitance?
(b)Thenextcircuitcomesdowntheassemblylinewith
capacitance29.8 FbetweenA andB.Whatadditional
capacitorshouldbeinstalledinseriesorinparallelin
thatcircuit,tomeetthespecication?
25. ThecircuitinFigureP26.25consistsoftwoidentical
parallelmetallicplatesconnectedbyidenticalmetallic
springstoa100-Vbattery.Withtheswitchopen,the
platesareuncharged,areseparatedbyadistance
andhaveacapacitance
Whentheswitchisclosed,thedistancebetweenthe
platesdecreasesbyafactorof0.500.(a)Howmuch
chargecollectsoneachplateand(b)whatisthespring
constantforeachspring?(Hint: UsetheresultofProb-
lem35.)
C 2.00F. d 8.00mm,
WEB
26. FigureP26.26showssixconcentricconductingspheres,
A,B,C,D,E,andFhavingradiiR,2R,3R,4R,5R,and
6R,respectively.SpheresBandCareconnectedbya
conductingwire,asarespheresDandE.Determinethe
equivalentcapacitanceofthissystem.
27. Agroupofidenticalcapacitorsisconnectedrstinse-
riesandtheninparallel.Thecombinedcapacitancein
parallelis100timeslargerthanfortheseriesconnec-
tion.Howmanycapacitorsareinthegroup?
28. Findtheequivalentcapacitancebetweenpointsa andb
forthegroupofcapacitorsconnectedasshowninFig-
ureP26.28if and
29. Forthenetworkdescribedinthepreviousproblemif
thepotentialdifferencebetweenpointsa andb is
60.0 V,whatchargeisstoredonC
3
?
C
3
2.00F.
C
2
10.0F, C
1
5.00F,
23. ConsiderthecircuitshowninFigureP26.23,where
and Capaci-
torC
1
isrstchargedbytheclosingofswitchS
1
.Switch
S
1
isthenopened,andthechargedcapacitoriscon-
nectedtotheunchargedcapacitorbytheclosingofS
2
.
CalculatetheinitialchargeacquiredbyC
1
andthenal
chargeoneach.
V 20.0V. C
2
3.00F, C
1
6.00F,
22. Evaluatetheequivalentcapacitanceofthecongura-
tionshowninFigureP26.22.Allthecapacitorsareiden-
tical,andeachhascapacitanceC.
6.00F
20.0F
3.00F 15.0F
a b

+
k k
d
V
S
C
1
C
2
S
2
S
1
V
C C
C
C C C
Figure P26.21
Figure P26.22
Figure P26.23
Figure P26.25
30. Findtheequivalentcapacitancebetweenpointsa andb
inthecombinationofcapacitorsshowninFigure
P26.30.
energystoredinthetwocapacitors.(b)Whatpotential
differencewouldberequiredacrossthesametwoca-
pacitorsconnectedinseriessothatthecombination
storesthesameenergyasinpart(a)?Drawacircuitdia-
gramofthiscircuit.
33. Aparallel-platecapacitorischargedandthendiscon-
nectedfromabattery.Bywhatfractiondoesthestored
energychange(increaseordecrease)whentheplate
separationisdoubled?
34. Auniformelectriceld existswithina
certainregion.Whatvolumeofspacecontainsanen-
ergyequalto1.00 10
7
J ?Expressyouranswerincu-
bicmetersandinliters.
35. Aparallel-platecapacitorhasachargeQ andplatesof
areaA.Showthattheforceexertedoneachplatebythe
otheris (Hint: Let foranarbi-
traryplateseparationx ;thenrequirethatthework
doneinseparatingthetwochargedplatesbe
36. Platea ofaparallel-plate,air-lledcapacitoriscon-
nectedtoaspringhavingforceconstantk,andplateb is
xed.Theyrestonatabletopasshown(topview)in
FigureP26.36.IfachargeQ isplacedonplatea anda
chargeQ isplacedonplateb,byhowmuchdoesthe
springexpand?
W Fdx.)
C
0
A/x F Q
2
/2
0
A.
E 3000V/m
WEB
37. ReviewProblem. Acertainstormcloudhasapotential
differenceof1.00 10
8
Vrelativetoatree.If,duringa
lightningstorm,50.0 Cofchargeistransferredthrough
thispotentialdifferenceand1.00%oftheenergyisab-
sorbedbythetree,howmuchwater(sapinthetree)
initiallyat30.0Ccanbeboiledaway?Waterhasaspe-
cicheatof4 186J/kg C,aboilingpointof100C,
andaheatofvaporizationof2.26 10
6
J/kg.
38. Showthattheenergyassociatedwithaconducting
sphereofradiusR andchargeQ surroundedbyavac-
uumis
39. Einsteinsaidthatenergyisassociatedwithmassaccord-
ingtothefamousrelationship Estimatethera-
diusofanelectron,assumingthatitschargeisdistrib-
uteduniformlyoverthesurfaceofasphereofradiusR
andthatthemass energyoftheelectronisequaltothe
totalenergystoredintheresultingnonzeroelectric
eldbetweenR andinnity.(SeeProblem38.Experi-
mentally,anelectronneverthelessappearstobeapoint
particle.Theelectriceldclosetotheelectronmustbe
describedbyquantumelectrodynamics,ratherthanthe
classicalelectrodynamicsthatwestudy.)
E mc
2
.
U k
e
Q
2
/2R.
Section 26.4 EnergyStoredinaChargedCapacitor
31. (a)A3.00-Fcapacitorisconnectedtoa12.0-Vbattery.
Howmuchenergyisstoredinthecapacitor?(b)Ifthe
capacitorhadbeenconnectedtoa6.00-Vbattery,how
muchenergywouldhavebeenstored?
32. Twocapacitors and arecon-
nectedinparallelandchargedwitha100-Vpowersup-
ply.(a)Drawacircuitdiagramandcalculatethetotal
C
2
5.00F C
1
25.0F
b
a
6.0F
5.0F
7.0F
4.0F
C
2
C
2
C
1
C
1
C
2
C
2
C
3
b
a
k
a b
A
B
C
D
E
F
Figure P26.26
Figure P26.28 Problems28and29.
Figure P26.30
Figure P26.36
Problems 835
Section 26.5 CapacitorswithDielectrics
40. Findthecapacitanceofaparallel-platecapacitorthat
usesBakeliteasadielectric,ifeachoftheplateshasan
areaof5.00 cm
2
andtheplateseparationis2.00 mm.
41. Determine(a)thecapacitanceand(b)themaximum
voltagethatcanbeappliedtoaTeon-lledparallel-
platecapacitorhavingaplateareaof1.75 cm
2
andplate
separationof0.040 0 mm.
42. (a)Howmuchchargecanbeplacedonacapacitorwith
airbetweentheplatesbeforeitbreaksdown,ifthearea
ofeachoftheplatesis5.00cm
2
?(b)Findthemaxi-
mumchargeifpolystyreneisusedbetweentheplates
insteadofair.
43. AcommercialcapacitorisconstructedasshowninFig-
ure26.15a.Thisparticularcapacitorisrolledfromtwo
stripsofaluminumseparatedbytwostripsofparafn-
coatedpaper.Eachstripoffoilandpaperis7.00 cm
wide.Thefoilis0.004 00 mmthick,andthepaperis
0.025 0 mmthickandhasadielectricconstantof
3.70.Whatlengthshouldthestripsbeifacapacitance
of9.50 10
8
Fisdesired?(Usetheparallel-plate
formula.)
44. Thesupermarketsellsrollsofaluminumfoil,plastic
wrap,andwaxedpaper.Describeacapacitormadefrom
supermarketmaterials.Computeorder-of-magnitudees-
timatesforitscapacitanceanditsbreakdownvoltage.
45. Acapacitorthathasairbetweenitsplatesisconnected
acrossapotentialdifferenceof12.0 Vandstores
48.0 Cofcharge.Itisthendisconnectedfromthe
sourcewhilestillcharged.(a)Findthecapacitanceof
thecapacitor.(b)ApieceofTeonisinsertedbetween
theplates.Finditsnewcapacitance.(c)Findthevoltage
andchargenowonthecapacitor.
46. Aparallel-platecapacitorinairhasaplateseparationof
1.50 cmandaplateareaof25.0cm
2
.Theplatesare
chargedtoapotentialdifferenceof250 Vanddiscon-
nectedfromthesource.Thecapacitoristhenim-
mersedindistilledwater.Determine(a)thechargeon
theplatesbeforeandafterimmersion,(b)thecapaci-
tanceandvoltageafterimmersion,and(c)thechange
inenergyofthecapacitor.Neglecttheconductanceof
theliquid.
47. Aconductingsphericalshellhasinnerradiusa and
outerradiusc.Thespacebetweenthesetwosurfacesis
lledwithadielectricforwhichthedielectricconstant
is
1
betweena andb,and
2
betweenb andc (Fig.
P26.47).Determinethecapacitanceofthissystem.
48. Awaferoftitaniumdioxide hasanareaof
1.00 cm
2
andathicknessof0.100 mm.Aluminumis
evaporatedontheparallelfacestoformaparallel-plate
capacitor.(a)Calculatethecapacitance.(b)Whenthe
capacitorischargedwitha12.0-Vbattery,whatisthe
magnitudeofchargedeliveredtoeachplate?(c)For
thesituationinpart(b),whatarethefreeandinduced
surfacechargedensities?(d)WhatisthemagnitudeE
oftheelectriceld?
( 173)
49. EachcapacitorinthecombinationshowninFigure
P26.49hasabreakdownvoltageof15.0 V.Whatisthe
breakdownvoltageofthecombination?
(Optional)
Section 26.6 ElectricDipoleinanElectricField
50. Asmallrigidobjectcarriespositiveandnegative3.50-nC
charges.Itisorientedsothatthepositivechargeisatthe
point(1.20 mm,1.10 mm)andthenegativechargeis
atthepoint(1.40 mm,1.30 mm).(a)Findtheelectric
dipolemomentoftheobject.Theobjectisplacedinan
electric eldE (7 800i 4 900j)N/C.(b)Findthe
torqueactingontheobject.(c)Findthepotentialen-
ergyoftheobjectinthisorientation.(d)Iftheorienta-
tionoftheobjectcanchange, ndthedifferencebe-
tweenitsmaximumanditsminimumpotentialenergies.
51. Asmallobjectwithelectricdipolemomentp isplaced
inanonuniformelectriceld Thatis,the
eldisinthex direction,anditsmagnitudedependson
thecoordinatex.Let representtheanglebetweenthe
dipolemomentandthex direction.(a)Provethatthe
dipoleexperiencesanetforce cos in
thedirectiontowardwhichtheeldincreases.(b)Con-
sidertheeldcreatedbyasphericalballooncentered
attheorigin.Theballoonhasaradiusof15.0 cmand
carriesachargeof2.00 C.EvaluatedE/dx atthepoint
(16 cm,0,0).Assumethatawaterdropletatthispoint
hasaninduceddipolemomentof(6.30i) nC m.Find
theforceonit.
(Optional)
Section 26.7 AnAtomicDescriptionofDielectrics
52. AdetectorofradiationcalledaGeiger Mullercounter
consistsofaclosed,hollow,conductingcylinderwitha
F p(dE/dx)
E E(x)i.
20.0F
10.0F
20.0F
20.0F
20.0F
a
b
c
Q
+Q
1
Figure P26.47
Figure P26.49
newirealongitsaxis.Supposethattheinternaldiame-
terofthecylinderis2.50 cmandthatthewirealongthe
axishasadiameterof0.200 mm.Ifthedielectric
strengthofthegasbetweenthecentralwireandthe
cylinderis1.20 10
6
V/m,calculatethemaximum
voltagethatcanbeappliedbetweenthewireandthe
cylinderbeforebreakdownoccursinthegas.
53. ThegeneralformofGaussslawdescribeshowacharge
createsanelectriceldinamaterial,aswellasinavac-
uum.Itis
where isthepermittivityofthematerial.
(a)AsheetwithchargeQ uniformlydistributedover
itsareaA issurroundedbyadielectric.Showthatthe
sheetcreatesauniformelectriceldwithmagnitude
atnearbypoints.(b)Twolargesheetsof
areaA carryingoppositechargesofequalmagnitudeQ
areasmalldistanced apart.Showthattheycreateauni-
formelectriceldofmagnitude between
them.(c)Assumethatthenegativeplateisatzeropo-
tential.Showthatthepositiveplateisatapotential
Qd/A.(d)Showthatthecapacitanceofthepairof
platesis
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS
54. ForthesystemofcapacitorsshowninFigureP26.54,
nd(a)theequivalentcapacitanceofthesystem,
(b)thepotentialdifferenceacrosseachcapacitor,
(c)thechargeoneachcapacitor,and(d)thetotal
energystoredbythegroup.
A /d A
0
/d.
E Q /A
E Q /2A

0
E dA
q
56. A2.00-nFparallel-platecapacitorischargedtoaninitial
potentialdifference andthenisolated.The
dielectricmaterialbetweentheplatesismica(
5.00).(a)Howmuchworkisrequiredtowithdrawthe
micasheet?(b)Whatisthepotentialdifferenceofthe
capacitorafterthemicaiswithdrawn?
57. Aparallel-platecapacitorisconstructedusingadielec-
tricmaterialwhosedielectricconstantis3.00andwhose
dielectricstrengthis2.00 10
8
V/m.Thedesiredca-
pacitanceis0.250 F,andthecapacitormustwithstand
amaximumpotentialdifferenceof4 000 V.Findthe
minimumareaofthecapacitorplates.
58. Aparallel-platecapacitorisconstructedusingthree
dielectricmaterials,asshowninFigureP26.58.Youmay
assumethat d. (a)Findanexpressionfortheca-
pacitanceofthedeviceintermsoftheplateareaA and
d,
1
,
2
,and
3
.(b)Calculatethecapacitanceusing
thevalues cm
2
, mm,
1
4.90,
2

5.60,and
3
2.10.
d 2.00 A 1.00
W
V
i
100V
60. (a)Twosphereshaveradiia andb andtheircentersare
adistanced apart.Showthatthecapacitanceofthissys-
temis
providedthatd islargecomparedwitha andb.(Hint:
Becausethespheresarefarapart,assumethatthe
C
4
0
1
a
1
b
2
d
59. Aconductingslabofthicknessd andareaA isinserted
intothespacebetweentheplatesofaparallel-plateca-
pacitorwithspacings andsurfaceareaA,asshownin
FigureP26.59.Theslabisnotnecessarilyhalfwaybe-
tweenthecapacitorplates.Whatisthecapacitanceof
thesystem?
55. Considertwolong, parallel,andoppositelycharged
wiresofradiusd withtheircentersseparatedbyadis-
tanceD.Assumingthechargeisdistributeduniformly
onthesurfaceofeachwire,showthatthecapacitance
perunitlengthofthispairofwiresis
C
0
ln
D d
d

A
A
d s
d
d/2
/2
4.00F 2.00F
6.00F 3.00F
90.0V

Figure P26.54
Figure P26.58
Figure P26.59
WEB
Problems 837
68. Itispossibletoobtainlargepotentialdifferencesbyrst
chargingagroupofcapacitorsconnectedinparallel
andthenactivatingaswitcharrangementthatineffect
disconnectsthecapacitorsfromthechargingsource
andfromeachotherandreconnectstheminaseries
arrangement.Thegroupofchargedcapacitorsisthen
dischargedinseries.Whatisthemaximumpotential
differencethatcanbeobtainedinthismannerbyusing
tencapacitorseachof500 Fandachargingsourceof
800 V?
69. Aparallel-platecapacitorofplateseparationd is
chargedtoapotentialdifferenceV
0
.Adielectricslab
64. Whenconsideringtheenergysupplyforanautomobile,
theenergyperunitmassoftheenergysourceisanim-
portantparameter.Usingthefollowingdata,compare
theenergyperunitmass( J/kg)forgasoline,leadacid
batteries,andcapacitors.(TheampereAwillbeintro-
ducedinChapter27andistheSIunitofelectriccur-
rent.1A 1C/s.)
Gasoline: 126 000Btu/gal;density 670kg/m
3
Leadacidbattery: 12.0 V;100A h;mass 16.0 kg
Capacitor: potentialdifferenceatfullcharge
12.0 V;capacitance 0.100 F;mass 0.100 kg
65. Anisolatedcapacitorofunknowncapacitancehasbeen
chargedtoapotentialdifferenceof100 V.Whenthe
chargedcapacitoristhenconnectedinparalleltoan
uncharged10.0-Fcapacitor,thevoltageacrossthe
combinationis30.0 V.Calculatetheunknowncapaci-
tance.
66. Acertainelectroniccircuitcallsforacapacitorhavinga
capacitanceof1.20 pFandabreakdownpotentialof
1 000 V.Ifyouhaveasupplyof6.00-pFcapacitors,each
havingabreakdownpotentialof200 V,howcouldyou
meetthiscircuitrequirement?
67. InthearrangementshowninFigureP26.67,apotential
differenceV isapplied,andC
1
isadjustedsothatthe
voltmeterbetweenpointsb andd readszero.Thisbal-
anceoccurswhen If and
calculatethevalueofC
2
. C
4
12.0F,
C
3
9.00F C
1
4.00F.
63. Acapacitorisconstructedfromtwosquareplatesof
sides andseparationd,assuggestedinFigureP26.62.
Youmayassumethatd ismuchlessthan.Theplates
carrychargesQ
0
andQ
0
.Ablockofmetalhasa
width,alength,andathicknessslightlylessthand.It
isinsertedadistancex intothecapacitor.Thecharges
ontheplatesarenotdisturbedastheblockslidesin.
Inastaticsituation,ametalpreventsanelectriceld
frompenetratingit.Themetalcanbethoughtofasa
perfectdielectric,with :.(a)Calculatethestored
energyasafunctionofx.(b)Findthedirectionand
magnitudeoftheforcethatactsonthemetallicblock.
(c)Theareaoftheadvancingfrontfaceoftheblockis
essentiallyequaltod.Consideringtheforceonthe
blockasactingonthisface,ndthestress(forceper
area)onit.(d)Forcomparison,expresstheenergy
densityintheelectriceldbetweenthecapacitorplates
intermsofQ
0
,,d,and
0
.
chargeononespheredoesnotperturbthechargedis-
tributionontheothersphere.Thus,thepotentialof
eachsphereisexpressedasthatofasymmetriccharge
distribution, ,andthetotalpotentialateach
sphereisthesumofthepotentialsduetoeachsphere.
(b)Showthatasd approachesinnitytheaboveresult
reducestothatoftwoisolatedspheresinseries.
61. Whenacertainair-lledparallel-platecapacitoriscon-
nectedacrossabattery,itacquiresacharge(oneach
plate)ofq
0
.Whilethebatteryconnectionismain-
tained,adielectricslabisinsertedintoandllsthere-
gionbetweentheplates.Thisresultsintheaccumula-
tionofanadditionalchargeq oneachplate.Whatisthe
dielectricconstantoftheslab?
62. Acapacitorisconstructedfromtwosquareplatesof
sides andseparationd.Amaterialofdielectriccon-
stant isinsertedadistancex intothecapacitor,as
showninFigureP26.62.(a)Findtheequivalentcapaci-
tanceofthedevice.(b)Calculatetheenergystoredin
thecapacitorifthepotentialdifferenceisV.(c)Find
thedirectionandmagnitudeoftheforceexertedon
thedielectric,assumingaconstantpotentialdifference
V.Neglectfriction.(d)Obtainanumericalvaluefor
theforceassumingthat V 2 000 V,
andthedielectricisglass( 4.50).
(Hint: Thesystemcanbeconsideredastwocapacitors
connectedinparallel.)
d 2.00mm,
5.00cm,
V k
e
Q /r
C
1
C
2
C
4
C
3
a
b
c
d
V
V
x
d
Figure P26.62 Problems62and63.

Figure P26.67
76. Determinetheeffectivecapacitanceofthecombination
showninFigureP26.76.(Hint: Considerthesymmetry
involved!)
pacitorsaredisconnectedfromthebatteryandfrom
eachother.Theyarethenconnectedpositiveplateto
negativeplateandnegativeplatetopositiveplate.Cal-
culatetheresultingchargeoneachcapacitor.
73. Theinnerconductorofacoaxialcablehasaradiusof
0.800 mm,andtheouterconductorsinsideradiusis
3.00 mm.Thespacebetweentheconductorsislled
withpolyethylene,whichhasadielectricconstantof
2.30andadielectricstrengthof18.0 10
6
V/m.What
isthemaximumpotentialdifferencethatthiscablecan
withstand?
74. Youareoptimizingcoaxialcabledesignforamajor
manufacturer.Showthatforagivenouterconductorra-
diusb,maximumpotentialdifferencecapabilityisat-
tainedwhentheradiusoftheinnerconductoris
wheree isthebaseofnaturallogarithms.
75. Calculatetheequivalentcapacitancebetweenthepoints
a andb inFigureP26.75.Notethatthisisnotasimple
seriesorparallelcombination.(Hint: Assumeapoten-
tialdifferenceV betweenpointsa andb.Writeexpres-
sionsforV
ab
intermsofthechargesandcapacitances
forthevariouspossiblepathwaysfroma tob,andre-
quireconservationofchargeforthosecapacitorplates
thatareconnectedtoeachother.)
a b/e
72. Capacitors and arecharged
asaparallelcombinationacrossa250-Vbattery.Theca-
C
2
2.00F C
1
6.00F
71. Averticalparallel-platecapacitorishalflledwithadi-
electricforwhichthedielectricconstantis2.00(Fig.
P26.71a).Whenthiscapacitorispositionedhorizon-
tally,whatfractionofitshouldbelledwiththesame
dielectric(Fig.P26.71b)sothatthetwocapacitorshave
equalcapacitance?
ofthicknessd anddielectricconstant isintroduced
betweentheplateswhilethebatteryremainsconnectedtothe
plates. (a)Showthattheratioofenergystoredafterthe
dielectricisintroducedtotheenergystoredinthe
emptycapacitoris Giveaphysicalexplana-
tionforthisincreaseinstoredenergy.(b)Whathap-
penstothechargeonthecapacitor?(Notethatthissit-
uationisnotthesameasExample26.7,inwhichthe
batterywasremovedfromthecircuitbeforethedielec-
tricwasintroduced.)
70. Aparallel-platecapacitorwithplatesofareaA andplate
separationd hastheregionbetweentheplateslled
withtwodielectricmaterialsasinFigureP26.70.As-
sumethat andthat (a)Determinethe
capacitanceand(b)showthatwhen
1

2
your
resultbecomesthesameasthatforacapacitorcontain-
ingasingledielectric,C
0
A/d.
d VW. d VL
U/U
0
.
C
C
3C
2C
2C
a
b
2.00F
4.00F
2.00F 4.00F 8.00F
(b) (a)
d
2
L
W
Figure P26.70
Figure P26.71
Figure P26.76
Figure P26.75
Answers to Quick Quizzes 839
ANSWERS TO QUICK QUIZZES
crease.(c)E decreasesbecausethechargedensityon
theplatesdecreases.(d)V remainsconstantbecause
ofthepresenceofthebattery.(e)Theenergystoredin
thecapacitordecreases(Eq.26.11).
26.6 Itincreases.Thedielectricconstantofwood(andofall
otherinsulatingmaterials,forthatmatter)isgreater
than1;therefore,thecapacitanceincreases(Eq.26.14).
Thisincreaseissensedbythestud-ndersspecialcir-
cuitry,whichcausesanindicatoronthedevicetolight
up.
26.7 (a)C increases(Eq.26.14).(b)Q increases.Because
thebatterymaintainsaconstantV,Q mustincreaseif
C increases.(c)E betweentheplatesremains
constantbecauseV Ed andneitherV nord
changes.Theelectriceldduetothechargesonthe
platesincreasesbecausemorechargehasowedonto
theplates.Theinducedsurfacechargesonthedielec-
triccreateaeldthatopposestheincreaseintheeld
causedbythegreaternumberofchargesontheplates.
(d)ThebatterymaintainsaconstantV.(e)Theenergy
storedinthecapacitorincreases(Eq.26.11).Youwould
havetopushthedielectricintothecapacitor,justasyou
wouldhavetodopositiveworktoraiseamassandin-
creaseitsgravitationalpotentialenergy.
(Q /V)
26.1 (a)becausetheplateseparationisdecreased.Capaci-
tancedependsonlyonhowacapacitorisconstructed
andnotontheexternalcircuit.
26.2 Zero.Ifyouconstructasphericalgaussiansurfaceout-
sideandconcentricwiththecapacitor,thenetcharge
insidethesurfaceiszero.ApplyingGaussslawtothis
conguration,wendthat atpointsoutsidethe
capacitor.
26.3 Foragivenvoltage,theenergystoredinacapacitoris
proportionaltoC: .Thus,youwantto
maximizetheequivalentcapacitance.Youdothisby
connectingthethreecapacitorsinparallel,sothatthe
capacitancesadd.
26.4 (a)C decreases(Eq.26.3).(b)Q staysthesamebecause
thereisnoplaceforthechargetoow.(c)E remains
constant(seeEq.24.8andtheparagraphfollowingit).
(d)V increasesbecauseV Q/C,Q isconstant
(partb),andC decreases(parta).(e)Theenergy
storedinthecapacitorisproportionaltobothQ and
V (Eq.26.11)andthusincreases.Theadditionalen-
ergycomesfromtheworkyoudoinpullingthetwo
platesapart.
26.5 (a)C decreases(Eq.26.3).(b)Q decreases.Thebattery
suppliesaconstantpotentialdifferenceV;thus,charge
mustowoutofthecapacitorif istode- C Q /V
U C(V )
2
/2
E 0

Capacitance and Dielectrics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Capacitance and Dielectrics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

804 CHAPT E R 26 Capacitance and Dielectrics

Figure 26.11 Aplotofpotentialdifferenceversuschargefor

Figure 26.18 Thenonuniformelectriceldneartheedgesofaparallel-platecapacitorcauses

Figure 26.20 Anelectricdipole

Figure 26.26 (a)Aparallel-platecapacitorofplateseparationd

Figure 26.27 (a)Aparallel-platecapacitorofplateseparationd

Figure P26.62 Problems62and63.

You might also like