CSE 461: Introduction to Computer

Communications Networks
Autumn 2010
Module 2.
!it Encodin" and Errors
I#a$la %ermend&ie#a
i#a'cs.was(in"ton.edu
Some material borrowed from slides by Jeremy Elson and
Ben Greenstein. Thanks!
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This Module's Topics

Bit Encodin
!"#

!"#$
Manchester
%B&'B

Error (etection
)arity
$nternet *hecksums
*"*s

Error *orrection
+ammin (istance
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Bit Encodin

,ant to send messaes- not

.ust bits

So break up bit stream into

discrete chunks /frames0

Synchroni1e both end points on

frame boundaries 2 how3

Transmit clock on a separate

channel 2 4ery e5pensi4e

$nterate clock in data stream

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!"#

Simplest form of bit encodin

Sinal is hih to encode a '6'

Sinal is low to encode a '7'

,hat is a problem with this encodin3

Image source: Wikipedia
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!"#$

!"# has a problem8 difficult to distinuish

stream of consecuti4e 7's or 6's

!"#$ attempts to alle4iate this

9 sinal chane /i.e. hih to low0encodes a '6'

!o chane in sinal encodes a '7'

This fi5es the problem of sendin consecuti4e 6's

but not consecuti4e 7's
Image source: Wikipedia
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Manchester

Sinal *hane on e4ery bit

:ow;to;hih encodes a '7'

+ih;to;low encodes a '6'

Manchester unambiuously interates clock and

data. ,hat is the downside3
Image source: Wikipedia
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%B&'B

So far- the schemes we ha4e looked at ha4e had

shortcomins8

!"# and !"#$ run the risk of holdin the sinal

steady when transmittin consecuti4e bits

Manchester reduces efficiency of link

,ant a scheme which toles the sinal often

enouh- without sinificant efficiency o4erhead

%B&'B encodin assins a mappin between % bit

data and ';bit code words

There is a ' bit code for each possible % bit

se<uence

Some ' bit codes are in4alid

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%B&'B
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Encodin E5ercise
Show the NRZ, Manchester and NRZI encodings for the above
pattern !ssume NRZI signa" starts out "ow
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Error (etection and *orrection

+ow can we know if the frames we recei4ed ha4e

not been corrupted in transit3

9dd additional information to frames

Sender computes some property of data and

sends it alon with the data

"ecei4er computes same property and

compares

=arious methods for determinin frame interity

)arity

$nternet *hecksum

*yclic "edundancy *heck

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)arity

Start with n bits and add another bit so that the

total number of '6's is e4en /e4en parity0

i.e. 7667767 76677676

Easy to compute as >?" of all input bits

,ill detect an odd number of bit errors

But not an e4en number

(oes not correct any errors

?4erhead of parity is proportional to data lenth

/i.e. 6 parity bit for e4ery @A bits of data0
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A( )airity

9dd pairity row&column to

array of bits

+ow many simultaneous bit

errors can it detect3

,hich errors can it correct3

,hat is an e5ample of a %;bit

error that would not be detected
by a two;dimensional parity3
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*hecksums

Bsed in $nternet )rotocols /$)- $*M)- T*)- B()0

Basic $dea8 9dd up the data and send it alon with

sum

9lorithm8

9dd 6C bit chunks usin 6s complement

Take ones complement of the result

Di5ed o4erhead- independent of lenth of data

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*yclic "edundancy *heck /*"*0

Stroner protection than checksums

Bsed widely in practice /i.e. Ethernet *"*;@A0

$mplemented in hardware />?"s and shifts0

Di5ed o4erhead /independent of data si1e0

9lorithm8 Gi4en n bits of data- enerate a k bit

check se<uence that i4es a combined n E k bits
that are di4isible by a chosen di4isor */50

Based on mathematics of finite fields

FnumbersG correspond to polynomials- use

modulo arithmetic

i.e. interpret 67766767 as 5

H
E 5
%
E 5
@
E 5
6
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*"* E5ample

E5tend messae with k

7Is- when usin a k;
deree enerator

(i4ide messae by
enerator />?"0

(iscard result

Subtract remainder
from oriinal messae

?n reception- check
that messae is
di4isible by enerator
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*"* E5ample
Suppose we want to transmit the messae 66776776
and protect it from errors usin the *"* polynomial
5
@
E 6. (etermine the messae that should be
transmitted
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+ammin (istance

Errors must not turn one 4alid codeword into another

4alid codeword- or we cannot detect&correct them.
+ammin distance of a code is the smallest number of
bit differences that turn any one codeword into
another
e.- code 777 for 7- 666 for 6- +ammin distance is
@
Dor code with distance dE68

d errors can be detected- e.- 776- 767- 667- 676-

766
Dor code with distance AdE68
d errors can be corrected- e..- 776 777