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TRANSFORMER
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER
SHUNT
CAPACITOR
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
7812 12-0-12 V
1N4007
1000uF
TRANSFORMER
7805
The ripple of the D.C. voltage is smoothened using a filter capacitor of 1000 uF 25V. The filter capacitor
stores electrical charge. If it is large enough the capacitor will store charge as the voltage rises and give up
the charge as the voltage falls. This has the effect of smoothing out the waveform and provides steadier
voltage output. A filter capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and the d.c voltage is obtained across
the capacitor. When this capacitor is used in this project, it should be twice the supply voltage. When the
filter is used, the RC charge time of the filter capacitor must be short and the RC discharge time must be
long to eliminate ripple action. In other words the capacitor must charge up fast, preferably with no
discharge.
When the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm. Just past the
positive peak, the rectifier output voltage starts to fall but at this point the capacitor has +Vm voltage
across it. Since the source voltage becomes slightly less than Vm, the capacitor will try to send current
back through the diode of rectifier. This reverse biases the diode. The diode disconnects or separates the
source the source form load. The capacitor starts to discharge through load. This prevents the load voltage
from falling to zero. The capacitor continues to discharge until source voltage becomes more than
capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again charged to peak value Vm.
When capacitor is charging the rectifier supplies the charging through capacitor branch as well as load
current, the capacitor sends currents through the load. The rate at which capacitor discharge depends upon
time constant RC. The longer the time constant, the steadier is the output voltage. An increase in load
current i.e. decrease in resistance makes time constant of discharge path smaller. The ripple increase and
d.c output voltage V dc decreases. Maximum capacity cannot exceed a certain limit because the larger the
capacitance the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor.
The voltage regulator regulates the supply if the supply if the line voltage increases or decreases. The
series 78xx regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 volts. An unregulated input voltage is
applied at the IC Input pin i.e. pin 1 which is filtered by capacitor. The out terminal of the IC i.e. pin 3
provides a regular output. The third terminal is connected to ground. While the input voltage may vary
over some permissible voltage range, and the output voltage remains constant within specified voltage
variation limit. The 78xx ICs are positive voltage regulators whereas 79xx ICs are negative voltage
regulators.
These voltage regulators are integrated circuits designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of
applications. These regulators employ current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe area compensation.
With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output currents in excess of 1 A. These regulators have
internal thermal overload protection. It uses output transistor safe area compensation and the output
voltage offered is in 2% and 4% tolerance.
Gear Motors
Gear motor is a motor that has a gear reduction system or the gearbox integrally
built into the motor. The gearbox increases the torque generating ability of the
motor while simultaneously reducing its output speed. The main advantage of a
gearmotor is that the driving shaft may be coupled directly to the driven shaft.
Belts, pulleys, chains, or additional gearing to step down motor speed are needed.
Also, coupling or belting of a motor to a separate speed-reducer unit is eliminated.
AC gearmotor consists of a series of three windings in the stator section with a
simple rotating section and an integral gearbox. DC gear motors are configured in
many types and sizes, including brushless and servo. They consist of a rotor and a
permanent magnetic field stator and an integral gearbox. They are used in variable
speed and torque applications. Direct motors are most common in industrial robots.
Important performance specifications to consider when searching for gearmotors
include shaft speed, continuos torque, continuos current, and continuous output
power. The terminal voltage is the design DC motor voltage. The continuous torque
is the output torque capability of the motor under constant running conditions.
Continuous current is the maximum rated current that can be supplied to the motor
by
the
motor
output.
Gear motors are designed and manufactured to be installed within another device.
The installation place should have ambient temperature of about 14 F ~ 104 F and
ambient humidity of maximum 85%. The motor should not be exposed to explosive,
flammable gas, to direct sunlight, dust, water, and oil. It should be placed where
heat can easily escape. Using gearmotors in location that does not satisfy the
conditions
can
damage
the
motor.
Standard
Gearmotor service factors and load classifications should confirm to AGMA
recommendations. The minimum service factor should be 1.0 for continuous
operation and the minimum gearing service factor should be 1.0 with a minimum
mechanical
strength
service
factor
of
1.3.
Applications
Gearmotors have a variety of successful applications. They are used in packaging
and labeling, case erectors, box taper, hot melt glue pumps, heat shrink tunnels,
tape dispensers and conveyor drives. They are also used in food processing
industry. They are used in ice making machines, weigh checking, baking machinery,
meat slicing, cooker drive, and breading equipment. In transport equipment they
are used in wheelchairs, stair lifts, golf carts and pipeline crawlers. In machine tools
they are used in drill heads, rotary table drives, and hardness test.
Michael Faraday invented the electric motor, which is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy, in 1821. Electric current supplied from the power lines can only be used directly in heating,
lighting and other applications. To use this power to run devices like pumps, automobiles, domestic
appliances and machine tools, the electrical energy must be converted to mechanical energy, which rotates
shafts and gear trains.
Electric motors are available in three basic types of horsepower (hp) ratings: small, medium and large.
Small motors are made to produce fractional hp of 1/20 to 1 hp. Medium motors are available in the range
of 1 to 100 hp and large motors are available in ratings of 100 to 50,000 hp. Power can also be expressed
in kilowatts (1 kW = 1.33 hp; 1 hp = 746 W). Standard frequencies at which motors operate are 50 or 60
Hertz.
DC Motors
DC motors provide momentary power bursts of up to five times the rated torque. The speed can be
brought down to zero smoothly and immediately raised in the opposite direction without any power
interruption.
DC motors have an electromagnet with two poles, which serve as a rotating armature. A commutator or
rotary switch is used to reverse the current direction twice in each cycle. This causes the poles of the
electromagnet to push and pull against the external permanent magnets. When the poles of the armature
pass through the poles of the permanent magnet, the commutator reverses the polarity of the armature.
The inertia maintains the current direction at the instance when polarity is switched.
Major types of DC motors are:
PM DC Motors: These are small motors that produce about 50% greater
torque than other comparably sized motors. Magnets are made of Samariumcobalt and the torque ripple is greatly reduced.
Coreless DC Motors: In these motors, there is no iron core, thus giving a low
mass and higher acceleration and deceleration. The stator is made of a
cylindrical permanent magnet that is placed in a housing made of mild steel.
Rotors are wound in a honeycombed pattern to increase the torque. The
commutator is made of gold, platinum and other precious metals. They are
used to drive Capstan in magnetic tape drives and in high-performance servocontrolled systems.
Linear DC Motors: These are used in Maglev super fast trains and produce a
linear force and no a torque. It has a stator and a slider. The stator has a
laminated steel frame with conductors wound in transverse slots. The slider
has sets of magnets, commutators, a bearing surface and it makes a path of
magnetic flux between the magnets.
Working of Relays
What is a relay?
We know that most of the high end industrial application devices have
relays for their effective working. Relays are simple switches which are
operated both electrically and mechanically. Relays consist of a n
electromagnet and also a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is
carried out with the help of the electromagnet. There are also other
operating principles for its working. But they differ according to their
applications. Most of the devices have the application of relays.
Relay Design
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are
Electromagnet
Movable Armature
Switch point contacts
Spring
The figures given below show the actual design of a simple relay.
Relay Construction
It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron
core. A path of very low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for
the movable armature and also the switch point contacts. The movable
armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically connected to
the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a
spring. The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when
the relay becomes de-energized.
Relay Design
The diagram shows an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is
surrounded by a control coil. As shown, the power source is given to the
electromagnet through a control switch and through contacts to the
load. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the
electromagnet starts energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field.
Thus the upper contact arm starts to be attracted to the lower fixed arm
and thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the power to the
load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when the
contacts were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an
open circuit.
As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned
by a force back to its initial position. This force will be almost equal to
half the strength of the magnetic force. This force is mainly provided by
two factors. They are the spring and also gravity.
Relays are mainly made for two basic operations. One is low voltage
application and the other is high voltage. For low voltage applications,
more preference will be given to reduce the noise of the whole circuit.
For high voltage applications, they are mainly designed to reduce a
phenomenon called arcing.
Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 pin relay
shown below. There are two colours shown. The green colour represents
the control circuit and the red colour represents the load circuit. A small
control coil is connected onto the control circuit. A switch is connected
to the load. This switch is controlled by the coil in the control circuit.
Now let us take the different steps that occour in a relay.
relay operation
As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens
and thus the open circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and
4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized and thus in off position.
Relay Applications
Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important
Relay Selection
You must note some factors while selecting a particular relay. They are
Protection Different protections like contact protection and coil
protection must be noted. Contact protection helps in reducing
arcing in circuits using inductors. Coil protection helps in reducing
surge voltage produced during switching.
Look for a standard relay with all regulatory approvals.
Switching time Ask for high speed switching relays if you want one.
Types Of Relays
Here is a detailed list of the different types of relays.
1. Latching Relay
Latching relays are also called impulse relays. They work in the bistable mode, and thus
have two relaxing states. They are also called keep relays or stay relays because as soon as
the current towards this relay is switched off, the relay continues the process that it was
doing in the last state. This can be achieved only with a solenoid which is operating in a
ratchet and cam mechanism. It can also be done by an over-centre spring mechanism or a
permanent magnet mechanism in which, when the coil is kept in the relaxed point, the
over-centre spring holds the armature and the contacts in the right spot. This can also be
done with the help of a remanent core.
In the ratchet and cam method, power consumption occurs only for a particular time.
Hence it is more advantageous than the others.
2. Reed Relay
These types of relays have been given more importance in the contacts. In order to protect
them from atmospheric protection they are safely kept inside a vacuum or inert gas.
Though these types of relays have a very low switching current and voltage ratings, they
are famous for their switching speeds.
3. Polarized Relay
This type of relay has been given more importance on its sensitivity. These relays have
been used since the invention of telephones. They played very important roles in early
telephone exchanges and also in detecting telegraphic distortion. The sensitivity of these
relays are very easy to adjust as the armature of the relay is placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet.
4. Buchholz Relay
This relay is actually used as a safety device. They are used for knowing the amount of gas
present in large oil-filled transformers. They are designed in such a way that they produce
a warning if it senses either the slow production of gas or fast production of gas in the
transformer oil.
operation. They have very low contact resistance and so can be used for timing
applications. Due to these factors, this relay is not used frequently.
8. Contacor Relay
This is one of the most heavy load relay ever used. They are mainly used in switching
electric motors. They have a wide range of current ratings from a few amps to hundreds.
The contacts of these relays are usually made with alloys containing a small percentage of
silver. This is done so as to avoid the hazardous effects of arcing. These type of relays are
mainly categorized in the rough use areas. So, they produce loud noises while operated and
hence cannot be used in places where noise is a problem.