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Chapter 2

PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
THAT MAKE
AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
No country in the world is the same as another,
but Australia is particularly rich in physical
characteristics that make it unique. In this chapter,
we focus on the physical environment, including
major landforms and drainage basins, patterns of
climate, vegetation and natural resources, and
flora and fauna.

A student:
5.1 identifies, gathers and evaluates geographical
information
5.2 analyses, organises and synthesises geographical
information
5.3 selects and uses appropriate written, oral and graphic
forms to communicate geographical information
5.4 selects and applies appropriate geographical tools
5.5 demonstrates a sense of place about Australian
environments
5.6 explains the geographical processes that form and
transform Australian environments
5.10 applies geographical knowledge, understanding
and skills with knowledge of civics to demonstrate
informed and active citizenship.

• Using physical maps (page 23)


• Using topographic maps (page 25)
• Interpreting contour patterns (pages 26–7)
• Using vertical aerial photographs and topographic
maps (page 28)
• Interpreting climatic graphs (page 33)
• Interpreting synoptic charts (page 35)
• Using area and grid references (page 42)

Yellow-footed rock wallaby and baby,


Flinders Ranges, South Australia

18
GEO active 2
climate: the long-term variation in the atmosphere,
mainly relating to temperature and precipitation
deposition: the laying down of material carried by
rivers, wind, ice, ocean currents or waves
drainage basin: the area of land that feeds a river
with water or the whole area of land drained by a
river and its tributaries
drought: a period of below average precipitation
ecosystem: a system formed by the interactions of
the living organisms (plants, animals and humans)
and physical elements of environments
endemic: native to a particular area and found
nowhere else
erosion: the wearing away of soil and rock by
natural elements such as wind and water
isobars: lines drawn on a map joining places of
equal barometric pressure
marsupial: a mammal that keeps and feeds its
young in a pouch for a few months after birth
mass movement: the movement of rock and soil
down a slope due to gravity
monotreme: mammal that lays eggs; the only
species are the platypus and echidna
monsoon: the seasonal change in wind direction
that is experienced in much of the tropics
regolith: the layer of broken rock and soil on top of
the solid rock of the Earth’s crust; also known as
mantle rock
renewable resources: resources that can be
replaced in a relatively short amount of time (for
example, trees)
salinity: the presence of salt on the land surface, in
soils or rocks, or dissolved in water in our rivers or
ground water
species: a group of plants or animals of the same
kind, able to breed with each other
synoptic chart: weather map that uses isobars and
other symbols to show the movement of weather
systems and patterns of temperature and rainfall
tectonic: refers to the forces or conditions within the
earth that cause movements of the crust such as
earthquakes, folds, faults and volcanoes
topography: physical features of an area of land —
its height and shape
unique: unlike anything else; the only one of its type
weathering: the breakdown of bare rock by water
and temperature changes
World Heritage List: areas designated as being of
global importance for conservation and study

19
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.1
MAJOR LANDFORMS AND
DRAINAGE BASINS
The tectonic forces of folding, faulting and vol- • The Eastern Highlands region (which includes
canic activity have created many of the major the Great Dividing Range) is mainly a series of
landforms of Australia. Other forces that work tablelands and plateaus. Most of the area is
on the surface of Australia and give our land- very rugged because rivers have cut deep val-
forms their present appearance are weathering, leys across it. It is the source of most of Aus-
mass movement, erosion and deposition. tralia’s largest rivers including the Fitzroy,
Weathering is the breakdown of bare rock by Darling and Murray. The highest part is in the
water and temperature changes at the Earth’s sur- south-east where a small alpine area is snow-
face. On a continental scale, weathering contri- covered for more than half the year.
butes to the development of only minor landforms.
Its main impact is in the way it converts solid rock
into a layer of regolith, or broken rock and soil,
which is more easily moved by other processes.
The gravitational movement of rock and soil
downslope is called mass movement. This con-
tributes to the appearance of local landforms. For
example, the steep sides of parts of the Blue
Mountains are formed by a combination of
weathering and mass movement.
The main force that has created the present
appearance of our topography is erosion. Australia’s highest mountain is Mount Kosciuszko at
Erosion is the wearing away of soil and rock by 2228 metres. Mount Everest — the world’s highest
mountain — is 8848 metres.
natural elements, such as water, ice and wind.
Water erosion by rivers and streams has been • The Central Lowlands is a vast area of very
responsible for the carving of many valleys in flat, low-lying land which contains three large
Australia’s higher areas. Small parts of the Aus- drainage basins: the Carpentaria lowlands in
tralian Alps and Tasmania have been eroded by the north, the Lake Eyre basin in the centre,
glaciers during the last Ice Age. Drier parts of and the Murray–Darling basin in the south.
Australia have experienced some wind erosion. • The Western Plateau is a huge area of table-
When streams, glaciers and winds slow down, lands, most of which is about 500 metres above
they deposit or ‘drop’ the load of rock, soil and sea level. It includes areas of gibber (or stony)
particles they have been carrying. This is called deserts and sandy deserts. There are several
deposition. Many broad coastal and low-lying rugged upland areas, including the Kimberley
inland valleys have been created by stream depo- and Macdonnell ranges.
sition. These areas are called flood plains. Wind Plains
deposition has created many sand dunes along Australia’s four
beaches and in desert areas. major landform Highlands
regions

MAJOR LANDFORM REGIONS Co


a
st

The topography or landforms of Australia can be


Ea

al
Pl
ste

ain

divided into four major regions: the Coastal


rn

Capricorn
Plains, the Eastern Highlands, the Central Low- Tropic of
Hi

Western Plateau
gh
lan

lands and the Western Plateau. Central Lowlands


ds

• The Coastal Plains around Australia’s edge are


s
nd

narrow and discontinuous. The plains often


hla
Hig

take the form of river valleys, such as those of


the Fitzroy River near Rockhampton and the
rn

N
ste
Ea

Hunter Valley near Newcastle. 0 250 500 750 km

20
GEO active 2
Timor Sea
23.3% Gulf of
Carpentaria
23.3%

North-east
Lake Eyre
Coast
1.6% 21.1%
Indian Ocean Western Plateau
1.0% 0.4%
Bulloo–
Bancannia
0.3%

Murray–Darling
South-west
Coast 6.1%
1.7% South-east
South Australian Coast
Gulf
10.6%
0.2%
Timor Sea Water catchment area name
23.3% Distribution of Australia’s run-off N

Australia’s
Tasmania
drainage basins 0 250 500 km
13.3%

King George Falls, the Kimberley. The King George River


flows across the Western Plateau then plunges 60 metres over
the eroding edge of the plateau into the ocean.

1. Briefly explain what is meant by the following terms:


SAMPLE STUDY weathering, mass movement, erosion and deposition.
The Murray–Darling basin 2. Which of these processes has been the most
The Murray–Darling basin covers about one million
significant in the development of Australia’s
square kilometres and is drained by more than 20 landforms?
major rivers. It has a large variety of environments, 3. Observe the map of Australia’s major landform
ranging from alpine areas in the east to rangelands regions.
in the west. The basin produces one-third of Aus- (a) What are the four major landform regions?
tralia’s food and 40 per cent of Australia’s total agri- (b) Which region is:
cultural income. It supports one-quarter of the (i) the largest? (ii) the smallest?
nation’s cattle, half the sheep and makes up almost (c) State the landform region in which each of the
three-quarters of the irrigated land in Australia. following is located (refer to an atlas if necessary):
The Murray–Darling drainage basin is the largest (i) Sydney (iv) Kalgoorlie
and most important in Australia, but it is small by (ii) Alice Springs (v) Cairns
world standards. The amount of water flowing (iii) Canberra (vi) Lake Eyre.
through it in one year is about the same as the
4. Name Australia’s largest drainage basin.
Amazon River’s flow in one day.
5. What is the approximate size of the Murray–Darling
The basin is facing severe problems:
drainage basin?
• Only about 20 per cent of water flowing through
the basin ever reaches the sea. The rest is 6. The Murray–Darling basin has a large variety of
diverted for agriculture, industry and domestic environments. Explain how this would affect the
use. In 1981 the Murray mouth closed for the potential for agriculture.
first time since European settlement. It hap- 7. Why has the basin developed into such an important
pened again in 2002 and will probably close irrigation area?
more often unless natural flows are increased. 8. Form small groups to use the Internet and/or library
• The Murray supplies about 40 per cent of to research the problems facing the Murray–Darling
Adelaide’s drinking water. Within 20 years, if basin. What could be done by individuals, groups
water quality continues to decline, salinity and governments to improve the situation? Prepare a
levels will exceed World Health Organization report and have one member present it to the class.
limits for safe drinking water. To find out more, go to www.jaconline.com.au/
• Approximately 50–80 per cent of wetlands in the geoactive/geoactive2 and click on the Murray–
basin have been severely damaged or destroyed Darling Basin weblinks for this chapter.
and more than one-third of native fish species
are threatened with extinction. Worksheets
2.1 River systems

21
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
RIVERS AND LAKES
River Forest Mountains Sea mounts
Permanent rivers and streams flow in only a
small proportion of the Australian continent. In
fact, Australia is the driest of all the world’s Desert Lake Islands
inhabited continents. It has:
• the lowest amount of run-off Australia — physical map
• the lowest percentage of rainfall as run-off
• the least amount of water in rivers Flores
Sumbawa
• the smallest area of permanent wetlands Java Bali Lombok Timor
Sumba Bathurst
• the most variable rainfall and stream flow. Island
The Murray–Darling is Australia’s largest T I M O R
Van
river system. Other significant rivers are: S E A Cape Ford

• the Burdekin River in Queensland Cape Londonderry


Joseph
Bonaparte
• the Hunter River in New South Wales Gulf
I N D I A N V ic t o
• the Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, Fortescue, r

De Grey, Fitzroy, Drysdale and Ord rivers in the

Ki
O C E A N KIMBERLEY Lake

ng
Argyle
north-west region

So
Cape Leveque
Sturt

un
• the Victoria and Daly rivers in the Northern Plain

r
ve
Fitz
Territory roy

Ri
Roebuck Bay
• the Leichhardt, Norman, Gilbert and Mitchell Ta na m i
lf Deser t
rivers in the Gulf of Carpentaria Sh
e
t Lake Gregory
• the Tamar, Derwent and Gordon rivers of es
W
th
Tasmania, although these are relatively short. N
or Grea t Sandy
De se r t
Australia has many lakes but they hold little Barrow Island Fort Percival Lakes
water compared with those found on other conti- escu
e Rive
nents. The largest are Lake Eyre and Lake Torrens HA r
ME Lake
RS Mt Meharry
LEY
in South Australia. During dry seasons, these RA 1249 m
Disappointment
GE N
become beds of salt and mud. Yet an inland sea did orn
of Capric Gibson Desert
Tropic CARNARV
once exist in this area. It covered about 100 000 ON RANGE
r
Ga sc oy ne Rive
square kilometres around present-day Lake Eyre e r Lake Carnegie
Riv
and Lake Frome. South Australia is the driest state Shark Bay
on

and has very few permanent rivers or streams. Steep Point


is
ch

Lake Austin
D e s e r t
ur
M
Source:  Commonwealth of Australia, Landsat MSS/TM/ETM satellite images acquired by ACRES, Geoscience

Lake Carey
Houtman Lake
Abrolhos Barlee
Australia. All rights reserved. Reproduction by permission of the Chief Executive Officer, www.ga.gov.au.

Islands
R
Lake Lefroy BO
AR
LL
NU

Geographe Bay
Cape Naturaliste Archipelago of
Hood the Recherche
Cape Leeuwin Point

N
Satellite image of Lake Eyre, Satellite image of Lake Eyre,
March 1985. Once a February 1984. Three or
freshwater lake, the region four times each century, the
is now an evaporated lake fills with water,
saltpan. The crust of salt is transforming it into a haven 0 200 400 600 800 km
shown as white in the for wildlife. Deep water is
image. shown as black in the image.
Image  WorldSat International Inc., 2001 — www.worldsat.ca — All rights reserved.
Overlay by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane.

22
GEO active 2
TOOLBOX 1. Observe the physical map of Australia and list the
following:
Using physical maps (a) the three highest mountain peaks in the Great
The natural features of a region are shown on Dividing Range
physical maps. Mountain ranges, plateaus, rivers, (b) two deserts in the Central Lowlands
seas and other physical features are highlighted. (c) four mountain ranges on the Western Plateau
Information about towns and cities is kept to a (d) three rivers in the Murray–Darling drainage
minimum. basin
(e) three rivers in the
Torres Strait
SEA Indian Ocean
Thursday Cape York
Cobourg Wessel am Island New Guinea drainage basin (see
Peninsula Islands ingh
ck ay Shelburne Bay map on page 21).
Bu B
Cape Arnhem 2. Using information from
Arnhem
Land Princess
the map, explain why
Groote Eylandt Charlotte Lake Torrens and Lake
Gulf
Cape
Bay P A C I F I C Eyre usually contain so
of G R
Carpentaria Yo r k O C E A N little water.
Peninsula 3. Use information from
E A
R iv e r

Mornington
B Island
CORAL SEA the text and from the
T

A
Lake R
K
Mt Bartle Frere
1611 m
map to explain why the
L
Woods Murray–Darling river
B

Y
G R

TA
A

BL system has a small


R

E R
L I discharge for the size of
E A

DA E
A

VE
its catchment and
N Ge

RA NPO
R
D or

NG RT
T

E
length.
R
D
gin

4. On an outline map of
E E

Broad
I V
aR

y Sound
Australia complete the
r
ive

e
iv

ID

Mt Liebig
R
r

1524 m following.
na

IN
nti

NGES (a) Draw the Great


ma

G
Dia

Lake Amadeus Dividing Range and


R

Simpson Desert
Uluru 868 m the Murray–Darling
A

Fraser Island
N

Mt Woodroffe
1440 m Lake Yamma Yamma basin onto your map.
G

Sturt Stony
NGES (b) Add Mount
E

Desert
Moreton Bay
Moreton Island Kosciuszko to your
Lake
Eyre map.
Cape Byron
(c) Shade the areas of
desert.
ES

r
ve
Ri
E

Lake
NG

Lake Torrens Frome (d) Show the location of


N G

LAI N
RA

l i ng four seas near


r
Lake Gairdner Da
Australia.
R A
FLINDERS

Riv
Lord Howe Island
(e) Show the
n er
lf

la approximate location
G
Gu

h
Eyre c
La
IN

Peninsula of the area shown in


r

M urrumb
ce

idg Port Jackson


en

ee
ID

r
Rive the photographs on
M
Sp

ur

V
ra

Kangaroo R iv e r I page 22. Add a label


y

Island D
T Mt Kosciuszko 2228 m for this place.
A
E Mt Bogong (f) Provide a title, scale
G
R
1986 m PA C I F I C
Cape Howe and key for your
Cape Nelson O C E A N map.
Cape Otway
Bass Strait (g) Use the scale to
Furneaux
King Island
Group T A S M A N estimate the width of
Australia at its widest
S E A
point and the
Tasmania distance from the
Lake Pedder
most northerly point
South East Cape of Australia to the
most southerly point.

23
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.2
TOPOGRAPHIC
MAPS
CONTOURS AREA AND GRID REFERENCES
A topographic map is a map that shows the Topographic maps also use lines to help us locate
actual shape of the landscape and the various places on a map. These lines are overprinted to
heights of the landscape. The map allows geog- form a grid. These grid lines are given as two-
raphers to see the height and shape of the land digit numbers that appear on the margins of the
by using contour lines. Contour lines are lines map. The lines that run up and down the map
that join together all points that have the same (north–south) are called eastings because the
height above sea level. The height between con- numbers increase the further east they are. The
tour lines is called the contour interval. The map lines that run across the map horizontally (east–
on the opposite page has various contour lines west) are called northings because the numbers
with an interval of 50 metres. The numbers on increase the further north they are. When
the contours show how high the land is above sea stating location, the eastings are given first, then
level. Mount Florence, for example, is more than the northings.
400 metres above sea level.
The map also shows that some contour lines are
close together while other contour lines are far Y
400
apart. Close contours mean that the slope of the
land is steep; contours well apart mean that the 14
450
slope of the land is gentle. The closer the contours, 500
the steeper the slope. The further apart the con- 13 550
tours, the flatter the slope. Therefore, on the map 600 350
on this page, the land around X is steeper than 12
X
the land around Y. The relative steepness of the 400
slope is called the gradient.
11
450

LEGEND
60 61 62 63 64 65
Topographic maps also show in detail both the
natural and human features of the landscape. Area references and contour lines on a topographic map
Natural features include rivers, lakes, swamps,
hills and beaches. Human features include roads, An area reference is a four-figure reference that
towns, railways and dams. Topographic maps use tells us the grid square in which to find a
conventional signs and symbols to show water, feature. On the map opposite, the railway station
rivers, vegetation, roads, railways and buildings. is located at 8640. The letters AR are usually
The meaning of each sign or symbol is explained placed in front of an area reference, so the area
in a key, or legend. reference for the railway station is AR8640.
A grid reference is a six-figure number that
Colours shows an exact point in the grid square. The
Different colours are also used on topographic third and sixth figures represent one-tenth of
maps to indicate certain features, for example: the distance between the two grid numbers.
• brown is used for natural features, including However, these divisions are not written on the
contour lines map, so they must be estimated. The letters GR
• blue is used for all water and river features are used in front of a grid reference. The grid
• green is used for vegetation and ground cover reference for point Y on the map above is
• black and red are used for human features GR643146. There are no spaces between the
such as roads, railways and buildings. digits in references.

24
GEO active 2
TOOLBOX 4. Using the legend, what is at each of these points?
(a) A (c) C (e) E
Using topographic maps (b) B (d) D (f) F
The map below is a topographic map showing 5. What is the height of the land at points B, C, F
contours, grid references and a legend. Observe the and G on the contour map?
map carefully and answer these questions. 6. How high is Mount Florence? Which side of
1. What is the area reference for each of these Mount Florence is the steepest?
points marked on the map? The first one is done 7. If you walked from the railway station to Mount
for you. Florence:
(a) A is AR8348. (e) E (a) would you be travelling uphill or downhill?
(b) D (f) H (b) which part would be the flattest section of
(c) G (g) C your journey?
(d) B (h) F (c) how many metres would you have to walk to
reach Mount Florence?
2. What are the grid references for the same points? 8. Which human features can be found at the
A is GR835486. following area references?
3. In which direction would you have to travel to (a) AR8640 (b) AR8940 (c) AR8441
reach point D from: 9. Measure the distance between GR802440 and
(a) B? (b) C? (c) E? GR890453.

A Mt Florence

48 400
N
47 350
B
C
46
300 F

45
150
E
k
44 250
og Cre e
dD
a
De

43

200 D G
42 200

41 Railway
station 250

H
40
Johnsville

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
LEGEND
Contour interval: 50 metres
250 Height in metres Mountain
Scale: 1 cm = 500 m
Built-up area Sealed road Lake

Railway Stream Swamp

A simple topographic map

25
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.3
CONTOUR PATTERNS
TOOLBOX for military purposes and were often referred to as
military maps.
Interpreting contour patterns As you become more familiar with contour lines,
Topographic maps are used by many people for you will be able to ‘see’ the shape of the land just by
different purposes. They are used by surveyors, looking at a contour map. Common features such as
engineers, bushwalkers, real estate developers, hills, cliffs, plateaus, valleys, ridges, spurs and
geologists and by anyone who simply wants to saddles can be identified by their contour patterns.
have a detailed knowledge of a particular area. Some of these are identified in the
Many topographic maps were originally surveyed map and illustrations below. VALLEY

PLATEAU

1000

800
600

400
0
An extensive area of flat land 1000 8000 Low land between hills or
that is higher than the land 6 00 mountains. It usually has a
4 00 river flowing through it.
around it. Close contours 2
surround a wide area that has Contours form a U- or
no or few contours. V-shape that points towards
high land.
1100
0
ROUND HILL 20
DELTA 400 SPUR
60 0

850

4 00
0 00
600 80 10

1160
N
A high round piece of land, not OCEAN An area of land that sticks out like a
as large as a mountain. Contours finger from the side of a mountain or
form a circle or oval shape. hill. Contours form a U- or V-shape
0 200 400 metres that points away from high land.

CLIFF
RIDGE SADDLE

A high, steep, rocky slope Long narrow hilltop. Closely spaced


formed by erosion or earth contours form a long sausage shape. Two areas of high land with a dip between
movements. Contours are on them. It is shown by two circular or
top of or nearly on top of sausage-shaped contours with a gap
each other. between them.

26
GEO active 2
Observe the Grampians map extract. Give the six-figure
grid reference for:
(a) a cliff (b) a valley (c) a spur (d) a saddle (e) a ridge.

Topographic map extract of the Grampians, Victoria  Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia. All rights reserved.

27
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.4
UNDERSTANDING LANDFORMS:
KATHERINE GORGE
Katherine Gorge is located in Nitmiluk National Vertical aerial photograph of Katherine Gorge
Park in the Northern Territory. Vertical faults in
the ancient sandstone plateau have been deeply
eroded by the Katherine River, forming spec-
tacular landforms including Katherine Gorge.
Volcanic activity also occurred in this region in
the past. It has resulted in younger areas of
harder volcanic rock intruding into the older
sandstone. Many rapids and waterfalls have
formed along the river because the river has
eroded areas of harder rock more slowly than the
softer sandstones.

TOOLBOX
Using vertical aerial photographs and
topographic maps
Vertical aerial photographs and topographic maps are
very useful tools for the geographer. They give a clear
visual impression of physical and human features of
the landscape. (Find out more about topographic
maps on pages 24–5.)
Observe the vertical aerial photograph and the
topographic map and answer the following questions.
1. Draw a sketch map of the area shown on the
aerial photograph using a colour key to show
higher land, lower land, rivers, gorges and the
escarpment.
2. Which features stand out on the aerial
photographs due to shadows?
3. At what time do you think the aerial photograph ARAFURA SEA
an Diemen
was taken?
Du
nd
as

4. Find Katherine Gorge on the topographic map.


Str
ait

(a) What symbol is used to show the gorge on the map? Va n D i e m e n


Strait Gulf
(b) Why has this symbol been used instead of contour lines? laren
ce
C Chambers Bay
5. Give a six-figure grid reference for every waterfall on the map.
Sth A

Port Darwin
6. What type of vegetation dominates the region?
llig
er

7. In what direction would you be walking if you travelled from


ator
Riv

Mount Shepherd (GR244074) to the following places?


de
i
ela

Riv

(a) The rock column (GR297054)


Ad

Anson Bay
er

(b) The river gauging station (GR194196)


er
Riv

y
(c) The rapids (GR276160) Dal
(Katherine Gorge)
8. Use the scale to calculate the straight-line distances for each National Park
of the trips mentioned in question 7.
9. Name two human and two physical features of the Ro
pe River
r
environment at AR2115.
Worksheets
2.2 Pick a landform Location of Katherine Gorge

28
GEO active 2
Topographic map of Katherine Gorge  Commonwealth of Australia, Geoscience Australia. All rights reserved.

29
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.5
AUSTRALIA’S PATTERN
OF CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
CLIMATE AND RAINFALL 1800 Rainfall

The size and location of Australia ensures that


it has a wide range of climates. These can be 1500
seen on the map of climatic zones. Australia is

Average annual rainfall (mm)


widely known as the ‘dry continent’. Around
80 per cent of Australia has a rainfall of less 1200
than 600 mm per year and 50 per cent has less
than 300 mm. Not only is the rainfall low but it
is highly variable and droughts are a common 900
occurrence.

600

300

0
Australia Eurasia North Africa South
America America
Of all the inhabited continents, Australia has the lowest
average yearly rainfall.

pical wet and dr


summers; dr

m all year; dr

m all year; dr

Australian climatic zones

The movement of high pressure systems across the continent


PRESSURE SYSTEMS is the main reason why Australia is so dry.

The main reason Australia is so dry is that much As the rainfall maps opposite show, the wettest
of the continent lies in an area dominated by parts of Australia are the northern and eastern
high pressure for most of the year. High pressure coastal areas and the west coast of Tasmania.
systems drift from west to east across the conti- The northern part of Australia generally has a
nent bringing dry, stable, sinking air. This summer rainfall maximum. In summer, a trough
results in atmospheric conditions that are not of low pressure extends south from the Equator
favourable for rainfall (see the weather map on and brings moist, unstable air in north-westerly
this page). winds over the area (see the weather map).

30
GEO active 2
This can lead to widespread rain, particularly The east coast receives rainfall throughout the
near the coast. This is often referred to as the year. Much of this rain is brought by moist east-
north-west monsoon. erly winds. The heavier falls of rain are generally
confined to the coast and highlands as the
western side of the highlands lies in a rain-
shadow area from the moist easterlies.

Darwin

Tro
JANUARY
January

ugh

H Capricorn
Tropic of
H

Brisbane

A summer low pressure trough brings rain to northern


Australia. Perth
Adelaide Sydney
Canberra
Also during the summer and autumn, tropical
cyclones can develop off the coast of northern N
Melbourne
0 600 1200 km
Australia and bring heavy rain, especially to
coastal areas. During winter much of the area is Average monthly rainfall (mm)
dominated by high pressure systems that have Over 400 Hobart
moved further north. Dry and stable air from the 200 to 400
interior of Australia dominates the area and 100 to 200
there is little rainfall. 50 to 100

The southern part of Australia generally has a 25 to 50

winter rainfall maximum. During winter, cold 10 to 25

fronts in association with low pressure systems 0 to 10


No rain
move further north over this area and bring cool Darwin
moist air and rain as the cold fronts pass
through. The heaviest rain falls on the coastal JULYJuly
margins, including the west coast of Tasmania.

n
Capricor
Tropic of
H

Brisbane

H
Perth
Sydney
Adelaide
Canberra

Melbourne
N
0 600 1200 km

L
Hobart

The passage of a cold front over southern Australia in winter


brings cool, moist air. Average rainfall in Australia for January and July

31
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
Solar radiation

TEMPERATURE 60°N

The maps show the seasonal distribution of


temperature in Australia for January and July.
Variations in temperature occur for several
reasons. One reason is that, at higher latitudes on 0°Equator Solar radiation
the Earth’s curved surface, solar radiation (heat
from the sun) is spread more widely than at places
at lower latitudes (see the diagram). The sun’s rays
that reach the Earth near the Equator (that is, at
low latitudes) have a smaller area to heat than rays
reaching the Earth at higher latitudes. This
explains why Darwin experiences higher tempera-
tures than Melbourne (refer to the climatic graphs). Temperatures are higher at low latitudes (closer to the
Places inland tend to be warmer in summer Equator) because incoming solar radiation has a smaller area
and cooler in winter than places on the coast. of the Earth to heat.
This is because of the moderating effect of the
oceans on temperature. The oceans heat and cool
more slowly than the land and their tempera-
AUSTRALIA’S PATTERN OF
tures vary less throughout the year. In winter, VEGETATION
places near the ocean are warmer than places The size and latitudinal extent of Australia has
inland, whereas in summer they are cooler. resulted in a wide variety of vegetation. The dry
climate has resulted in about 40 per cent of Aus-
Januar y
JANUARY tralia being covered by grassland and shrubs. In
higher rainfall areas, trees dominate. In the
medium to high rainfall areas, much of the
natural vegetation has been cleared for agricul-
tural and urban development.
pr icorn
Tropic of Ca

N
Average temperature (˚C)
Over 30
pricorn
Tropic of Ca
20 to 30
0 500 1000 km
10 to 20

JULY
July

N
0 550 1100 km

pricorn
Tropic of Ca

Vegetation type
Rainforest Mountain moor

Wet eucalypt forest Swamp meadow


Dry eucalypt forest Grassland savannah
Mallee scrub Dry grassland — short wiry grass
Mulga scrub Dry grassland — long tussock grass
Average temperature (˚C) N
Mallee and Mulga scrub Heath
20 to 30
Brigalow scrub Saltbush
10 to 20
0 to 10 0 500 1000 km Woodland Desert

Average temperatures in Australia for January and July Australian vegetation

32
GEO active 2
TOOLBOX
Interpreting climatic graphs
1. Observe the weather map showing the movement of A climatic graph is a combination of a bar graph
high pressure systems. and a line graph. Climatic graphs show the climate
(a) Describe the movement of high pressure systems of a place over a 12-month period.
°C DARWIN
across Australia. The line graph section always Average monthly temperature
shows average monthly 40 and rainfall
(b) How do these high pressure systems contribute to
Australia’s dryness? temperature, and the bar graph max.

2. Observe the maps showing Australia’s average represents average monthly rainfall. 30 min.
rainfall for January and July. Be careful to read from the correct
20
(a) Moving in a line from Adelaide to Darwin, scale when studying climatic
describe the changes in rainfall that occur in graphs. The right-hand scale 10
January. represents average rainfall in
(b) Moving in a line from Brisbane to Perth, describe millimetres. The left-hand scale 0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
the changes in rainfall that occur in January. represents temperature in degrees °C
ALICE SPRINGS
(c) Moving in a line from Hobart to Darwin, describe Celsius. Average monthly temperature
40 and rainfall 400
the changes in rainfall that occur in July. Observe the map of climatic max.

(d) Using information in the text, and with reference zones on page 30 and the climatic
30 300
to the weather maps showing a summer low graphs here.
pressure trough and the passage of a winter cold 1. Observe the climatic graph for 20 min. 200
front, explain the main reasons for the distribution Alice Springs.
of rainfall over Australia in January and July. (a) What type of climate is this? 10 100

3. Observe the maps showing average temperatures in (b) Describe the climate in
Australia in January and July. With the aid of an terms of temperature and 0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
atlas: rainfall. °C BRISBANE mm

(a) rank the following towns and cities from the 2. Observe the climatic graphs for 40
Average monthly temperature
and rainfall

warmest to the coolest for temperatures in Perth, Darwin, Melbourne and


January: Perth, Mount Isa, Mount Gambier, Brisbane. 30 max.

Hobart (a) What type of climate does


(b) rank the following from coldest to warmest for each of these cities have? 20 min.

temperatures in July: Alice Springs, Hobart, (b) Describe the climate for
Darwin, Melbourne, Mackay each of these cities including 10
(c) explain why Alice Springs has higher average the following: temperature;
seasonal distribution of 0 0
daily temperatures in January than Mackay, even J F M A M J J A S O N D
temperature; rainfall; °C mm
though Mackay has a slightly lower latitude. MELBOURNE

4. Imagine that you are a travel consultant advising seasonal distribution of 40


Average monthly temperature
and rainfall

agencies around the world on travel in Australia. rainfall.


You have received an email from a New York 3. Explain why Perth and Darwin 30

agency with a request for your advice on the have a different seasonal max.

climatic conditions a group would experience if they distribution of rainfall. 20

were visiting Perth, Alice Springs, Melbourne and 4. Observe the climatic graphs of min.
10
Brisbane in August. Write a reply to the email Darwin and Melbourne. If you
(500 words maximum). were to visit each of these cities
0 0
5. Observe the map of Australian vegetation. Moving tomorrow, what sort of weather J F M A M J J A S O N D
°C
in a line from Adelaide to Darwin, describe the would you expect to experience PERTH
Average monthly temperature

changes in vegetation type. Account for these in each city? Check newspapers 40 and rainfall 400

changes. or go to www.jaconline.com.au/
geoactive/geoactive2 and click 30 300
6. Explain how climate affects the patterns of max.

Australian vegetation. To find out more about the on the Bureau of Meteorology
200
relationship between climate and vegetation, go to weblink for this chapter. What is 20 min.

www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and the forecast for Darwin and


10 100
click on the Climatic Zones weblink for this chapter. Melbourne? Are these normal
weather conditions for this time 0 0
Worksheets of year? J F M A M J J A S O N D

2.3 Choropleth mapping skills

33
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.6
UNDERSTANDING
WEATHER MAPS
Weather maps, or synoptic charts, can appear
rather complicated. But when you know what the
AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
lines and symbols mean you will find these maps Sometimes people confuse pressure systems with
easy to use. air masses. An air mass is a large section of the
atmosphere containing air with a similar tem-
perature and moisture content. A line drawn on a
PRESSURE SYSTEMS weather map to show where two different air
masses meet is called a front. There are two main
One of the most important features of the atmos- types of fronts: cold fronts and warm fronts.
phere and one that is very frequently measured is
air pressure, or the weight of the air. All air has
weight. While we can’t feel it because we are con- WINDS AND TEMPERATURE
stantly surrounded by it, sensitive instruments
called barometers can measure the air pressure. When we look at the direction of winds on a
Atmospheric air pressure measurements are weather map we can work out if temperatures are
given in hectopascals (hPa). Several times a day, warmer, cooler or about normal for the time of
air pressure is read at various weather stations year. In Australia, a northerly wind (coming from
around the world. Many observers around Aus- the north) means warmer than normal tempera-
tures and a southerly wind, cooler than normal
tralia measure air pressure and other aspects of
temperatures. Easterlies and westerlies mean
the weather and send them to the national and
temperatures that are around normal.
regional centres of the Bureau of Meteorology.
These observations are combined with others
made from satellites, aircraft, ships at sea and in SAMPLE STUDY
other countries to prepare weather maps. Snowfalls to the south and central
The main lines that we see on weather maps
ranges of south-eastern Australia
are called isobars. Isobars are lines joining places
of equal pressure. The weather map below for 30 July 2003 shows a
cold front moving into the Tasman Sea that has
Highs and lows brought a ‘cold snap’ to south-eastern Australia.
Cold and moist air from the ocean to the south of
The average weight of air at sea level is 1013 hPa. Australia moved across Tasmania, Victoria and
If air pressure measures more than 1013 hPa, it is New South Wales bringing extensive snowfalls to
usually an area of sinking air and is generally an the higher parts of the tablelands and ranges.
area of high pressure. High pressure systems are Over 40 centimetres of snow fell in the Snowy
often called anticyclones. You can see from the Mountains and there
table opposite what a high pressure system looks were falls of up to
like and the anticlockwise direction the air travels 20 centimetres over 1016
in a high pressure system. The moving air, known the Central
Tablelands. While 1020
as wind, always moves out of a high and into a low
pressure system. such snowfalls are 1024

If air pressure measures below 1013 hPa, it is welcome news for


skiers during the 1028
usually an area of rising air, and is generally an
winter months,
area of low pressure. Low pressure systems are they often create HIGH 1012
often called cyclones. You can see in our table what difficult conditions 1008
1004
a low pressure system looks like and the clockwise for graziers who LOW
LOW
direction the air travels in a low pressure system. must take early LOW
Pressure systems generally move from west to precautions to protect
east as they move across Australia and around the their sheep from the
world. As they move they change in shape and very cold weather. Weather map, 30 July 2003
often change their latitudinal position.

34
GEO active 2
TOOLBOX
Interpreting synoptic charts
Symbol Name Description Associated weather
102
10
0 Isobars Lines joining places of equal The closer the isobars are, the stronger
101 18
6 pressure the winds.
10 6

High Area of sinking air Generally fine weather. Winds rotate


10 18
14
10
1

H pressure around these systems in an anticlockwise


system direction.

12
10 10 Low Area of rising air Generally cloudy weather and a good
10 08
10 L pressure chance of rain. Winds rotate around these
system systems in a clockwise direction.

T.C. Pamela Tropical Area of rapidly rising air Torrential rain, very strong and
100 0
10098
9

cyclone destructive winds in a clockwise


2

direction. Given a name (e.g. Tropical


Cyclone Pamela)
Cold Separates warm and cold air, with Fall in temperature, may bring rain and
front the cold air behind the front storms. Front moves in the direction of
the arrowheads.

Warm Separates warm and cold air, with Increase in temperature; may bring light
front the warm air behind the front showers. Uncommon in Australia.

1. What is another name for a weather map? (d) Describe the temperatures at Brisbane,
2. List three differences between a low and a high Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth, using
pressure system. the terms ‘warmer’, ‘cooler’, ‘about normal for
3. What does a weather map indicate when: the time of the year’.
(a) isobars are close together? (e) Name any of these cities in which you think it
(b) isobars are well apart? could be raining and give reasons for your
4. What do we call the lines that are drawn on answer.
weather maps to separate different air masses? (f) Which capital city is about to experience a
5. Observe the weather map below. cool change?
1012 6. Observe the sample study.
(a) What is the central pressure of the high
1016 pressure system over South Australia?
1020
(b) What separates this high and the low further
west to the south of Western Australia?
1024
(c) Using your own words, describe the weather
1028
being experienced over south-eastern
1032
1016
Australia. Make sure you mention wind
B strength and direction, cloud cover,
A 1012 precipitation including snowfall and the
temperature for this time of the year.
1032 1016
1028 1024 1020 (d) Why did the weather situation bring
E widespread snowfalls?
D 7. Go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/
C geoactive2 and click on the Weather Satellite
(a) Estimate the wind direction in Adelaide. Is it weblink for this chapter. Select one satellite image
windy or calm? and describe the pattern of cloud over Australia.
(b) Identify the pressure systems at A, B and C. Worksheets
(c) Identify the types of fronts at D and E. 2.4 Watch the weather

35
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
2.7
AUSTRALIA’S PATTERNS OF
NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural resources are the wealth supplied by supplies of natural gas have been discovered,
nature that is available for human use. Natural particularly in the North West Shelf area off the
resources include water, soil, forests, fish, energy coast of Western Australia. Australia’s uranium
and mineral deposits, and wildlife and natural resources are among the largest in the world.
scenery. Australia has a greater value of natural Research and development of renewable
resources per head of population than any other resources is an important step towards a sus-
country in the world. The main reason is that we tainable future. In Australia, there is consider-
have a small population in a very large country. able potential for the use of renewable energy
The United States and China, for example, are far sources, such as solar and wind energy.
better endowed with natural resources than Aus-
tralia, but they have much larger populations.
MINERALS
ENERGY Australia is also rich in mineral resources. The
Pilbara region in Western Australia has some of
Australia is rich in energy resources. On the the largest reserves of iron ore in the world.
world energy scene, Australia is: Large reserves of bauxite and aluminium exist at
• the world’s main exporter of black coal Weipa in Queensland and the Gove Peninsula in
• a major uranium exporter the Northern Territory. Australia also produces
• a major exporter of liquefied natural gas. many other minerals, including silver, copper,
nickel and tin. The main goldfields are located in
Western Australia.
Australia is:
• the world’s largest exporter of iron ore, bauxite,
lead, diamonds, zinc ores and mineral sands
• the world’s second-largest exporter of alumina
• the world’s third-largest exporter of gold.

At White Cliffs in far-western New South Wales, solar


reflectors have the potential to make a significant
contribution to the town’s power needs. The installation is
already the source of power for the small town’s street lights,
post office, hospital, school and community centre.

Australia has abundant quantities of both


black and brown coal with about 8 per cent of the
world total of black coal and about 15 per cent of
the world’s brown coal. The main black coalfields
are in the Hunter Valley/Sydney Basin area of
New South Wales and the Bowen Basin in
Mount Tom Price is a huge iron ore mine in the Pilbara
Queensland. The main brown coalfields are region in Western Australia. To learn more, go to
located in Victoria’s La Trobe Valley. Although www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and click on
Australia has limited supplies of crude oil, vast the Mining weblink for this chapter.

36
GEO active 2
SOILS FORESTS
Australia has generally poor soils, especially when Apart from Antarctica — which has no trees —
compared with those found on other continents, Australia is the world’s least forested continent.
such as North America and Europe. Most Aus- The prevailing vegetation in Australia is wood-
tralian soils are low in nutrients, and in some parts land and shrubland. Before European settlement
of the continent, particularly the more arid areas, only about nine per cent of Australia was for-
high salt content is also a problem. Most parts of ested. Today, about five per cent of the country is
Australia are suitable for only sheep and cattle forested. Even though Australia exports timber
grazing rather than intensive agriculture, due to and timber products, large amounts of timber,
the combination of low rainfall and poor soils. particularly softwoods, have to be imported.
There are patches of good soil scattered
throughout the continent. These include soils
formed on rock of volcanic origin, such as those on
the Darling Downs in Queensland and around
Orange in New South Wales. Alluvial soils are 1. Why is Australia considered to be rich in natural
also found in river valleys, such as those along the resources?
Clarence River in New South Wales and around 2. In which natural resources is Australia rich?
the Margaret River in Western Australia. 3. In which natural resources is Australia comparatively
poor?
4. Use a blank outline map of Australia as a starting
NATURAL SCENERY point to create a poster or PowerPoint presentation
Australia, with its unique flora and fauna, has about Australia’s World Heritage sites. Search for
many places of great natural beauty. The spec- information in your library, in magazines or go to
tacular scenery attracts tourists from all over the www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
world. Several places in Australia are included click on the World Heritage weblink for this chapter.
on the World Heritage List. This means that 5. Research one important natural resource.
they are recognised as being of global importance (a) Where is it located?
because they are places of great natural or cul- (b) What is the size or amount of the resource?
tural significance. For example, Kakadu National (c) How is it used?
Park is recognised as a World Heritage area (d) Describe the current state or condition of the
because of its natural significance (including resource.
exceptional natural beauty and biological Australia’s World
diversity) and cultural significance (including Kakadu Heritage sites
National
Aboriginal rock art and ceremonial Park
(1981)
sites). Other places of unique natural
Great Barrier Reef
scenery are the Great Barrier Reef (1981)

and the Blue Mountains. Purnululu Wet Tropics of


National Park Queensland
(2003) (1988)
Australian Fossil Mammal Sites
(Riversleigh) (1994)

Uluru – Kata Tjuta


National Park
(1987) Fraser Island
(1992)
Shark Bay
(1991)

Central Eastern
Rainforest Reserves
(1986) Lord Howe
Island Group
Greater Blue (1982)
Willandra Lakes Mountains Area
AU ST RALIA (2000)
Region (1981)

Australian Fossil Mammal Sites


(Naracoorte) (1994)
Royal Exhibition Building
and Carlton Gardens (2004)
Heard Island and N (1982) Year of listing
McDonald Islands (1997)
Macquarie Island (1997)
0 250 500 km

Tasmanian Wilderness
37 (1982)

CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE


2.8
AUSTRALIA’S UNIQUE
FLORA AND FAUNA
The long geographic isolation of Australia from The distribution of vegetation in Australia is
other continents has resulted in an exceptional strongly influenced by climate. Only about five per
variety of plant and animal life. From arid cen- cent of Australia is forested. Most of this forest veg-
tral Australia to the tropical forests of north etation occurs along the wetter eastern coast and
Queensland, no other country has such a variety. highlands area. The forests are dominated by euca-
More than 80 per cent of Australia’s flora and lypt trees, which are tough and durable and able to
fauna is found nowhere else in the world. The withstand the frequent fires that occur. As rainfall
estimated number of native and introduced decreases inland, trees decrease in number and
species living in Australia — about one million become smaller and further apart. Eucalypts are
— is more than twice the number of species in still the main types of tree found there. Further
North America and Europe combined. inland, as the climate becomes increasingly dry,
grasslands and shrubs begin to dominate.

UNIQUE FLORA
Due to the generally low amounts of rainfall and
UNIQUE FAUNA
its unreliability, most of the flora in Australia is Most of the world’s marsupials are found in
characterised by drought-resistant qualities. The Australia. They include the bandicoot, koala,
Australian land flora comprise over 12 000 species kangaroo, wallaby, wombat and the Tasmanian
and many of these are endemic to Australia — devil. Marsupials have pouches in which they
that is, they occur naturally in Australia and suckle and carry their young. Marsupial babies
nowhere else in the world. For example, most of are born in a tiny immature state and complete
Australia’s 500 different species of Eucalyptus much of their development in the pouch.
(gum trees) are endemic. Some plant species are Despite the number of unique marsupials in
not only unique to Australia but also unique to Australia, most of our native animals are not mar-
small areas of Australia. For example, about 75 supials. Most are placentals, which means that the
per cent of the flowering trees and shrubs in the young remain in the womb for much longer than
south-west corner of Australia have been found to marsupials and there is no pouch. Australian pla-
be unique to this area. cental animals include bats and rodents and such
marine mammals as seals, dugongs and dolphins.
Most mammals reproduce by giving birth to live
young. Monotremes are unique in being the only
mammals that lay eggs. There are only three
species of monotreme in the world: the platypus
and two species of echidna. One echidna species
occurs in New Guinea but the platypus and the
other species of echidna are uniquely Australian.
Loss of species in Australia has been largely
caused by habitat destruction and degradation
and this problem is still occurring. Because most
Australian species are found nowhere else, we
have a special responsibility to conserve them.

There are the same number of species of


Grass trees (Xanthorrhea sp.) are among the many plant reptiles in an average Australian back-
species that are endemic — they occur naturally only in yard as there are in the whole of England.
Australia.

38
GEO active 2
7. Create a colourful poster, web page or report that
explains the adaptations of flora and fauna to the
Australian environment.
(a) Select two species — one animal or plant from
1. Define the following terms: endemic, marsupial, inland areas and one animal or plant from coastal
monotreme. areas.
2. What is a major reason for Australia’s variety of (b) Use your library or the Internet to research the
unusual plant and animal life? animals or plants.
3. What is the main characteristic of flora in Australia? (c) Include a sketch and label it to draw attention to
4. Account for the distribution of vegetation in the appearance and main characteristics of the
Australia. animals or plants.
5. Select two animals and explain how they have (d) Include a location map and interesting statistics.
adapted to survive in the desert. (e) Write a paragraph describing the habitat and
6. Use your knowledge of the evolution of the some of the characteristics that indicate how
Australian continent to explain why echidnas are these animals or plants have adapted to their
found in New Guinea as well as in Australia. environments. Include any possible factors that
might affect their survival as a species.
Budgerigars feed on seeds To find out more about Australia’s plants and
produced by native plants. They
are nomads, and in large flocks animals, go to www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/
of a few thousand or more they geoactive2 and click on the Flora and Fauna
follow the flowering cycles.
weblinks for this chapter.

The camel has a double Mulga have specially shaped


row of eyelashes on each leaves and branches that
eye to keep out glare and funnel rainfall to the
grit. It stores energy as fat base of the tree.
in its hump and can
swallow around 100 litres
of water at a time.
Termites live
in tall
mounds of
clay. They are
protected
inside the
mound from
the hot, dry
desert winds.
Spinifex leaves roll into
tight cylinders during the
hot desert day to reduce
the surface area exposed
to the sun. Spinifex roots
spread deep and wide to
pick up both ground and
surface water.

Death adders are


commonly found at
night, soaking up the
heat from roads. Rock wallabies rest in
shady caves and
crevices during the
Bilbies always stay close to one hottest part of the
of several burrows they dig. day. When no grasses
These protect them from are available, they
desert heat and predators. can eat leaves, bark
and roots.

Honey ants store food and water


The spinifex hopping in their abdomen, which swells
mouse does not sweat, up like a plastic bubble. When The marsupial mole
its droppings are dry and food is scarce, they vomit up the is blind because it has no
its urine is very concentrated. nectar to feed the colony. need for eyesight when
A female feeds her young on living underground. It
concentrated milk and drinks their urine. moves underground by
‘swimming’ through the
sand.

South Australia’s desert spadefoot toad


Life is rather tough in a desert environment. Desert plants and animals face hibernates in burrows for most of the year,
extremes of temperature, food shortages and a lack of readily available water. coming out to breed and lay eggs only when
To survive, they have had to adapt to these harsh conditions. 39 it rains.

CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE


2.9
FLORA AND FAUNA OF
THE DAINTREE RAINFOREST
The Daintree rainforest is located about two-hours Clearing the rainforest has resulted in:
drive north of Cairns in Queensland. The northern • changes to food webs and ecosystems
section near Cape Tribulation borders the Great • the lower storey receiving more sunlight,
Barrier Reef. The Daintree River flows through the allowing eucalypts to enter the rainforest
southern section. The Daintree is part of the Wet • less leaf litter and therefore fewer nutrients
Tropics World Heritage site, listed in 1988 because • fertilisers from farms running off into the sea,
it satisfied the following four criteria: killing coral
• it shows major changes in the Earth’s evolution • the invasion of exotic plants and feral animals
• it shows ongoing evolution • more fires.
• it has outstanding aesthetic value
• it is the home of endangered species, for
example, the cassowary.
ANIMALS IN THE RAINFOREST
Much of the Daintree is inaccessible wilderness Some rare animals live in the forest, including
in the higher areas, but very accessible in the hills two species of tree kangaroos and the Daintree
and river flats of the lower eastern parts. It has one ring-tailed possum. The rainforest houses the
of the wettest and warmest climates in Australia. world’s largest moth and the smallest bat. The
Over 400 species of trees have been identified in cassowary is endangered, with only about 50 birds
the Daintree and a substantial number are found remaining in the Daintree. There are 1.5 million
only within its borders. There are many other identified species of animals in the Daintree. It is
ferns, orchids, palms, mosses and lichens. estimated there are six million unidentified
species of animals.
Humans have introduced animals into the
Dain

environment, such as cats and pigs, which kill


tree

16°S
Cape Tribulation AUSTRALIA native animals or destroy the native habitat. The
Rive
r

Cow Bay fruit bat has been affected by the introduced paral-
Daintree ysis tick. Introduced animals also spread diseases.
National
Daintree
Park National
Mossman Park CROCODILES AND
Port Douglas World
Heritage MANGROVES
area In the lowland rainforest areas of the Daintree,
sometimes referred to as jungle, along the rivers
The Daintree and creeks there is a large variety of animals
N National Park and plants. Two of the best known are crocodiles
is located and mangroves.
within the Wet
0 25 50 km Cairns Tropics World
Heritage area.
Crocodiles
146°E Only one type of crocodile inhabits coastal north-
eastern Queensland: the dangerous estuarine
THE DISAPPEARING crocodile. It is the world’s largest crocodile. These
crocodiles inhabit the tidal rivers and creeks but
RAINFOREST can occur kilometres upstream in fresh water.
Over the last 200 years, human activity has They take a variety of prey such as crabs, fish,
reduced the Daintree rainforest to one-fifth of its birds, wallabies and domestic dogs, and humans
original area. This has resulted in plant and on rare occasions. Larger crocodiles are scaven-
animal species becoming endangered and extinct. gers and can walk several hundred metres from
The rainforest has been cleared for logging, water and drag back a dead animal. They are
mining, farming, roads and tourism. cannibals and eat many smaller crocodiles.

40
GEO active 2
There have been 11 fatal crocodile attacks
in Australia in the past 20 years. Croco-
diles are unpredictable creatures. The key
to understanding crocodiles is that they
are water’s-edge predators and are very
opportunistic. When there are oppor-
tunities for prey, they take them.

SAMPLE STUDY
‘Old Gummy’
Old Gummy is an estuarine crocodile that is
probably over sixty years old. He is nearly six
metres long and weighs close to two tonnes. Old
Gummy is the dominant crocodile in a stretch
of the lower Daintree River. He has a harem of
about ten female crocodiles with whom he
mates. Old Gummy prevents other males from
mating with his females by attacking and
usually killing them. Like most old crocodiles
he bears the scars of many battles. He has lost
all of his teeth from encounters when he has
crushed his victims. Once he targets a victim,
he swims unseen below the water surface to
attack. He explodes upwards from the water
and grabs the animal in his massive jaws. He
then drags his prey below the water, thrashing
Estuarine crocodile in the Daintree
and rolling over and over in a ‘death roll’ to
Mangroves drown the victim. His own offspring are not
safe from attack, and the males are killed
Mangrove forests are dense communities of plants,
before they are large enough to be a threat.
consisting of different species of trees, creepers,
vines, lichen, algae and sea grasses. They live in
the saline waterlogged soils where conditions fluc-
tuate between high and low tide. They form an
almost impenetrable maze of root systems along
the shores of the waterways. Mangrove ecosystems
have important functions in the rainforest: 1. Why was the Wet Tropics placed on the World
• They are vital spawning grounds for fish, crabs Heritage List?
and prawns. 2. Describe the climate of the Daintree.
• They support a large variety of specialist life 3. List the adverse results of clearing the rainforest.
forms such as birds, mammals and insects. 4. Why do estuarine crocodiles thrive in the lowland
• Flying foxes or fruit bats commonly feed on forest of the Daintree?
blossoms and establish camps. 5. Explain why mangroves are so important in the
• They protect the coastline from strong winds lowland areas.
and erosion. 6. Read the story of ‘Old Gummy’. Imagine the
• They trap sediments that would otherwise be government decided estuarine crocodiles were
washed into the sea, thus protecting many dangerous and should be eliminated. Outline an
fragile marine habitats. argument to save ‘Old Gummy’.
• The mangroves of the Daintree are an essen- 7. Create a web page with weblinks about endangered
tial part of the habitat of estuarine crocodiles Daintree wildlife. To get started, go to
that feed on the rich sources of food within the www.jaconline.com.au/geoactive/geoactive2 and
waterways. click on the Daintree weblink for this chapter.

41
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
TOOLBOX
Using area and grid references 3. What are the main landforms in:
Grid lines running up and down topographic maps (a) AR3365? (b) AR3963? (c) AR2752?
(north–south) are called eastings because the 4. Using the terms ‘flat’, ‘gentle’ or ‘steep’, describe
numbers increase the further east they are. Lines the gradients in:
running across the map (east–west) are called (a) AR3858 (b) AR3770 (c) AR2159.
northings because the numbers increase the further 5. Locate Lyons Lookout (GR284704).
north they are. When stating location, the eastings (a) What type of landform is it?
are given first, then the northings. (b) What is the altitude of this landform?
An area reference is a four-figure number that tells (c) Describe what you would observe if you stood
us the grid square in which to find a feature. A grid on this landform and looked:
reference is a six-figure number that shows an exact (i) north (ii) south-west.
point in the grid square. The third and sixth figures 6. Identify the main built features at:
represent one-tenth of the distance between the two (a) GR225643 (b) GR241631 (c) GR216551.
grid numbers. However, these divisions are not 7. What is the distance from:
written on the map, so they must be estimated. (a) GR210604 to 231628?
Observe the section of the Rumula map. (b) GR222540 to 214570?
1. Identify the main form of vegetation in: (c) GR379691 to 356718?
(a) AR3566 (b) AR3255 (c) AR3870. (d) What built features would you observe on the
2. What is the main form of land use in: western side of the road as you travelled
(a) AR3869? (b) AR2569? between the points in:
Can you suggest reasons for this form of land use? (i) (a)? (ii) (b)? (iii) (c)?

The Daintree includes more than one type of rainforest. Here mangrove forest
can be seen at the water’s edge, with inland lowland rainforest rising behind it.

42
GEO active 2
Topographic map of the Rumula area of the Daintree

43
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE
Broadsheet: Shark Bay
Use the map opposite to answer the following Use the photographs and map to answer the following
questions. questions.
1. What is the distance from Denham to Monkey 5. What have tourists to the south-eastern tip of Shark
Mia? Bay come to see?
a. 20 kilometres c. 32 kilometres a. Dugongs c. Dolphins
b. 26 kilometres d. 37 kilometres b. Stromatolites d. Burrowing bettong
2. What is the distance from Denham to Hamelin by 6. What have tourists to the eastern shore of the Peron
road? Peninsula come to see?
a. 105 kilometres c. 131 kilometres a. Dugongs c. Dolphins
b. 111 kilometres d. 141 kilometres b. Stromatolites d. Burrowing bettong
3. Wooramel Seagrass Bank is the world’s largest 7. What important habitat is on Bernier and Dorre
seagrass meadow, stretching 129 kilometres from islands?
Gladstone Bay almost to a. Cliffs c. Sandhills
a. Long Point. c. Carnarvon. b. Mountains d. Trees
b. Bush Bay. d. Dubaut Point. 8. Outline why Bernier and Dorre islands are home to
4. In what direction would a boat travel from a number of endangered species.
Carnarvon to Dorre Island? 9. Suggest three reasons why Shark Bay was given
a. West c. North-west World Heritage status in 1991 as a unique
b. East d. South-west environment worth preserving.

Stromatolites growing in Hamelin Pool are among the The largest population of dugong in the world is found
oldest forms of life on Earth. in Shark Bay where they graze on the seagrass.

Once common over southern The burrowing bettong was once Once abundant in the shrubs and
Western Australia, the banded found over most of mainland sand ridges of arid Australia, the
hare-wallaby is now restricted to Australia. The introduction of foxes, western barred bandicoot is now
scrub on Bernier and Dorre rabbits and the use of poison grain found only in the sandhills on
islands in Shark Bay. Its decline have all contributed to its decline. Bernier and Dorre islands. It is
was mainly due to the spread of It is now found only on Bernier and thought the introduction of feral
farming. The last mainland Dorre islands in Shark Bay and on goats and pigs, rabbits, foxes and
sighting was in 1906. Barrow and Boodie islands. cats was responsible for its decline.

44
GEO active 2
to Port Hedland 114˚E
113˚E
Cape Ronsard River

oyne oyne
Gasc a sc
Carnarvon-G Road
Bernier J un cti on
Island
Carnarvon
McNeill
Claypan

25˚S Cape Couture 25˚S


Cape Boullanger

Dorre Quoin Bluff North Callagiddy


Island

No
Castle Point
At Monkey Mia, where

r thw
hand-feeding of

est
Bush Bay
dolphins is a popular

Co
ast
attraction, tourist

al
Cape St Cricq numbers increased
1 from 10 000 in 1984
to over 200 000 in
Naturaliste Channel 1998.

Wo
o
ram
el
Cape Inscription
Turtle Bay Long Point
Cape Levillain Cape Peron North

SHARK Broadhurst Bight


BAY

Hi
gh
wa
Herald Bight
Lake Montbazin

y
Guichenault Point

Se
ag
Herald Bluff

ras
s
PERON
Cape Lesueur Hopeless Reach Wooramel
DIRK Big Lagoon
HARTOG Louisa Bay Red Cliff Bay
Quoin Head Denham Disappointment Wooramel
PENINSULA Roadhouse
ISLAND Monkey Mia Reach
Middle Bluff
Sound Peron Faure Island

Ba
nk
Herald Bay 26
Dubaut
Quoin Bluff South Point Pelican Island
Little Lagoon Faure Herald Loop
Denham
Petit Point Faure Flat
Fre

Notch Point Yaringa


Gladstone Bay
y
cin

Herald Kopke Point


e

26˚S Dirk Hartog 19 26˚S


t

Heights Cape Bellefin


Cape Heirisson
Lharidon
HEIRISSON Proposed
Blind Strait

PRONG Airstrip Bight


Loop

Eagle Bluff
South Passage BELLEFIN Useless Loop 18
Steep Point PRONG
Re

Yaringa Point
Useless

ac

Salt
h

Evaporation Hamelin Pool Carbla


Ponds Goulet Bluff 14

9 Boat Haven Loop Nanga Bay


Caravan Park
Thunder Bay 19 1
Blowholes
17 Salt
Crayfish Bay Evaporation Henri Freycinet Booldah Well
Ponds
False Entrance Harbour
Flint Cliff Overlander
Zuytdorp Point CARRARANG Garden Point Roadhouse
PENINSULA 6 Hamelin
False Entrance +Mount Dorrigo 20
113 m Depuch Loop 27
Blowholes
Carrarang Giraud Point 15

Salutation
70 Island ad
Ro
Zu

We s t e r n
Disappointment
yt

Loop p
do

Australia oo 39
rp

s sL N
ele
Highway Us
Major road
Cl

6
iffs

PERTH Road, Distance in kilometres Tamala


Track
0 25 50 km
Airstrip

113˚E 114˚E to Perth

Shark Bay, on the west coast of Western Australia

45
CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS THAT MAKE AUSTRALIA UNIQUE

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