MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Aircraft Stability & Controls By T. G. Pai

LW

LT

Chapter 9

Longitudinal Dynamics
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Dynamics
State Space Equations
Characteristics Equations and Modes of Aircraft
Longitudinal :2 pairs of Complex Conjugate Roots -Phugoid
and Short Period
Lateral : 2 Real Roots and one pair of Complex Conjugate
Stability Derivatives Longitudinal and Lateral/Directional
One Degree of Freedom (DOF) Approximation to Pitching
Motion
Two DOF approximation for Phugoid Motion and Short
Period Oscillations
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal and Lateral/Directional EOM

g
cos

u
w
0

T
ee
T

(
1

Z
)

(
Z

u
)

g
sin

w
u
w
q
0
0

T
ee
T
Normal Force

u
w
w
q

T
ee
T
Pitching Moment
Axial Force

g
cos

0
v
p
r

r
0
r

Rolling Moment
p

(
I
I
)

xz
xx
v
p
r

r
a a
r

(
I
I
)

xz
zz
v
p
r

r
Yawing Moment
a a
r
Side Force

MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

State-Space Longitudinal EOM

Xu
X
0
gcos
0

u
Zq u0
Zu
Z
gsin
0 u

u0 Z

u0 Z
u0 Z
u0 Z

q
M
(Zq u0) u0M
M
Z
M
Z
g
sin

0
M

M
M

u0 Z
u0 Z
u0 Z
u0 Z

0
0
1
0

X
X

e
T

Z
Z

e
T
u Z
X=AX+Bu
u0 Z e

M
Z
M
Z
M e M T T
T
e u Z
u0 Z

0
0

MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Stability Derivatives

MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Solution of EOM in State Space Form

Ax
State Space Form of EOM: x
Bu

u
w

Longitudinal:

e
T

v
p
r

Lateral /Directional

a
r

Where x is response vector and u is control inputs.

A and

B depend on stability derivatives, inertia parameters and

control parameters.
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Solution of EOM in State Space Form

State Space Form of EOM: x
Ax
Bu T

u
w

Longitudinal:

e
T

Lateral /Directional

v
p
r

a
r

For characterizing aircraft dynamics (Longitudinal or LateralDirectional), control inputs u are taken to be zero. Also
assuming solution to be of the form: x = x0 et we get
I A x0 et = 0
For NON TRIVIAL solutions we get the determinant

I A

=0

We get a quartic (bi-quadratic) in as characteristics equation.

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Aircraft Dynamics

From Longitudinal State Space Equations we get
Longitudinal Quartic in having normally two pairs of
complex conjugate as its roots corresponding to Short
Period Oscillations (SPO) and Phugoid (long period
oscillations) modes:
A14+ B1 3+ C1 2+ D1 + E1 = 0
( 1)(-2)(-3)(-4) = 0
1,2 = 1 j1
3,4 =2 j2
SPO Roots: 1,2
Complex Pair of Conjugate
Phugoid Roots: 3,4 Complex pair of conjugate
Roots 1,2 , and 3,4 hence frequency/damping of SPO and
Phugoid motion depend on initial flight conditions, stability
derivatives and inertia parameters
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Characteristics Equation (Quartic)

4
a) Short
Period Oscillation (SPO):
1,2 = spo ispo
b) Phugoid (Long Period Oscillation): 3,4 = Ph iPh

SPO :

Period ~ 3 6 sec; Highly Damped. Aircraft inertia is very

high to respond; hence velocity changes are negligible
Phugoid:
Period ~ 50 - 100 sec or higher; Lightly Damped
Angle of attack remains nearly constant and pitching
moment does not change. Interchange of KE ( flight speed)
and PE (altitude).
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Modes of Aircraft

PHUGOID or
Long Period

Short Period Oscillation

(SPO)

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Approximations of Longitudinal Dynamics (u,, q)

Short Period Approximation:
Velocity remains constant :u = 0
(Aircraft Inertia High to respond)
Neglect Axial Force Equation
Solve Normal Force & Pitching Moment Equations for
(u, , q)
Long Period or PHUGOID Approximation:
nearly constant: = 0 (or w = 0)
Neglect Pitching Moment Equation
Solve Axial & Normal Force Eqns for (u, , q)

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Phugoid Approx to Long EOM for Level Flight

Cos0 = 1

g
cos

u
w
0

T
ee
T

(
1

Z
)

(
Z

u
)

g
sin

w
u
w
q
0
0

T
ee
T
Normal Force

u
w
w
q

T
ee
T
Pitching Moment
Axial Force

u -- Xu u + g = 0

Zu u + u0 q = 0
u
x =

u
= Xu u -- g

= -- (Zu/u0 )u
Xu

-- g

A=

I -A = 0

-- (Zu /u0 )

Characteristics
Equation for Phugoid
motion is :
- Xu
g
=0
(Zu/u0 )

- Xu -- (gZu /u0) = 0
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Stability Derivatives Xu and Zu

The axial and normal force of aerodynamic and propulsive
origin may be written for level flight at small in body axis
system as:
X =D+ T
Z =-L
Taking the derivative of the above wrt u we get
X/ u = D/u +T/ u
and Z/ u = L/u
Using D = uS CD, L = uS CL
D/u = u0S (CD)0 + u0S (CD/u)0
= (u0S/2) [2 (CD)0 + (CDu)0 ]
where (CD)0 = CD and (CDu)0 = CD/(u/u0) at u = u0
We denote T/u at u= u0 as (T/u) 0

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Stability Derivatives Xu and Zu(contd)

Starting from D = uS CD, we obtained
D/u = (u0S/2) [2 (CD)0 + (CDu)0 ]

Similarly differentiating L = uS CL
L/u = (u0S/2) [2CL0 + (CLu )0 ]
where
CL0 = CL and (CLu) 0 = CL/(u/u0) at u = u 0
Substituting these values we get
X/ u = D/u + T/ u
= (u0S/2) [2 (CD)0 + (CDu)0 ] + (T/ u) 0
Z/ u = L/u = -- (u0S/2) [2CL0 + (CLu)0 ]
With no compressibility effects the quantities CDu , CLu,
T/u will be zero and we have
X/u = -- u0S (CD)0
Z/u = -- u0SCL0

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Frequency and Damping for Phugoid

The characteristics equation for Phugoid motion:
- Xu -- (gZu/u0 ) = 0
The roots of this equation are
p = [Xu {Xu + 4 (gZu/u0 )}]/2
We know for low speed regime (no compressibility effects)
X/u = -- u0S (CD)0 and
Z/u = -- u0SCL0
Following subscript notation we have
Xu = (1/m)X/u = -- u0S (CD)0 /m
and Zu = (1/m) Z/u = -- u0SCL0/m
Using initial level flight condition
W = mg = u0S CL0
Xu = --2g/{ u0(L/D)0}
and Zu = -- 2g/u0
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Frequency and Damping for Phugoid (contd)

Two stability derivatives Xu and Zu appearing in Phugoid
equation:
Xu = --2g/{ u0(L/D)0}
Zu = -- 2g/u0
Phugoid p and np :
np = - (gZu/u0 )
= 2 (g/u0)

p = - Xu/ 2 np
= 1/{2 (L/D)0}

T = 2 u0/g
With increase in flight speed - Phugoid period T increases
p = 1/{2 (L/D)0}
Higher the aerodynamic efficiency L/D -the poorer will be
Phugoid damping p

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Phogoid Trajectory

Short Period Longitudinal Oscillation

( variation)
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Approximations of Longitudinal Dynamics (u,, q)

Short Period Approximation:
Velocity remains constant :u = 0
(Aircraft Inertia High to respond)

Neglect Axial Force Equation

Solve Normal Force & Pitching Moment Equations for
(u, , q)

(
1

Z
)

(
Z

u
)

g
sin

w
u
w
q
0
0

T
Normal Force

Axial Force
u

g
cos

u
w
0
T
ee T
e

u
w
w
q
T
ee T

Pitching Mom

= w/u0; Z.w = 0; Zq = 0
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

SPO Approximation to Long. EOM for Level Flight

Axial Force

g
cos

u
w
0

(
1

Z
)

(
Z

u
)

g
sin

w
u
w
q
0
0

T
Normal Force

u
w
w
q

T
Pitching Mom

= w/u0 ; Zw. = 0;

Zq = 0

Normal Force Equation (For Free Response)

uo = Z + u0q
= (Z/u0) + q)
Pitching Moment Equation
q = M + M + Mqq

Substituing for
from normal force equation we have
q = M + M ((Z/u0) + q)+ Mqq
Z /u ) +(M
+ M )q
q
=
(M
+
M

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

SPO Approximation to Long. EOM for Level Flight

Normal Force Eqn
= (Z /u ) + q)

0
Pitching Mom Eqn
q = (M + MZ/u0) +(M+ Mq)q
State Space Equation for SPO approx:

Z/u0
1
x =
A=
q
(M + MZ/u0) (M + Mq )
I -A = 0
Characteristic Equation for SPO approximation:
- (M + Mq + Z/u0 ) + (Mq Z/u0 - M) = 0

MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Longitudinal Modes of Aircraft

PHUGOID or Long Period

Short Period Oscillation (SPO)

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Phogoid Trajectory

Short Period Longitudinal Oscillation

( variation)
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Summary of Longitudinal Approximations

Phugoid

Short Period

Frequency

Damping

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

One Degree of Freedom Pitching Motion

Aircraft with one degree of freedom executes pitch oscillations
about its CG and y axis. For this we have

=
and = = q

External Pitching Moment M = Iyy

External pitching moment M of aerodynamic origin on aircraft

we know depends on (, , q, e). For 1- DOF pitching

motion or pure pitch oscillations, we retain this dependency on
(, ,q, e) and write down

M = (M/) + (M/) + (M/q )q + (M/e)e

Now with q= we can write down the equation for 1 DOF

pitching as

Iyy = (M/) + (M/) +(M/q) + (M/e)e

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

One Degree of Freedom Pitching Motion (contd)

Thus we have the equation for 1 DOF pitching motion as

Iyy = (M/) +[(M/) + (M/q)] + (M/e)e

Using subscript notation we get

= M + {M + Mq} + Me e
For Free Response of aircraft in PURE pitching motion, the
second order system is

- {M + Mq} - M = 0
From this we have
2 n = - {M + Mq} and

n = - M

For statically stable aircraft M < 0 and we have frequency and

damping as n = (- M) and = - {M + Mq} /2(- M)
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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Pitch Response for Step Elevator

We had written earlier one DOF approximation for pitching
motion with elevator input as

Iyy = (M/) +[(M/) + (M/q)] + (M/e)e

Using subscript notation and rearranging terms we have

- {M + Mq} - M = Me e
Solution of above equation is given by
= Trim {1+[e(-nt)/(1-2)]sin ((1-2) nt + )}
where Trim = - (Me e)/M
= tan -1 [-(1-2)/ 2]
n = (- M) and
= - {M + Mq} /2(- M)
Above response is shown plotted for a range of damping
parameter : < 1, = 1 and >1

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MA 3703 Flight Dynamics

Pitch Response for Step Elevator*

< 1: Subcritical Damping
overshoots a few times
before attaining steady state
value as seen in oscillatory
time history
/Trim

=0.1

= 1 : Critically Damped
Aperiodic response
For > 1:Overdamped
Aperiodic response

*Figure from Nelson

p141 Fig 4.6.

Eqn 4.45 gives solution for step elevator
input

nt
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AE 3002 Flight Mechanics

End of
Chapter 9

Longitudinal Dynamics
28