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doi:10.1038/nature11717
Dwarf satellite galaxies are thought to be the remnants of the population of primordial structures that coalesced to form giant galaxies
like the Milky Way1. It has previously been suspected2 that dwarf
galaxies may not be isotropically distributed around our Galaxy,
because several are correlated with streams of H I emission, and may
form coplanar groups3. These suspicions are supported by recent
analyses47. It has been claimed7 that the apparently planar distribution of satellites is not predicted within standard cosmology8, and
cannot simply represent a memory of past coherent accretion. However, other studies dispute this conclusion911. Here we report the
existence of a planar subgroup of satellites in the Andromeda galaxy
(M 31), comprising about half of the population. The structure is at
least 400 kiloparsecs in diameter, but also extremely thin, with a
perpendicular scatter of less than 14.1 kiloparsecs. Radial velocity
measurements1215 reveal that the satellites in this structure have
the same sense of rotation about their host. This shows conclusively
that substantial numbers of dwarf satellite galaxies share the same
dynamical orbital properties and direction of angular momentum.
Intriguingly, the plane we identify is approximately aligned with the
pole of the Milky Ways disk and with the vector between the Milky
Way and Andromeda.
We undertook the Pan-Andromeda Archaeological Survey16
(PAndAS) to obtain a large-scale panorama of the halo of the Andromeda galaxy (M 31), a view that is not available to us for the Milky
Way. This CanadaFranceHawaii Telescope survey imaged about
400 square degrees around M 31, which is the only giant galaxy in
the Local Group besides our Milky Way. Stellar objects are detected
out to a projected distance of about 150 kiloparsecs (kpc) from M 31,
and about 50 kpc from M 33, the most massive satellite of M 31. The
data reveal a substantial population of dwarf spheroidal galaxies that
accompany Andromeda17.
The distances to the dwarf galaxies can be estimated by measuring
the magnitude of the tip of the red-giant branch18. Improving on
earlier methods, we have developed a Bayesian approach that yields
the probability distribution function for the distance to each individual
satellite19. In this way we now have access to homogeneous distance
measurements (typical uncertainties 2050 kpc) to the 27 dwarf galaxies (filled circles in Fig. 1) visible within the PAndAS survey area20
that lie beyond the central 2.5u.
In Fig. 2 these distance measurements are used to calculate the sky
positions of the homogeneous sample of 27 dwarf galaxies as they
would appear from the centre of the Andromeda galaxy. Visually, there
appears to be a correlation close to a particular great circle (red line):
Observatoire Astronomique de Strasbourg, 11 rue de lUniversite, F-67000 Strasbourg, France. 2Sydney Institute for Astronomy, School of Physics, A28, The University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006,
Australia. 3Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University, New South Wales 2109, Australia. 4Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK.
5
NRC Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, 5071 West Saanich Road, Victoria, British Columbia, V9E 2E7, Canada. 6Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science, Dalhousie University, 6310 Coburg Road,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4R2, Canada. 7Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie, Konigstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany. 8University of Massachusetts, Department of Astronomy, LGRT 619-E, 710 North
Pleasant Street, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003-9305, USA. 9Institute for Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Royal Observatory, Blackford Hill, Edinburgh EH9 3HJ, UK. 10Lycee International des
Pontonniers, 1 rue des Pontonniers, F-67000 Strasbourg, France. 11The Australian National University, Mount Stromlo Observatory, Cotter Road, Weston Creek, Australian Capital Province 2611, Australia.
12
Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia, V8P 5C2, Canada. 13Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los
Angeles, PAB, 430 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095-1547, USA. 14LERMA, UMR CNRS 8112, Observatoire de Paris, 61 Avenue de lObservatoire, 75014 Paris, France. 15Department of Physics,
Engineering Physics, and Astronomy, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N, Canada.
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LETTER RESEARCH
A7
IC10
C2
185 147
A5
A26
A25
A24
A18
A27
A10
A17
A21
A9
Galactic latitude
205
205
M32
A28
A23
A15
A1
A3
A19
A20
A12
A11
A2
A13
A16
A29
M33
A14
A22
A6
LGS3 IC1613
Galactic longitude
A21
A18
A20
A19
600
A26
500
A25
A27
147
A17 A30
400
185
A24
A5
MW A9
A12
300
A16
A3
200
A15
A1
A14
A10
A2
A11
A13
100
A23
A22
M33
plane of lowest root mean square from a subsample of 15 (the colour scale on
the right shows the relative probability of the poles, and is dimensionless). A
clear narrow peak at (lM 31 5 100.9u 6 0.9u, bM 31 5 238.2u 6 1.4u)
highlights the small uncertainty in the best-fit plane. The solid red line,
which passes within less than 1u of the position of the Milky Way
(yellow circle labelled MW), represents the plane corresponding to this best
pole location.
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z zM 31 (kpc)
200
0.00
200
200
200
NGC147
A10
A26
A25
A18
A24
0.00
y (kpc)
A17
A21
A9
M31
A15
A16
A2
A23
A1
A3
A20
y (kpc)
C2
0.00
NGC185
A19
A11
A12
M33
200
200
A14
A22
200
0.00
200
z zM 31 (kpc)
Figure 3 | Three-dimensional view (online only in the PDF version) or twodimensional screenshot (in the print version) of the planar, rotating
structure. The coordinate system is such that the z direction is parallel to the
vector pointing from the Milky Way to M 31, x increases eastwards and y
northwards. Only the radial component of the velocity of each satellite is
measured, and these velocities are shown as vectors pointing either towards or
away from the Milky Way. As in Figs 1 and 2, red spheres mark the planar
satellites, and blue spheres represent the normal population. The coherent
kinematic behaviour of the spatially very thin structure (red) is clearly apparent
viewed from the yz plane. With the exception of And XIII and And XXVII, the
satellites in the planar structure that lie to the north of M 31 recede from us,
whereas those to the South approach us; this property strongly suggests
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of the satellites out of the plane is difficult to explain, even though the
orbital timescales for the satellites are long (around 5 Gyr for satellites
at 150 kpc). All the galaxies in the plane are known to have old, evolved,
stellar populations, and so in situ formation would additionally imply
that the structure is ancient.
In an accretion scenario, the dynamical coherence points to an
origin in a single accretion of a group of dwarf galaxies. However,
the spatial extent of the progenitor group would have to be broadly
equal to or smaller than the current plane thickness (,14.1 kpc), yet no
such groups are known. Interpreting the coherent rotation as a result
of our viewing perspective24 requires a bulk tangential velocity for the
in-falling group of the order of 1,000 km s21, which seems unphysically high. A further possibility is that we are witnessing accretion
along filamentary structures that are fortuitously aligned. In situ formation may be possible if the planar satellite galaxies formed like tidaldwarf galaxies in an ancient gas-rich galaxy merger7, but then the
dwarf galaxies should be essentially devoid of dark matter. If the planar
M 31 dwarfs are dynamically relaxed, the absence of dark matter would
be greatly at odds with inferences from detailed observations25 of Milky
Way satellites, assuming the standard theory of gravity. An alternative
possibility is that gas was accreted preferentially onto dark matter subhalos that were already orbiting in this particular plane, but then the
origin of the plane of sub-haloes would still require explanation. We
conclude that it remains to be seen whether galaxy formation models
within the current cosmological framework can explain the existence
of this vast, thin, rotating structure of dwarf galaxies within the halo of
our nearest giant galactic neighbour.
Received 18 September; accepted 23 October 2012.
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Supplementary Information is available in the online version of the paper.
Acknowledgements We thank the staff of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope for
taking the PAndAS data, and for their continued support throughout the project. We
thank one of our referees, B. Tully, for pointing out that IC 1613 could also be associated
to the planar structure. R.A.I. and D.V.G. gratefully acknowledge support from the
Agence Nationale de la Recherche though the grant POMMME, and would like to thank
B. Famaey for discussions. G.F.L. thanks the Australian Research Council for support
through his Future Fellowship and Discovery Project. This work is based on
observations obtained with MegaPrime/MegaCam, a joint project of CFHT and CEA/
DAPNIA, at the CanadaFranceHawaii Telescope, which is operated by the National
Research Council (NRC) of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de lUnivers of
the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France, and the University
of Hawaii. Some of the data presented here were obtained at the W.M. Keck
Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the California Institute
of Technology, the University of California and the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. The Observatory was made possible by the generous financial support
of the W.M. Keck Foundation.
Author Contributions All authors assisted in the development and writing of the paper.
In addition, the structural and kinematic properties of the dwarf population, and the
significance of the Andromeda plane were determined by R.A.I., G.F.L. and A.R.C., based
on distances determined by the same group (as part of the PhD research of A.R.C.). In
addition, A.W.M. is the Principal Investigator of PAndAS; M.J.I. and R.A.I. led the data
processing effort; R.A.I. was the Principal Investigator of an earlier CFHT MegaPrime/
MegaCam survey, which PAndAS builds on (which included S.C.C., A.M.N.F., M.J.I.,
G.F.L., N.F.M. and A.W.M.). R.M.R. is Principal Investigator of the spectroscopic follow-up
with the Keck Telescope. M.L.C. and S.C.C. led the analysis of the kinematic
determination of the dwarf population, and N.F.M. led the detection of the dwarf
population from PAndAS data. N.G.I. performed the initial analysis of the satellite
kinematics.
Author Information Reprints and permissions information is available at
www.nature.com/reprints. The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Readers are welcome to comment on the online version of the paper. Correspondence
and requests for materials should be addressed to R.A.I.
(rodrigo.ibata@astro.unistra.fr).
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