Chapters 17 and 18 Endocrine System

Learning Outcomes:
1. Define endocrine gland and hormone.
2. Contrast the endocrine system and the nervous system.
3. Name and describe the 4 types of intercellular chemical signals.
4. List the three categories of hormones based on chemical structure.
5. Describe how hormone secretion is regulated.
6. Explain how hormones can target a specific tissue.
7. Define membrane-bound receptor and intracellular receptor. Give
examples of each.
8. List the functions of the endocrine system.
9. Describe the relationship between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
10. List and describe the role of the hormones released by the pituitary
gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus,
and kidney.
11. Describe the process of thyroid hormone production.
Types of Intercellular communication
1.

Direct communication (autocrine): when a cell releases chemical signal that

binds to OWN receptors and changes the cells activity (acts on itself)

2.

Paracrine communication: one cell releases chemical messengers that impact

cells within the same tissue
2.1.

3.

Endocrine communication: involves the release of chemical messengers into the

bloodstream
3.1.

4.

paracrine factors: chemicals released from paracrine communication

hormones: chemical messengers of endocrine communication

Synaptic communication (neural): neuron releases chemical messenger

(neurotransmitter) at synapse

Endocrine: communication system

includes endocrine cells and tissues

release secretions into ECF, then enter the bloodstream

Hormones

classifies based on the chemical makeup

Hormone classification

A. Amino acid derivatives:

1. protein building blocks derived from amino acids
2. small molecules structurally related o individual amino acids
3. *tyrosine vs. tryptopan
B. Peptide hormones: hormones made of chain amino acids
1. fairly small or long complex chains
2. larger and more complex than amino acid derivatives
C. Lipid derivatives: lipid soluble, includes elcosanoids and steroids
What do hormones do?

are released into bloodstream

the chemical composition describes movement and determines how they will act
on receptors

can cross membrane and bind to inside of cell (lipid derivatives)

bind to receptors on a target cell

once it binds to target cell:

alters protein activity and or levels (number of proteins) in the target cell
to change activity->change protein
activating and deactivating existing proteins and/or changing the pattern of gene
expression
when genes are expressed-the result is changing the number of genes

response to a hormone depends of the nature of the receptor

types of receptors:
membrane-bound receptors:
intracellular receptors:

*FIGURE 17.9:

Hormones act as first messengers

hormones that bind to membrane-bound receptors lead to the appearance of 2nd

messengers inside the cell (indirect pathway)

2nd messengers change the cells metabolism, usually by altering enzyme activity

example of 2nd messengers: cAMP, cGMP, and Ca+

Hormones that bind to nuclear/intracellular receptors

usually act as transcription factors (which regulate the gene expression>changing protein levels)

thyroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors on MITOCHONDRIA and alter

cellular METABOLISM
hypo: not enough

hyper: too much

control of hormone secretion

HUMORAL: presence of other substances alters the hormone level->its presence

stimulates or decreases hormone secretion
humoral=blood levels
ex: blood glucose levels will stimulate or decrease levels of hormones
calcium levels will determine whether ?pclt? or calcitonin is secreted
NEURAL CONTROL:

ex: norepinephrine and epinephrine

HORMONAL:

ex: tropic hormones of anterior pituitary

Regulation of hormone effect

presence of hormone may alter the number of receptors at the membrane

down-regulation: in the presence of a particular hormone, the number of the receptor
decreases

reduces sensitivity to hormone

up-regulation: in absence of hormone, more receptors are produced

[CHAPTER 18]
Functions of the endocrine system

metabolism rate and tissue maturation

ion regulation

water balance (associated with ion regulation)

immune system regulation

HR and BP regulation (associated with H2O balance and ion reg.)

control of glucose and other nutrients (ass. with metabolism rate)

control of reproductive functions

uterine contractions and milk release

*LOOK AT THIS WHEN STUDYING HORMONES!

G-proteins are special proteins associated with the membrane receptor that initiates
second messenger arrival
1. adenyl cyclase activation
2. increase in calcium ion concentration
3. decrease the level of cAMP
Intracellular receptors usually involve steroid hormones.
Hypothalamus:

link between nervous and endocrine system

regulates endocrine activity in 3 ways:

A. control of endocrine cells of adrenal medulla; epinephrine and norepinephrine;
(sympathetic division)
B. manufacture hormones that are released into the bloodstream via the posterior
pituitary (oxytocin and ADH)
C. regulatory hormones: alter secretion of the anterior pituitary gland
1. releasing hormones: stimulates anterior pituitary hormones
2. inhibiting hormones: inhibit anterior pituitary hormones

Pituitary gland

connected to hypothalamus by infundibulum

also called hypophysis

secretes 9 hormones

2 anatomical and physiological lobes:

anterior pituitary:
Adenohyponysis

receives instructions form hypothalamus via regulating hormones (releasing

and inhibiting hormones)

secretes 7 tropic hormones that regulate other glands

I.

Thyroid stimulating hormone:

A. stimulates thyroid hormone secretion
B. hypothalamic regulation: thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)

*lecture illustration:

II.

Adrenocorticotropin Hormone:
A. ACTH
B. stimulates secretion by adrenal cortex (outer layer of tissue of adrenal gland)
C. suprarenal gland
D. hypothalamic regulation: corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

III.

Prolactin:
A. mammotropin
B. mammary gland development and milk production
C. not involved in breast development or milk release
D. hypothalamic regulation: prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) or prolactin
releasing factor (PRF)

IV.

Growth Hormone:
A. GH
B. somatotropin
C. acceleration of growth (stimulates mitosis)
D. skeletal muscle and cartilage especially sensitive
E. decreases in levels as we get older
F. hypothalamic regulation: growth hormone-releasing hormone and somatostatin

V.

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone:

A. MSH
B. melanotropin
C. increase melanin production
****Gonadotropins ***
VI.

Follicle Stimulating Hormone:

A. FSH
B. one of the 2 gonadotropins
C. induces ovarian follicle development in females
D. stimulates sustentacular cells in males

VII.

Lutenizing Hormone:

A. LH
B. also gonadotropin
C. induces female ovulation (release of oocyte)
D. increases androgen production/secretion in males (testosterone)
posterior pituitary:

(derived from neural tissue)

secretes hormones produces in hypothalamus

neurohypophysis

secretes 2 hormones:

I.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH):

A. vasopressin
B. regulates water balance by altering water excretion at kidneys (conserves water at
kidneys)
C. increases blood volume and stimulates BP to go up

II.

oxytocin:
A. induces labor contraction (in general, uterine contraction)
B. contacts during sex, labor, and breast feeding
C. manufactured in hypothalamus

Thyroid gland

secretes thyroid hormones and calcitonin (regulates blood Ca+ levels)

T2 and T4

regulates metabolism

composed of thyroid follicles

located in neck (close to adams apple)

follicle cells make up wall-involved in T3 and T4 production

parafollicular cells (c-cells)

calcitonin production
outside thyroid cells
Thyroid hormone production and secretion

cells take up iodide ions from blood-iodide from the bloodstream is necessary for
thyroid hormone secretion
iodide ions combine with thyroglobulin (large protein manufactured by the follicle
cells that is the precursor for thyroid hormones)
thyroglobulin released into the colloid (follicle cavity)
follicle cells take up small portion of the colloid (containing thyroglobulin) by
endocytosis
when stimulated to secrete thyroid hormones by TSH, the follicle cells of the
thyroid take up thyroglobulin from the follicle cavity
thyroglobulin is broken down to the thyroid hormones-enzymes break down the
thyroglobulin releasing thyroid hormones
thyroid hormones are secreted into blood
Thyroid hormones

functions to increase metabolism

secretion dependent on iodide supply (hence, the origin of iodized salt)
speeds of metabolism by:
increasing ATP production
increase enzyme composition in cells
Calcitonin:
important for regulation of calcium ion levels in the body

secreted by parafollicular cells (c-cells) when blood calcium ion levels are too

high

effect: decrease blood calcium ion levels

 increase calcium ion excretion at kidneys

decrease osteoclast activity

Parathyroid Gland:

secretes parathyroid hormone

regulates calcium ion levels

parathyroid hormone:
PTH
release when blood calcium ions are too low (the antagonist)
effect of PTH: increase Ca++ levels
decrease Ca++ excretion at kidneys
increase osteoclast activity
indirectly increase Ca++ absorption at small intestine (active vitamin Dcalcitriol)

Adrenal Gland

suprarenal

2 functional areas:

I.

Adrenal Medulla
A. center
B. directed by the sympathetic division

II.

Adrenal Cortex:
A. directed by ACTH
B. divided into 3 regions:
1. zona glomerulosa: secretes mineral corticoids
a) ex: ALDOSTERONE: regulates Na+ and K+ levels in blood (secreted when
Na + are low and when blood volume is low)
2. zona fasciculata: secretes glucocorticoids (have a glucose sparing effect)
a) ex: CORTISOL: regulates glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism (secretes
when glucose levels are low)
b) *effects development of tissues and has anti-inflammatory effect
3. zona reticularis: secretes androgens: supplemental to gonads in males; in
females it is important in puberty

Pancreas

exocrine function: secrete digestive enzymes

endocrine function: secrete hormones that regulate blood glucose levels

INSULIN: secreted when glucose levels are too high
GLUCAGON: secreted when glucose levels are too low
*both are antagonistic
pancreatic islets: pocket of endocrine cells

BETA CELLS secrete insulin

ALPHA CELLS secrete glucagon
Kidneys

calcitriol: regulates calcium and phosphorous absorption (increases absorption at

small intestine)
manufactured in the skin
erythropoietin: regulates RBC production in bone marrow

stimulated by hypoxia (low blood O2 levels)

renin: necessary for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II

(I) mainly found in lung tissue

renin converts I to II
II increases BP
Other endocrine structures
Heart

atrial natriuretic peptide

Thymus

secretes THYMOSINES that regulates immune cell (t-cell) production

Pineal gland
secretes MELATONIN that regulates circadian rhythms

Chapter 24 Digestive System

Learning Outcomes:
1. List and describe the functions of the digestive system.
2. Distinguish between mechanical processing and chemical digestion.
3. List and describe the three major layers of the digestive tract.
4. What is the serosa and where is it found?
5. What is the function of the peritoneum? Where are the visceral and parietal
peritoneum found?
6. What are the mesenteries?
7. List and describe the functions of the major structures associated with the oral
cavity: teeth, salivary glands, tongue, etc.
8. Describe the composition and functions of saliva.
9. Describe the types of muscle movement in the digestive tract.
10 Explain the three phases of swallowing.
11. Outline the anatomical and histological characteristics of the stomach.
12. Describe the secretions of the gastric glands and pyloric glands.
13. List the sections of the small intestine and describe the characteristics that
account for its large surface area.
14. Describe the major functions of the liver and gall bladder.
15. Describe the endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas.
16. List the functions of the large intestine.
Digestive system consists of the digestive tract (GI tract) and accessory organs.
Functions of the digestive system:

ingestion (thru oral cavity)

mechanical processing (breaking food into smaller particles)

digestion (breaking chemical bonds)

secretion (water is the primary secretion)

absorption (substances move from lumen to wall and then enters blood stream)

excretion

Histology of the Digestive Tract

There are four major layers of the digestive tract:

1. Mucosa
a. inner lining
b.mucous membrane (secretes mucous)
c. muscularis mucosa: band of smooth muscle located in the lamina propria,
contraction alter the shape of the inner lining of the GI tract
d.nature of mucosa determines what we can absorb
2. Submucosa
a. dense irregular connective tissue
b. neural tissue including the submucosal plexus
c. exocrine cells
3. Muscularis Externa
a. smooth muscle tissue
b. 2 layers:
i. compare to squeezing sausage tube: the circular ring of tissue squeezes it, and
the horizontal tissue moves it down the tract
c. move material along the GI tract
d. assists in mechanical processing
4. Serosa
a. outer layer
b. serous membrane
c. not present in all areas
Movement in the digestive tract

Smooth muscle cells of the GI tract spontaneously depolarize resulting in rhythmic

contraction.
Contractions of the GI tract:

1. Peristalsis: waves of contraction that move the ingested material along the GI tract
2. Segmentation: contractions that squeeze the contents of the GI tract (mechanical
processing and mixing)

The Peritoneum: serous membrane associated with the peritoneal cavity

Two portions of the peritoneum:

 visceral: covers the organ; the serosa

parietal: lines the cavity; line the wall of the cavity, secretions to reduce friction
Mesenteries:

are sheets if the peritoneum that connect the visceral and parietal portions

also provide support for the organs of the peritoneal cavity

suspend, stabilize, and anchor organs

the greater omentum: the largest mesentery

I. The Oral Cavity:

A. Buccal Cavity
B. Mouth
C.entrance to digestive tract
D. fauces: passageway from oral cavity to pharynx
E. tongue:
F.uvula:
G. vestibule: (teeth and cheek)
H. Functions of oral cavity:
1. analysis of food before swallowing (taste, texture, temp)
2.mechanical processing
3.lubrication
4.digestion of carbohydrates or lipids
Structures of the Oral Cavity
I.

Tongue:
A. moves around in the mouth
B. compact food into bolus
C. mechanical processing
D. sensory analysis
E. secretion (lingual lipase)->lipid digestion

II.

Salivary Glands
A. exocrine glands
B. Three pairs of salivary glands:
1. Parotid salivary glands:

a) thick secretion
b) includes salivary amylase (carb.)
2. Sublingual salivary glands
a) located beneath tongue
b) secretion contains mucous
3. Submandibular salivary glands
a) secretion contains salivary amylase, buffers and mucins
III.

Teeth
A. Function: chewing, mastication
B. mechanical processing of food before swallowing
C. increase surface area
D. Structure of the tooth
1. Crown: region of tooth above gum line
2. Root: region below gum line, sits in joint within jawbone
3. Dentin: comprises the bulk of the tissue of the bone; acellular
4. Pulp Cavity: contains the cells of the tooth; also contains blood vessels and nerves
5. Root Canal: provides passageway for blood vessels and nerves into pulp cavity
6. Peridontal ligament: hold tooth to jawbone (anchors tooth)
7. Enamel: covers crown; durable substance; hardest substance produced in the body
8. Cementum: covers root; attachment point
9. Gingiva: gum
A. Types of teeth

Incisors: (8 total-4top/4bottom)

snipping and clipping

blade shaped (like a shovel)

Cuspids

k9s

tearing and shredding

Bicuspids

round, flat teeth

grinding

Molars

larger teeth with flat top

1st, 2nd, and 3rd

3 molars are wisdom teeth

Primary dentition: firsts set; baby teeth or deciduous teeth (20)

Secondary dentition: 2nd set of teeth; adult; permanent teeth (32)

II. The Pharynx:

common passageway for the digestive and respiratory system

sensors that initiate the swallowing

III. The Esophagus

muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach

Swallowing: deglutition (three phases)

1. Buccal Phase: bolus of food is pushed into the oropharynx; voluntary processes
2. Pharyngeal Phase: presences of the bolus of food in the oropharynx initiates the
swallowing reflex; pharyngeal muscle push the bolus of food towards the esophagus
3. Esophageal Phase: peristalic waves in the esophagus push the bolus towards the stomach

IV. Stomach

bulk storage of ingested food

mechanical breakdown

chemical breakdown

produces glycoproteins necessary for vit B12 absorption

Chyme:

Four regions of the stomach

1.

cardiac:

2.

fundus:

3.

body:

4.

pylorus:

Rugae:

Histology of stomach:
Extra layers of muscle in muscularis externa and muscularis mucosa; strengthens walls and
helps in mixing chyme
Epithelium (inner lining) coated with alkaline mucus that protects cells from stomach acids.
Gastric glands:
Pyloric glands:
No nutrient absorption occurs in the stomach because of mucus coating, lack of transport
mechanisms, impermeability of lining to water. However, some substances do pass through the
stomach lining.

V. Small Intestine:
primary site of digestion and absorption
Three subdivisions of SI:
1.

duodenum

2.

jejunum

3.

ileum

Plicae: transverse folds, permanent; increase surface area

Within the lamina propria of the sm. intestines is an extensive capillary network. Also, special
lymphatics called lacteals are found in the small intestine. The lacteals are important for lipid
absorption.
Regional specialization of small intestine

Duodenum: few plicae, many villi; mucus secreted in great quantities to protect
epithelium from highly acidic chyme

Jejunum: many plicae and villi

Ileum: lack plicae, villi few; Peyer's patch

VI. Pancreas
Two distinct functions of the pancreas
a. endocrine
b. exocrine

pancreatic amylase

pancreatic lipase

nucleases

proteases

peptidases

VII. Liver
Bile secretion:
Metabolic Regulation:

all blood leaving the absorptive surface of the intestines enters the liver

cells of the liver absorb nutrients and toxins before the blood reaches the system
circulation

stabilize glucose levels by either adding to blood or removing it and storing at

glycogen

regulates lipid levels

removes excess amino acids

removes waste products

stores some vitamins and minerals

inactivates some drugs

Hematological Regulation

largest blood reserve

removes old or damaged RBC

site of plasma protein synthesis

absorption of circulating hormones

removal of toxins

absorption of antibodies

VIII. Gall Bladder:

site of bile storage and modification of bile concentration

IX. Large Intestine:

absorption of water

compaction of intestinal contents into feces

absorption of vitamins

storage of fecal material

Regions of the Large intestine

cecum

colon

rectum

Large intestine has a larger lumen and thinner walls compared to the small intestines