Neurophysiology:

Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the concentration differences for Na+ and K+ that exist across
the plasma membrane.
2. List and describe the different types of plasma membrane ion channels.
For the gated channel types, what types of stimuli cause them to open or
close.
3. Define resting potential and explain the roles of Na+ and K+ in
establishing the resting potential.
4. Define depolarization and repolarization. Describe the major ions
involved in changes in the resting potential.
5. Distinguish between graded potentials and action potentials.
6. Explain the all-or-none principle of action potentials.
7. Describe the depolarization and repolarization phases of an action
potential, including the ions that are primarily responsible for each.
8. What is a refractory period?
9. Explain the factors involved in action potential propogation. What
prevents the action potential from reversing its direction of propogation?
10. Distinguish between continuous and saltatory propogation?
11. What effect does myelination have on action potential propogation?
12. What is a synapse? How is an electrical synapse different from a
chemical synapse?
13. Describe the three parts of a chemical synapse?
14. Describe the release of neurotransmitter in a chemical synapse.
15. What determines the type of response a cell will have to a particular
neurotransmitter?
16. Define EPSPs and IPSPs.
*Students not familiar with action potential or membrane potential should review
Chapter 3 in your textbook
Neurophysiology: processing of sensory information and communication between
neurons and other sensory cells
"Messages of the nervous system are conveyed as action potentials,
propogated changes in the transmembrane potential.
Membrane potential:

potential difference measured across cell membranes

results from the uneven distribution of (+) and (-) ions across the cell membrane.

also referred to as transmembrane potential TMP

action potential: an electrical signal conducted from a neuron to its target, is

dependent on graded potentials (changes in the membrane potential that are
localized to one area of the plasma membrane)

depolarization: the membrane potential moves away from the resting state and
becomes more positive

repolarization: the membrane potential returns toward the resting state and
become more negative

afterpotential: short period where the plasma membrane may be slightly

hyperpolarized f

The membrane potential of a cell can be changed by opening and closing

channels, resulting in a current
Neurons are highly permeable to K+, less so to Na+. Potassium is the
primary determinant of the resting potential of a cell and sodium determines
disruptions of TMP.
Sodium and Potassium are Important to Membrane Potential
sodium ion (Na+) concentration is higher in the extracellular fluid (ECF)

Ionic concentration differences in the ECF and cytosol:

Sodium and Potassium are Important to Membrane Potential

at resting condition the concentration of sodium ions is much greater outside the
cell (in the extracellular fluid) than inside
the concentration of potassium ions (K+)is much greater inside the cell than
outside

result: slightly negative charge on the inside of the cell and a slightly positive
charge on the outside

A cell's membrane potential is the result of passive and active forces

Forces that affect ion movement

Chemical gradient:

diffusion

concentration gradient across the membrane

Electrical gradient:

potential difference across the membrane

slightly negative charge on inner surface and a slightly positive charge on

the outer surface

Electrochemical gradient:

sum of chemical and electrical forces acting across the cell membrane

Ion channels:

Passageway for ions through the cell membrane

membrane proteins that provide a passageway across the membrane

are specific

display saturation points

Types of ion channels:

Leak channels:

non-gated ion channels

always open

responsible for permeability of the plasma membran to ions when the

plasma membrane is unstimulated or at rest

Gated ion channels:

open and close in response to stimulus and based on cellular conditions

by opening and closing, these channels can change the permeability of the
plasma membrane

Three classes of gated channels:

1.

Ligand-gated ion channels:

(chemically regulated)
chemicals bind to specific receptors associated with the ion channel causing it to
open or close
have receptors that molecules can bind to that open and close the channels
receptors that have an extracellular receptor site and a membrane spanning part
that forms an ion channel

2.

Voltage-gated ion channels:

found in areas of excitable membrane
capable of generating and conducting AP
open and close in response to changes in membrane potential
respond to changes in membrane potential

 these channels open and close in response to small voltage changes across the
plasma membrane
3.

Other gated ion channels:

open or close in response to physical distortion of membrane (touch receptors) or
temperature changes

Resting potential:

the membrane potential of an undisturbed cell

can increase or decrease

negative millivolt charge (-70mV for an average neuron)

polarization: development of differences in potential between two points in living

tissues, as between the inside and outside of the plasma membrane
the plasma membrane is labeled polarized when there are opposite
charges, or poles, across the membrane
potential difference: the electrical charge difference across the plasma membrane
Changes in the resting potential:

Depolarization:
decrease in membrane potential in which the charge difference decreases
equivalent to stimulation
charge closer to zero

Hyperpolarization:
increase in membrane potential/polarity across the membrane
charge difference increases
charge becomes fore negative
inhibits (stops) stimulation
occurs when the inside of the p-membrane becomes more negative relative to the
outside

Repolarization:
membrane potential returns to resting potential

Ions involved in altering resting potential:

K+: changes in permeability to K+ results in hyperpolarization
Na+: changes in permeability to Na+ results in depolarization

 Ca++: changes in permeability to Ca++ results in depolarization

Cl-: changes in permeability to Cl- results in hyperpolarization
At resting, most gates are closed
*Opening gates changes the TMP leading to two possible types of potentials:

Graded potentials:
local potentials
cannot spread far from point of stimulus
will dissipate if they are not strong enough
cause local currents: movement of ions parallel to membrane
a change in the membrane potential that is localized to one area of the plasma
membrane
does not affect entire membrane
vary from small to large
results from:
chemical signals binding to their receptors
changes in the voltage across the p-membrane
mechanical stimulation
temp changes
spontaneous changes in membrane permeability

Action potentials:
propogated potentials
will spread across the entire membrane
propogated change in TMP that spreads across the entire membrane
opening of voltage-regulated channels is necessary for AP
all-or-nothing principle:
all action potentials are the same (no strong or weak ones)
all: if a stimulus produces a depolarizing graded potential that is large enough
to reach threshold, all the permeability changes responsible for an AP proceed
without stopping and are constant in magnitude.
nothing: if a stimulus is so weak that the depolarizing graded potential does
not reach threshold, few of the permeability changes occur. the membrane
potential returns to its resting level after a brief period without producing an AP

 stimulus that initiates AP is a depolarization great enough to open voltageregulated Na+ channels
occurs at threshold potential (-60 - -55 mV)
demonstrate all-or-none principle: stimulus will either reach threshold and trigger
an AP or it will not
once initiated, AP will spread across the entire membrane and cannot be stopped
Steps involved in AP generation (see figure 11.18)
Step 1. Resting potential:

Voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed and voltage-gated K+ channels are closed
sodium is higher on the outside of the membrane and potassium is higher on the
inside
The outside of the plasma membrane is positively charged compared to the inside
Step 2. Depolarization to threshold:

Na+ channels open

gates of voltage-regulated Na+ channels open at threshold

Na+ rush into the cell due to the high electrochemical gradient

depolarization results because the inward movement of sodium makes the inside
of the membrane more positive/local currents changing the distribution of Na+
and K+ ions along the cell membrane
Step 3. Repolarization

sodium channels close

K+ channels open and K+ ions move out of the cell

TMP approached resting potential (begins repolarization)

during this phase of the repolarization the Na+ are closed and not able to open
Step 4. End of repolarization and afterpotential

voltage-regulated Na+ channels are closed

closure of the activation gates and opening of the inactivation gates reestablish
the resting condition for sodium channels

K+ continues to diffuse out of the cell causing the afterpotential (period of

hyperpolarization following an action potential
Step 5. Resting membrane potential

membrane potential returns to normal resting levels after voltage-gated K+

channels close

Refractory period:

period following an AP that a cell membrane cannot respond to stimuli (another

AP)

time when the Na+ are either all open or when Na+ are closed but are inactivated
(cannot open)

sodium channels are all open or all closed and cannot open

gives cell a chance to reset itself

Action Potential Propogation:

propogate: the AP spread across the p-membrane because an AP produced at

one location can stimulate the production of an AP at an adjacent area of the same pmembrane

1. Continuous propogation:

occurs in unmyelinated axons

AP moves down axon

graded potentials depolarize a section of the axon to threshold, local currents

then depolarize the adjacent section

propogation is on direction: graded potentials initiated in the soma or at axon

hillock

2. Saltatory Propogation:

occurs in myelinated axons

AP jumps from one node to the next, skipping the areas covered with myelin

myelin sheets cover areas of axon; these areas are not able to propogate AP

due to local currents, the AP jumps from one node (area of exposed axon) to the
next

allows for faster propogation

Relationship between axon diameter and propogation speed:

larger diameter: faster propogation

Types of neurons based on AP propogation (from fastest to slowest)

Type A: largest axon, myelinated
Type B: myelinated, smaller axon
Type C: unmyelinated

Myelination of axons is not completed until adolescences

Synaptic transmission:

1. Electrical synapse

gap junctions that allow local current to flow between adjacent cells

rare

found in CNS and PNS

neuron-neuron synapes

membranes are connected by gap junctions

fast communication

2. Chemical synapse

more common

neuron-cell and neuron-neuron synapses

release of neurotransmitters by presynaptic cell

neurotransmistters can be excitatory (cause depolarization) or inhibitory (cause

hyperpolarization)

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): depolarization in the

postsynaptic membrane that brings the membrane potential close to
threshold

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): hyperpolarization in the

postsynaptic membrane, which causes the membrane potential to move
away from threshold

Typical example of a chemical synapse is a cholinergic synapse, the

neurotransmitter is acetylcholine (ACh)

FIG 11.23: Electrical Synapse

Steps of AP propogation at a cholinergic synapse
Step 1. Arrival of AP and depolarization of synaptic terminal (end of presynaptic cell).
Step 2. Extracellular calcium ions enter the cell causing the release of ACh by
exocytosis
Step 3. ACh moves across the synaptic cleft
Step 4. ACh binds to chemically-regulated ion channels, causing an increase
permeability to Na+. Sodium ions rush into the cell and the postsynaptic cell reaches
threshold, triggering an AP
Figure 11.24 CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
Neurotransmitters function in one of 3 ways
1. directly opening or closing ion channels (as described with the cholinergic synapse)

2. indirectly by initiating the production or release of second messengers that in turn

alter ion channel activity
3. diffusing across the membrane and binding to enzymes within the cell
Postsynaptic Potentials
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs):

graded potentials that open channels in portions of the membrane

depolarization in the postsynaptic membrane that brings the membrane potential
close to threshold
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs):

transient hyperpolarization
hyperpolarization in the postsynaptic membrane, which causes the membrane
potential to move away from threshold
Postsynaptic potentials are integrated to determine the overall effect on the cell

summation: integrate the arriving EPSPs and IPSPs both in time (temporal) and
area of the neuron (spatial)

spatial summation: occurs when multiple APs arrive simultaneously at two

different presynaptic terminals that synapse with the same post synaptic
neuron

temporal summation: results when two or more action potentials arrive in

very close succession at a singe presynaptic terminal