EE 8086 Lecture 01

Overview of the Universe
Astronomical Terminology
Scale of the Universe
Motion of Earth in the Universe
Tour of our Sky
The Cause of Seasons
Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
p.1-1
Astronomical Terminology
Star
large, glowing ball of gas that

generates heat & light through
nuclear fusion
Planet
moderately large object orbiting a

star & shines by reflected light
own gravity makes it round
cleared its orbital path
may be rocky, icy, or gaseous in
composition
p.1-2
Astronomical Terminology, contd

Moon
object orbiting a planet
Asteroid
relatively small & rocky object

orbiting a star
p.1-3

Comet
relatively small & icy object that

orbits a star
Nebula
an interstellar cloud of gas and/or

dust
p.1-4

Solar System
The Sun & all the

material that
orbits it, including
its planets &
moons
p.1-5
Star System
star(s) & all the material that orbits

it, including its planets & moons
p.1-6
How Large is the Solar System?
p.1-7
How Large is the Solar System?

Earth
Jupiter
Sun
p.1-8
Galaxy
great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity &

orbiting a common center
p.1-9
Milky Way Galaxy in our Sky
p.1-10
Our Address in the Milky Way Galaxy
p.1-11
Universe
sum total of all matter & energy, i.e. everything within &
between all galaxies
origin of Universe explained by the Big Bang Theory
p.1-12
Our Cosmic Address
p.1-13
Our Cosmic Origin

Within a few billion years after the Big
Bang, gravity caused local concentrations of
matter to collapse into galaxies while the
universe continued to expand.
Galaxies like the
Milky Way act as
cosmic
recycling
plants. Stars are
made from material
in gas clouds & dust
within the galaxy.
Stars return material
to interstellar space
when they die.
The Universe has

been expanding since
its hot & dense
beginning in Big
Bang. Each of the 3
cubes represents the
same region of the
universe, which has
expanded with time.
A star forms at the center of a

collapsing cloud of gas & dust, &
planets may form in the spinning
disk surrounding the young star.
Massive stars explode

when they die, scattering
the
elements
they
produced into space.
Stars shine with the energy

produced by the nuclear fusion in
their cores. The fusion also creates
heavier elements from lighter
ones.
p.1-14
How Big is the Universe?

There are as many
stars in the
observable universe
as there are grains of
dry sand on all the
beaches on Earth.
Observable universe
is ~13.9b light-years.
Definition of a light-year:
the distance traveled by light in one year

unit for distance, not time!
corresponds to ~10 trillion km
p.1-15
Our Lifetimes compared to the Age of the Universe

The universe is ~13.9b years
old.
On a cosmic calendar:
entire history of the universe

compressed into 1 year
solar system forms in early Sep
life on Earth started by late Sep
dinosaurs appeared on 26-Dec
& became extinct on 30-Dec
On 31-Dec:
human evolve @9pm
modern human @11:58pm
human civilization only occupy
the last half-min
p.1-16
Spaceship Earth
The Earth
rotates around
its axis once
every day.
Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.
we are moving with the Earth in several ways & at surprisingly

fast speeds!
p.1-17
Earths Motion in the Solar System

The Earth orbits
around the Sun
once every year.
Earth is racing around the Sun.
Earth is at an average distance of 150m km from the Sun

Earths axis tilted by 23.5 (pointing to Polaris)
orbits around the Sun in the same direction as its rotation
counter-clockwise as viewed from above the North pole
p.1-18
Earths Motion in the Solar System, contd
p.1-19
Solar Systems Motion in the Milky Way Galaxy

The Solar System is racing around the Milky Way Galaxy.
the Sun moves randomly relative to other nearby stars at typical

speed of more than 70,000 km/hr
the Sun orbits the

galactic center
once every 230m
years at speed of
800,000 km/hr
The Solar System orbits

the galactic center once
every 230m years.
p.1-20
Milky Way Galaxys Motion in the Universe
The Universe is expanding.
galaxies are carried along with the expansion & are generally
moving away from each other (like expanding raisin cake)
those in Local Group can move towards or away from us, e.g.
Milky Way moving towards Andromeda @ 300,000 km/hr
p.1-21
Summary of Earths Motion in the Universe
p.1-22
Patterns in the Night Sky
p.1-23
Constellations
A constellation is a
region of the sky.
defined in 1928 by
the International
Astronomical
Union
often recognizable
by a pattern or
grouping of stars
total of 88 official
constellations, most
names come from
antiquity
p.1-24
p.1-25
Star Charts
Planisphere
make your own at

http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/eee/eee6/astroclub/articles.asp
Planetarium software (PC)
http://www.stellarium.org/ (free open source )
Planetarium for mobile phones (Java-Enabled)
http://mobilestarchart.sourceforge.net/
Satellite Observations
http://www.caski.com/cs.cgi
http://www.skysatellite.com
p.1-26
The Celestial Sphere

The sky above us looks like
a dome (hemisphere).
celestial sphere =
lower + upper half of
the dome
we see half the sphere
at any moment
All stars appear to lie

on the celestial sphere.
we lack the depth

perception when looking into space, as the stars are too far
away
The patterns of stars have no physical significance!
stars that appear close together may lie at different distances

p.1-27
Model of the Celestial Sphere

The idea of a celestial sphere is used to map the sky.
shows how stars are

arranged in the sky
This is a 2-D
representation of the sky
as viewed from Earth.
Earth is placed in the

center of the sphere
Special points & circles:
north & south celestial

poles
celestial equator
ecliptic
p.1-28
The Local Sky
Our local sky appears

to take the shape of a
hemisphere define
location of a star by
its altitude &
azimuth.
zenith : point directly overhead

horizon : boundary between Earth & sky (90 from zenith)
meridian : line from northern to southern horizon through zenith
azimuth : angle direction along horizon, clockwise from due north
altitude : angle above the horizon
p.1-29
Review: Coordinates on Earth

Latitude: position north or
south of equator
Singapore: 122 N
Longitude: position east or

west of prime meridian
(Greenwich, England)
Singapore: 10348 E
p.1-30
Measuring Size & Distance in the Sky
True sizes or separations of objects in the sky cannot be

determined due to lack of depth perception
describe using angular size & angular separation instead

p.1-31
Handy Sky Measures
each arcminute
subdivided into
60 arcseconds
For more
precise
astronomical
measurement:
each degree
subdivided into
60 arcminutes
p.1-32
Daily Motion of Celestial Objects in the Sky

Earth rotates from west to east.
celestial sphere appears to rotate around us from east to west

Stars make daily circles around the celestial poles
Stars at the north or south

celestial poles will appear
stationary.
p.1-33
Northern Hemisphere View

Stars near north
celestial pole (at
angle less than A
from celestial pole)
do not rise or set,

but remain above
the horizon
circumpolar star
Stars near south
celestial pole never
rise above horizon.
Other stars (& Sun, Moon, planets) generally
have daily circles partly above & below horizon.
appear to rise in the east & set in the west

p.1-34
Southern Hemisphere View

Similarly, stars near south
celestial pole do not rise
or set, but remain above
the horizon
circumpolar star
Stars near north celestial
pole never rise above
horizon.
Other stars (& Sun,
Moon, planets) generally appear to
rise in the east & set in the west.
If you stand at the poles, nothing rises or sets.
If you stand at the equator, everything rises & sets 90 to the horizon.
p.1-35
What Constellations can you see?

It depends on your latitude & time of the year.
due to rotation & orbit of Earth
Variation with Latitude
The constellations you see depend on your latitude but not longitude.
p.1-36
Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
Daily circles CCW looking north, CW looking south

p.1-37
Variation with Time of Year
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the Sun appears to move eastward along
the ecliptic with respect to the stars.
Constellations along the ecliptic make up the zodiac.
p.1-38
How Long is a Day?
p.1-39
The Seasons
Four Special Moments in the Year

Summer Solstice (21 June)
when the northern hemisphere receives its most direct sunlight
Winter Solstice (21 December)
when the northern hemisphere receives its least direct sunlight
Spring Equinox (21 March)
when northern hemisphere just starts to tip towards the Sun
Fall Equinox (22 September)
when northern hemisphere just starts to tip away from the Sun
p.1-40
What causes the Seasons?
Earths axis tilted at 23.5 from normal to ecliptic plane.
celestial equator tilted at 23.5 to the ecliptic plane
The Sun spends 6 months north & south of the celestial

equator in a year.
Seasons are caused by Earths axis tilt & not the distance
from the Earth to the Sun!
p.1-41
Summer in the Northern Hemisphere
p.1-42
Why Distance is not the cause of Seasons?

Variation of Sun-Earth distance is only about 3%.
small variation overwhelmed by effects of axis tilt

However distance does matter for some other planets, notably
Mars and Pluto
Seasons are more extreme in the northern hemisphere.
due to more land, less ocean
p.1-43
Seasonal Change in the Suns Path

Days are longer &
warmer in summer.
In winter, days are
shorter & cooler.
p.1-44
Seasonal Change in the Suns Path, contd
Northern
Hemisphere
Equator
p.1-45
Seasonal Change in the Suns Altitude

Photograph taken at
8~10 day intervals
over a year.
Summer
solstice
Equinoxes
Winter
solstice
North
Sun rising on 3 particular days
same place & time
Figure 8
observed due to the
combination of
Earths axis tilt &
varying speed as it
orbits the Sun.
South
p.1-46
Suns Path in the Arctic Circle
Latitude at 663344 N of the equator.

On summer solstice, the Sun does not set but skims the
northern horizon at midnight.
p.1-47
Earth's Precession
The direction of Earths rotation axis is
not fixed in space but executes a slow
precession (like a top) with a period of
26,000 years.
axis currently pointed at Polaris
13,000 years later: axis will point to
Vega (within a few degree)
Amount of axis tilt stays close to 23.5.

pattern of season not affected
positions of solstices & equinoxes in
Earths orbit gradually shift with cycle
of precession
Precession due to gravitys effect on

a tilted, rotating object that is not a
perfect sphere.
p.1-48
The Moon, Our Constant Companion

The Moon is the
brightest & most
noticeable object
in our sky.
orbits the Earth

in 271/3 days
rise in the east &
sets in the west
appears to move
eastward from
night to night
You can also see

it in the day!
p.1-49
Phases of the Moon

Half the Moon is illuminated by the Sun.
we see a
combination
of the bright &
dark faces
The phase of
the Moon
depends on its
position relative
to the Sun as it
orbits Earth.
p.1-50
Phases of the Moon, contd

Each complete cycle of phases takes about 291/2 days.
from one new moon to another

~2 days longer than Moons orbital period of 271/3 days
due to Earths motion around the Sun during the time the Moon
is orbiting around Earth
new
crescent
first quarter
gibbous
full
gibbous
third quarter
crescent
}
}
Waxing means increasing

Moon visible in afternoon/ evening
gets fuller & rises later each day
Waning means decreasing

Moon visible in late night/morning
gets less and sets later each day
p.1-51
Eclipses
Earth & Moon cast shadows.

When one passes through the others shadow, we have an
eclipse.
Two types of eclipses:
Lunar Eclipse Earth is between Sun & Moon

Solar Eclipse Moon is between Sun & Earth
p.1-52
Conditions for Eclipses
Moons orbit is inclined at 5 to the ecliptic plane.
we do not get a lunar & a solar eclipse every month (~twice/year)!

Moon only crosses the ecliptic plane at 2 nodes
eclipse possible only when full or new moon occurs near nodes
p.1-53
Solar Eclipses
You will see it when you
are in Moons shadow.
There are three types of
solar eclipses.
Total solar eclipse

within umbra
Partial solar eclipse
within penumbra
Annular solar eclipse
Moon is relatively further
away & its umbral
shadow does not reach
Earth
p.1-54
Progression of a Total Solar Eclipse
p.1-55
Lunar Eclipses
Lunar eclipse begins
when the Moon enters
Earths penumbra.
After that, one of the 3
types of lunar eclipse
can be seen:
penumbral lunar eclipse

Moon only passes
through penumbra
partial lunar eclipse
part of full moon passes
through umbra
total lunar eclipse
Moon passes entirely
through umbra
p.1-56
Predicting Eclipses
Moons node slowly move around its orbit around Earth.
eclipse do not occur every 6 months
Eclipses recur in the ~18 years 111/3 days Saros Cycle.
same relative geometry & a nearly identical eclipse

but type (partial or total) & location may vary
p.1-57
Planets in Our Sky

Five planets easy to find with the
naked eye (all looked like stars):
Mercury difficult to see,
always close to Sun
Venus very bright when
visible, morning or evening
star
Mars noticeably red
Jupiter very bright
Saturn moderately bright
In a particular night, planets rise
in the east & set in the west like
stars.
p.1-58
Apparent Retrograde Motion of Planets

Planets usually move
eastward from night
to night relative to
the stars.
Sometimes they go
westward for a few
weeks or months:
apparent retrograde
motion
easily explained by a
Sun-centered solar
system
Composite of 29 photos of Mars from Jun03 to

Nov03 showing apparent retrograde motion.
p.1-59

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Overview of the Universe

Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

large, glowing ball of gas that

moderately large object orbiting a

Astronomical Terminology, contd

object orbiting a planet

relatively small & rocky object

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

relatively small & icy object that

an interstellar cloud of gas and/or

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

The Sun & all the

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

star(s) & all the material that orbits

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

How Large is the Solar System?

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

How Large is the Solar System?

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity &

Milky Way Galaxy in our Sky

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Our Address in the Milky Way Galaxy

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

Our Cosmic Address

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Our Cosmic Origin

The Universe has

A star forms at the center of a

Massive stars explode

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Stars shine with the energy

How Big is the Universe?

the distance traveled by light in one year

Our Lifetimes compared to the Age of the Universe

entire history of the universe

Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.

we are moving with the Earth in several ways & at surprisingly

Earths Motion in the Solar System

Earth is racing around the Sun.

Earth is at an average distance of 150m km from the Sun

Earths Motion in the Solar System, contd

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Solar Systems Motion in the Milky Way Galaxy

the Sun moves randomly relative to other nearby stars at typical

the Sun orbits the

The Solar System orbits

Milky Way Galaxys Motion in the Universe

The Universe is expanding.

Summary of Earths Motion in the Universe

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Patterns in the Night Sky

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

make your own at

Planetarium software (PC)

http://www.stellarium.org/ (free open source )

Planetarium for mobile phones (Java-Enabled)

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

The Celestial Sphere