1

Assam-Arakan Basin
Basin Introduction :.
The Assam-Arakan Basin is situated in the northeastern part of India categorized as category-I basin. The basin
covers an area of 116000 Sq.Km. Major tectonic elements of the basin are:
Assam Shelf
Naga Schuppen belt
Assam-Arakan Fold belt.

Stratigraphy:

Sedimentary sequences ranging in age from Late Mesozoic to Cenozoic are exposed in the Assam-Arakan Basin.
The sequences can be divided into shelf facies and basinal (geosynclinal) facies. The shelf facies occur in Garo
hills, Khasi-Jaintia hills, parts of North Cachar hills and Mikir hills, and below the alluvial cover in Upper Assam,
Bengal and Bangladesh. The basinal facies occur in the Patkai range, Naga Hills, parts of North Cachar hills,
Manipur, Surma valley, Tripura, Chittagong hills of Bangladesh and Chin hills of Myanmar (Burma).

Petroleum System:
All the oil and gas fields, discovered till date in the Upper Assam shelf, are situated mostly on the southeastern
slope of the Brahmaputra arch, and almost all the major oil fields like Nahorkatiya, Lakwa, Lakhmani, Geleki,
Dikom Kathaloni etc. lie in a belt bordering the Naga thrust. In the Dhansiri valley also, oil fields like the Borholla
and Khoraghat and Nambar lie in the same belt. In the Naga Schuppen belt, oil accumulations in the Lakshmijan

and the Champang oil fields occur in that zone of the shelf which is overridden by the Naga thrust. In the Digboi
and Kharsang oil fields, oil occurs in Tipam Sandstone and Girujan Clay formations, respectively, overlying the
Naga thrust.
Source Rock and Hydrocarbon Generation
The important source rock sequences occur within the argillaceous Kopili Formation and in the Coal-Shale Unit of
the Barail Group. The average TOC of shales within the Sylhet Formation is about 0.60%, in the Kopili Formation,
about 2.5% and in the Barail Coal-Shale Unit, about 3.8%. The average TOC ranges of different formations (shale
samples) are as follows:
Formation
Average TOC Range
Remarks
Barail (shales)
2.5% to 4.5%
Excellent source potential
Kopili (shales)
Sylhet Limestone
Basal Sandstone

1% to 3%
~ 0.61%
~ 0.62%

Excellent source potential

Poor source potential
Poor source potential

Organic matter richness of shales increases towards the Naga thrust. In both Kopilis and Barails, the organic
matter is terrestrial type-III with varying contributions of Type-II.
Barail Coal-Shale Unit in the Schuppen belt also form important source rock sequence. In the Naga fold belt, in
addition to above, Disang shales also possess excellent source rock characteristics with TOC around 4% and VRo
varying from 0.69% to 1.94%.
Geochemical analysis of exposed sediments from the Schuppen belt show a TOC range of 0.64-1.20% for Barail
shales. The dominant organic matter type is structured terrestrial. Presence of amorphous (upto 60%) and
extractable organic matter (upto 55%) indicates a fairly good liquid hydrocarbon generating potential. Organic
matter is mainly humic and sapropelic. TAI of 2.6 to 2.75 and VRo of 0.57 to 0.67% show that the sediments are
thermally mature and within oil window. In the subthrust, the source sequences occur at greater depths and,
therefore, should be in a higher state of thermal maturity. It is expected that the source sequences within the Kopili
and Barail formations in the subthrust would be at the peak oil generating state.
Reservoir Facies
Barring the Borholla and Champang oil fields of the Dhansiri valley and the adjacent schuppen zone respectively,
where oil occurs in fractured granitic basement rock (Precambrian) and Tura sandstones (Upper Paleocene/ Lower
Eocene), oil in the Upper Assam Shelf and schuppen belt occurs in sandstone reservoirs ranging in age from Upper
Paleocene-Lower Eocene to Mio-Pliocene. However, the major accumulations occur in Upper Paleocene + Lower
Eocene, Oligocene (Barail Formation) and Miocene (Tipam Sandstone) sandstones. The major oil fields, where oil
occurs in Upper Paleocene and Lower Eocene sandstone reservoirs are Tengakhat, Dikom, Kothaloni, Baghjan and
in Oligocene sandstone reservoirs (Barail Formation), are Nahorkatiya, Hapjan, Shalmari, Geleki, Lakwa, and
Rudrasagar etc. Oil reserves in Kopili sandstones (Upper Eocene) are found mainly in the Geleki field. Most of the
oil in the Tipam Sandstone is found in the Lakwa-Lakhmani and Geleki fields. In the Kumchai and Kharsang
fields of Arunachal Pradesh, oil occurs in the Girujan Formation of Mio-Pliocene age. Recently gas has been
discovered in the sandstone reservoir of Dirok structure within Girujan Formation. The Girujan Clay being
floodplain deposits, the reservoir sands are generally lenticular and some what erratic in distribution. In the
Khoraghat oil field of Dhansiri valley, oil occurs in sandstone reservoirs within the Bokabil Formation (Middle
Miocene). In the North Cachar area of Assam, potential reservoir rocks are expected to be fractured granitic
basement rock (Precambrian)and sandstones in the Tura (Paleocene), Kopili (Upper Eocene), Renji (Oligocene),
Bhuban and Bokabil (Middle Miocene) formations.

Cap Rock and Entrapment

There are three well developed regional cap rocks within the Tertiary sedimentary succession, the lower one,

occurring in the Upper Eocene is the argillaceous Kopili Formation, the middle one is the Barail Coal-Shale Unit
and the upper one, overlying the Tipam Sandstone is the Girujan Clay. Most of the oil accumulations, discovered
till date in the Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene, Oligocene (Barail) and Miocene (Tipam Sandstone) reservoirs,
occur in structural combination (fold + fault) traps developed by compressive forces during Mio- Pliocene and
later times. Most of these hydrocarbon traps, particularly those developed in post- Barail sediments, orient parallel
to the Naga thrust. Faults associated with these traps in the southeasterly sloping shelf zone in the Brahmaputra
and Dhansiri valleys have NE-SW to NNE-SSW orientation. Most of the prominent faults continue upward into
post-Tipam sediments, and the rest die out in the lower part of the Tipam Formation. Some of the prominent faults,
particularly those near the Naga thrust, are reverse faults, e.g., one at the northeastern flank of the Geleki structure,
another at the northern flank of the Rudrasagar structure. It may be mentioned that oil, generated in the Kopili and
Barail source beds, accumulated in post-Barail sediments by vertical migration through such prominent faults. Oil
within the Kopili Formation (composed predominantly of shales with subordinate sandstone) occurs in stratistructural combination traps, as in the Geleki field. Oil within the Girujan Clay Formation as in the Kumchai and
Kharsang fields also occurs in combination traps, but here the control of lithology on accumulation is more than
that of structure. In the Borholla field of the Dhansiri valley and Champang field of the neighbouring schuppen
belt, oil reserves occur in structurally controlled subtle trap in fractured basement rocks. Oil accumulations within
the Bokabil Formation (Middle Miocene) in the Khoraghat and Nambar fields of the Dhansiri valley, occur in
structural combination traps.
Hydrocarbon Potential

Petroleum Plays :.
S.No. Plays
1
Mio-Pliocene
2
Miocene

Formation
Girujan
Tipam

Major Field
Kharsang, Kumchai, Dirok
Hapjan, Digboi, Geleki, Charali

Oligocene

Barail

Naharkatiya,Lakwa, Lakhmani, Rudrasagar, Demulgaon,

Sonari, Amguri, Hapjan, Shalmari,Kusijan, Laiplinggaon,
Geleki

Mid-Upper
Eocene

Kopili

Geleki

Lower Eocene Lakadong+Therria

Archean

Fractured Granatic
Basement

Dikom, Kathaloni, Baghjan, Panidihing, Tamulikhat,

Tengakhat
Borhola, Champang

Cambay
Basin Introduction:
Geographic Location of the basin
The Cambay rift Basin, a rich Petroleum Province of India, is a narrow, elongated rift graben,
extending from Surat in the south to Sanchor in the north. In the north, the basin narrows, but

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tectonically continues beyond Sanchor to pass into the Barmer Basin of Rajasthan. On the southern side, the basin
merges with the Bombay Offshore Basin in the Arabian Sea. The basin is roughly limited by latitudes 21 00' and
25 00' N and longitudes 71 30' and 73 30' E.
Category of the basin : Proved
Area : The total area of the basin is about 53,500 sq. km.
Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness
The evolution of the Cambay basin began following the extensive outpour of Deccan Basalts (Deccan Trap) during
late cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India. Its a narrow half graben trending roughly NNWSSE filled with Tertiary sedimentswithrifting due to extensional tectonics. Seismic and drilled well data indicate a
thickness of about 8 km of Tertiary sediments resting over the Deccan volcanics.
Exploration Status
PEL AREAS P ML AREA M TOTAL AREAS T UNEXPLORED AREAS U = T ( P+M )
15,838.04 Sq. KM 5,083.62 Sq. KM 53,500 Sq. KM
32578.34 Sq. KM
Generalized Stratigraphy:

Standard stratigraphic table.

Sedimentation survey and Depositional environment in different location zones
The formation of the Cambay Basin began following the extensive outpour of Deccan basalts (Deccan Trap) during
late Cretaceous covering large tracts of western and central India. The NW-SE Dharwarian tectonic trends got
rejuvenated creating a narrow rift graben extending from the Arabian sea south of Hazira to beyond Tharad in the
north. Gradually, the rift valley expanded with time.
During Paleocene, the basin continued to remain as a shallow depression, receiving deposition of fanglomerate, trap
conglomerate, trapwacke and claystone facies, especially, at the basin margin under a fluvioswampy regime. The
end of deposition of the Olpad Formation is marked by a prominent unconformity. At places a gradational contact
with the overlying Cambay Shale has also been noticed.
During Early Eocene, a conspicuous and widespread transgression resulted in the deposition of a thick, dark grey,
fissile pyritiferous shale sequence, known as the Cambay Shale. This shale sequence has been divided into Older
and Younger Cambay Shale with an unconformity in between. In the following period, relative subsidence of the
basin continued leading to the accumulation of the Younger Cambay Shale. The end of Cambay Shale deposition is
again marked by the development of a widespread unconformity that is present throughout the basin.

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Subsequently, there was a strong tectonic activity that resulted in the development of the Mehsana Horst and other
structural highs associated with basement faults.
Middle Eocene is marked by a regressive phase in the basin and this led to the development of the Kalol/ Vaso delta
system in the north and the Hazad delta system in the south. Hazad and Kalol/ Vaso deltaic sands are holding large
accumulations of oil.
Major transgression during Late Eocene-Early Oligocene was responsible for the deposition of the Tarapur Shale
over large area in the North Cambay Basin. The end of this sequence is marked by a regressive phase leading to
deposition of claystone, sandstone, and shale alternations and a limestone unit of the Dadhar Formation.
The end of the Paleogene witnessed a major tectonic activity in the basin resulting in the development of a
widespread unconformity.
During Miocene the depocenters continued to subside resulting in the deposition of enormous thickness of Miocene
sediments as the Babaguru, Kand and Jhagadia formations.
Pliocene was a period of both low and high strands of the sea level, allowing the deposition of sand and shale.
During Pleistocene to Recent, the sedimentation was mainly of fluvial type represented by characteristic deposits of
coarse sands, gravel, clays and kankar followed by finer sands and clays, comprising Gujarat Alluvium.
Throughout the geological history, except during early syn rift stage, the North Cambay Basin received major
clastic inputs from north and northeast, fed by the ProtoSabarmati and ProtoMahi rivers. Similarly, the Proto
Narmada river system was active in the south, supplying sediments from provenance, lying to the east.

Petroleum System:
Source Rock
Thick Cambay Shale has been the main hydrocarbon source rock in the Cambay Basin. In the northern part of the
Ahmedabad-Mehsana Block, coal, which is well developed within the deltaic sequence in Kalol, Sobhasan and
Mehsana fields, is also inferred to be an important hydrocarbon source rock. The total organic carbon and
maturation studies suggest that shales of the Ankleshwar/Kalol formations also are organically rich, thermally
mature and have generated oil and gas in commercial quantities. The same is true for the Tarapur Shale. Shales
within the Miocene section in the Broach depression might have also acted as source rocks.
Reservoir Rock
There are a number of the reservoirs within the trapwacke sequence of the Olpad Formation. These consist of sand
size basalt fragments. Besides this, localized sandstone reservoirs within the Cambay Shale as in the Unawa, Linch,
Mandhali, Mehsana, Sobhasan, fields, etc are also present.
Trap Rock
The most significant factor that controlled the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Olpad Formation is the favorable
lithological change with structural support and short distance migration. The lithological heterogeneity gave rise to
permeability barriers, which facilitated entrapment of hydrocarbons. The associated unconformity also helped in the
development of secondary porosity.
Transgressive shales within deltaic sequences provided a good cap rock. (Fig 6: Generalized Tectono Stratigraphy
Map Showing Source rock, Reservoir Rock, and Oil and Gas Occurrences.)
Timing of migration & Trap formation: The peak of oil generation and migration is understood to have
taken place during Early to Middle Miocene.

Cauvery Basin
Basin Introduction:
The Cauvery Basin extending Extends along the East Coast of India, bounded by 08 - 12 5 North Latitude , 78 - 800 East Longitude has been under hydrocarbon exploration since
late nineteen fifties. Application of CDP seismic in 1984 considerably increased the pace of
exploration resulting in the discovery of several small oil and gas fields. The first deep well for exploration was
drilled in 1964.
The Cauvery Basin covers an area of 1.5 lakh sq.km comprising onland (25,000 sq.km) and shallow offshore areas
(30,000 sq km). In addition, there is about 95,000 sq km of deep-water offshore areas in the Cauvery Basin. Most of
the offshore and onland basinal area is covered by gravity, magnetic and CDP Seismic surveys.
Category and Basin Type:
Cauvery basin is a pericratonic rift basin and comes under category first. (Basins with established to commercial
production.)
Basin Age & Sediment Thickness
Result of Gondwanaland fragmentation during drifting of India- Srilanka landmass system away from
Antarctica/ Australia plate in Late Jurassic/ Early Cretaceous.
The basin is endowed with five to six kilometers of sediments ranging in age from Late Jurassic to Recent
(mainly thick shale, sandstone & minor limestone).
Prognosticated resources : 700 MMT (430 MMT: onland areas and 270 MMT: offshore)
Generalized Stratigraphy:

GROUP

NARIMANAM

NAGUR

FORMATION
Cuddalore Sandstone

AGE
Younger Miocene to Recent

Madanam Limestone

Younger Miocene

Vanjiur

Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene

Shiyali

Oligocene to Younger Miocene

Niravi

Late Eocene to Oligocene

Tirippundi

Middle Eocene to Early Miocene

Pandanallur

Lower Eocene

Karaikal Shale
Kamalapuram formations

ARIYALUR

Maestritian to Lower Eocene

Portono

Kampanian to Maestritian

Nanilam

Santonian to Kampanian

Kudavasal Shale
Bhuvanagiri

UTTATUR

Paleocene to Eocene

Satapadi
Andimadam

Konesian to Santonian
Senomanian to Turonian
Albian to Senomanian
Albian

The stratigraphy is worked out from outcrop geology and sub-surface information gathered from seismic and drilling
data.
Precambrian:
Precambrian cratonic rocks comprising granites and gneisses are exposed all along the western margin of
the basin.
Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous: Overlying the Cratonic basement along the margin of the basin are
exposures of sedimentary rocks of Gondwanic affinity identified as the Shivganga Beds and Therani
Formation. The Therani Formation contains index Gondwana plant fossils (Ptilophyllum acutifolium).
These rocks are feldspathic, gritty and kaolinitic.
Early Cretaceous:The rocks of the Uttatur Group is made up of Kalakundi, Karai Shale and Maruvathur
Clay formations in the outcrops and the Andimadam, Sattapadi and Bhuvanagiri formations in the subsurface. These formations overlie the older Gondwana rocks and basement granites and gneisses.
Andimadam Formation:In the subsurface, the formation is developed in grabens, namely, the Ramnad,
Tanjore, Tranquebar and Ariyalur Pondicherry grabens. The lower boundary of the formation is marked by
Archaean Basement rocks, while the upper boundary is defined by an argillaceous section. It comprises
pale grey, fine to coarse grained, micaceous sandstone and micaceous silty shale.
Sattapadi Shale:This formation is widely distributed in the basin.It is absent in the southeastern part of the
basin. The Andimadam Formation marks its lower boundary and an arenaceous facies of the Bhuvanagiri
Formation marks its upper contact. It comprises mainly silty shale and thin calcareous sandstone. The
environment of deposition is inferred to be marine. The age assigned is Albian-Cenomanian. This is one of
the important source sequences for HC generation.
Bhuvanagiri Formation: The formation is developed mostly in the northern and central parts of the basin.
The formation is predominantly sandstone with minor claystone and shale. A Cenomanian-Turonian age
can be assigned to this formation. It is inferred to have been deposited in middle shelf to upper bathyal
environment.
Palk Bay Formation: The occurrence of this formation is restricted to the Palk Bay. The lithology is
dominantly calcareous sandstone with a few bands of sandy claystone. The depositional environment is
inferred to be shallow marine in a fan delta setting.
Late Cretaceous: The sediments in the outcrops are classified under two groups, namely, the Trichinopoly
and Ariyalur groups. The Trichinopoly and Ariyalur groups in outcrops consist of Sandstones and
Limestone formations.
Kudavasal Shale Formation:It is present all along the eastern part of the basin. The formation consists of
shale/calcareous silty shale with occasional calcareous sandstone bands.
Nannilam Formation: It is conformably overlain and underlain by the Porto-Novo and Kudavasal
formations respectively. The formation consists of alternations of shale, calcareous silty shales and
occasional calcareous sandstones. The formation age ranges from Santonian to Campanion.
Porto-Novo Shale: Predominantly developed in the northern part of the Ariyalur-Pondicherry Sub-basin,
west of Karaikal Ridge and Palk Bay Sub-basin. It is predominantly argillaceous with minor siltstone. The
age of the formation is Campanion to Maastrichtian.
Komarakshi Shale: The formation has developed towards the eastern part of the basin. It unconformably
overlies the Bhuvanagiri/ Palk Bay Formation and underlies the Karaikal/Kamalapuram formations. The
formation consists mainly of calcareous silty shale. The age of the formation is Coniacian to Maastrichtian.
Tertiary: A complete sequence of Tertiary sediments is encountered in the sub-surface. The exposed rocks
are represented by the Niniyur Formation of Paleocene age and the Cuddalore Sandstone of Mio-Pliocene
age. The sub-surface section of Tertiary rocks is considerably thick and has been classified into two groups,
the lower part is named as the Nagaur Group and the upper part, as the Narimanam Group.
Nagore Group: The formations of this group overlie the Ariyalur Group. The base and top of the group is
marked by pronounced unconformities. The four formations recognized in this group are described below.
Kamalapuram Formation: The Porto-Novo---Komarakshi Shale unconformably underlies the formation,
whereas the overlying Karaikal Shale has conformable contact. It consists of alternations of shaly
sandstones and shales.

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Karaikal Shale: The formation conformably overlies the Kamalapuram Formation. The formation
comprises shales, which are occasionally calcareous/pyritic. The age of the formation ranges from
Paleocene to Eocene.
Pandanallur Formation: It has a restricted areal extension. It consists of claystone sandstone, deposited in
middle shelf environment. Age of the formation is Lower Eocene.
Tiruppundi Formation: The formation is present in Pondicherry offshore, Nagapattinam Sub-basin, and
south of Palk Bay Sub-basin. The formation comprises limestone, siltstone and sandstone. It is of Middle
Eocene to Early Miocene age.
Narimanam Group: The youngest sedimentary sequence comprising sandstone, clay/claystone and
limestone which are well recognized with distinct character is designated as a Group. This group comprises
eight formations.
Niravi Formation: The formation unconformably overlies the Tiruppundi Formation/Karaikal Shale. The
formation consists of grey coloured, fine to medium grained, calcareous sandstone with occasional pyrite
and garnet.
Kovilkalappal Formation: It occurs in Tanjore and Nagapattinam Sub-basins and overlies the Niravi
Formation, and underlies the Shiyali Claystone. It is argillaceous in nature with a dominant presence of
limestone.
Shiyali Claystone Formation: : It is observed to occur in Madanam and Karaikal area. The age of the
formation ranges from Oligocene to Lower Miocene.
Vanjiyur Sandstone Formation: The formation has limited areal extent. It is predominantly arenaceous in
character and comprises dark grey, calcareous sandstone and siltstone.
Tirutaraipundi Sandstone Formation: The formation is present in the southern part of the Nagapattinam
Sub-basin towards Palk Bay. It comprises mainly sandstones with minor limestone.
Madanam Limestone Formation: The formation is unconformably underlain by the Tirutaraipundi
Sandstone and Vanjiyur Sandstone. It comprises mainly limestone with minor silty clays.
Vedaranniyam Limestone Formation: The formation occurs only in the southeastern part of the basin. It
consists of predominantly coral limestone and minor grainstone.
Tittacheri Formation: The formation is present in a large part of the basin. It grades into the Cuddalore
Sandstone Formation near the outcrops. This consists of unconsolidated gravely sandstone and earthy
clays.The age of the formation is Lower Miocene to Pliocene.

Petroleum System:

Prognosticated Resources/Proved Reserve

The Cauvery Basin is an established hydrocarbon province with a resource base of 700 MMT.
430 MMT for onland areas and 270 MMT in the offshore.
Proven / Expected Play Types
TStructural and combination traps in Early Cretaceous to Paleocene sequences.
Stratigraphic traps such as pinch-outs / wedge-outs and lenticular sand bodies in Early to Late Cretaceous
sequences.
Source

Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous main source Kudavasal Shale within Cretaceous Basal part of
Kamalapuram Fm (Paleocene).

Reservoir

Andimadam, Bhuvanagiri & Nannilam Formations within Cretaceous Kamlapuram and Niravi
Formations within Paleocene Precambrian Fractured Basement.

Cap Rock Sattapadi shale within Cretaceous Post unconformity shales like Kudavasal and Kamlapuram.
Entrapment Structural/ Stratigraphic, Combination traps.

Krishna Godavari Basin

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Basin Introduction:
Extensive deltaic plain formed by two large east coast rivers, Krishna and Godavari in the state of Andhra Pradesh
and the adjoining areas of Bay of Bengal in which these rivers discharge their water is known as Krishna Godavari
Basin. The Krishna Godavari Basin is a proven petroliferous basin of continental margin located on the east coast of
India .Its onland part covers an area of 15000 sq. km and the offshore part covers an area of 25,000 sq. km up to
1000 m isobath. The basin contains about 5 km thick sediments with several cycles of deposition, ranging in age
from Late Carboniferous to Pleistocene.
The major geomorphologic units of the Krishna Godavari basin are Upland plains, Coastal plains, Recent Flood and
Delta Plains.
The climate is hot and humid with temperature reaching up to 42 degree symbol is to be inserted C during summer.
The mean day temperature varies between 35 C and 40 C during summer and 25 C and 30 C during winter.
Generalized Stratigraphy:

12

In the northwestern and western margins of the basin, out crops of Achaean crystallines and sediments ranging in
age from Late Permian to Pliocene are present. However, major part of the basin is covered by alluvium/sea.
The outcrop and sub-crop lithologic information has been gathered from a large numbers of wells drilled in the
shelfal area and onland.
The stratigraphy has been worked out.
Litho - Stratigraphy Nomenclature.
Petroleum System:
Krishna-Godavari basin is a proven petroliferous basin with commercial hydrocarbon accumulations in the oldest
Permo-Triassic Mandapeta Sandstone onland to the youngest Pleistocene channel levee complexes in deep water
offshore. The basin has been endowed with four petroleum systems, which can be classified broadly into two

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categories viz. Pre-Trappean and Post-Trappean in view of their distinct tectonic and sedimentary characteristics.
Seismic imaging of Pre-Trappean section poses problems in terms of data quality.
Source rich areas at different stratigraphic levels
Hydrocarbon Generation Centres in Cretaceous.
Hydrocarbon Generation Centres in Paleocene.
Hydrocarbon Generation Centres in Eocene.
Pre -Trappean Petroleum System
Permo-Triassic Kommugudem-Mandapeta-Red Bed Petroleum System
This is the oldest known petroleum system in the basin.
Kommugudem Formation is the main source rock for this system. It belongs to Artinskian
(Upper Early Permian) age. This coal-shale unit is more than 900 m thick in the type well
Source Rock Kommugudem-1.It has a good source rock potential with rich organic matter with TOC ranging
between 0.5 to 3% and vitrinite reflectance in the deeper part of the basin is in the range of1.0 to
1.3. Generation threshold occurred during Cretaceous.
Reservoir
Rock

Mandapeta Sandstone of Permo-Triassic age is the principal reservoir rock for this system. It
may be noted that these sandstones are in general tight and need frac jobs for exploitation.
However, porous and permeable patches are also present and chasing them seismically is a
major exploration challenge.

Tight layers within Mandapeta Sandstone and the overlying argillaceous Red Bed act as
effective seals.
Entrapment is essentially structural in nature. As mentioned earlier, seismic mapping of preEntrapment trappean section has serious problems due to the presence of a good seismic energy reflector in
the form of Basalt above this system affecting the seismic data quality.
Cap Rock

Late Jurassic-Cretaceous Raghavapuram-Gollapalli-Tirupati-Razole Petroleum System

Raghavapuram Shale of Lower Cretaceous age is considered as the principal source rock not
only for this system but also for the onland part of the basin. Maximum thickness up to 1100 m
is recorded in the subsurface. The sequence comprises essentially carbonaceous shale with
Source Rock intervening sands possibly representing brief regressive phases in an otherwise major
transgressive phase. The organic matter is dominantly of Type III and III B. The maturity level
varies between catagenetic to inadequately matured in different parts of the basin. TOC is
recorded up to 2.4%. It has the proclivity for generation of both oil and gas.

Reservoir
Rock

Lenticular sands within Raghavapuram Shale possibly representing intervening regressive

phases are one of the potential exploration targets; though mapping them seismically poses some
challenges as mentioned above. A recent major find in its time equivalent (?) in shallow offshore
part of the basin opened up some very exciting exploration opportunities in this sequence.
Recent exploratory efforts in deep offshore also indicated prospectivity in Cretaceous sequence
Sands within Gollapalli Formation of Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in Mandapeta-Endamuru
area and its time equivalent Kanukollu Formation in Lingala-Kaikalur area are another potential
target in this petroleum system.
A northeast southwest trending corridor of Upper Cretaceous Tirupati Sandstone, product of a
regressive phase, between southeastern side of Tanuku Horst and MTP fault is emerging as
another important target.

Cap Rock

Raghavapuram Shale acts as effective seal for both Gollapalli reservoirs and the sands within
Raghavapuram Shale. Shale intercalations within Tirupati Formation appear to act as seal for the
accumulations within the Formation.
Razole Formation (Deccan Basalt) acts as a regional cap for the pre-trappean hydrocarbon
accumulations. It is of interest to note that occasional occurrence of hydrocarbons is noticed
within Razole Formation itself, indicating its reservoir potential also.

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Entrapment

While the entrapment style is essentially structural, accumulations in Raghavapuram Shale have
strati-structural element in their entrapment.

Post-Trappean Petroleum System:

Palakollu-Pasarlapudi Petroleum System
It is the most prolific system in the onland part of the basin contributing major part of the onland hydrocarbon
production. It has an abnormally pressured source sequence and a reservoir sequence with more than normal
pressures.
The Paleocene Palakollu Shale is the source sequence. It is deposited in considerable thickness
in the area to the south of MTP fault with a ENE-WSW alignment paralleling the fault. It shows
fair to god source rock potential with proclivity to generate mainly gaseous hydrocarbons. TOC
Source Rock
ranges between 0.6 to >5% and is dominantly humic type, rich in inertinite and about 10-20%
contribution is from Type II organic matter. Subsidence history of Palakollu Shale suggests
generation threshold to be around Middle Eocene.
Reservoir
Rock

Sand layers within source rich Palakollu Shale are found to be potential reservoir rocks, though
most often with very limited accumulations. Associated high pressures also do not make them
attractive targets. Pasarlapudi Formation of Lower to Middle Eocene is the principal producing
sequence onland with many potential reservoir levels.

Laterally persistent shales within Pasarlapudi Formation have been found to act as effective seals
for the accumulations within Pasarlapudi Formation. Palakollu Shale encompassing the
occasional sands within the Formation also acts as seal for them.
Though structural entrapment is the dominant element for Pasarlapudi Formation, stratiEntrapment
structural element also appears to be occasionally present.
Cap Rock

Vadaparru Shale Matsyapuri / Ravva Formation-Godavari Clay Petroleum System

Discovery of medium sized fields with liquid hydrocarbon in the Coastal Tract, significant discovery of Ravva Field
in the shallow offshore and some very exciting mega discoveries in deep offshore parts of the basin have made this
youngest petroleum system, a very important one.
: Vadaparru Shale is the principal source sequence. Average TOC for this sequence is about 4%.
Organic matter is in the early phase of maturation in the coastal part and increases basin ward.
Organic matter is of Type III and has potential to generate both oil and gas. Generation threshold
for this sequence is around Lower Miocene.
Source Rock
An interesting recent observation regarding the source sequence is that some major gas
accumulations in both shallow and deep offshore are found to be of biogenic origin also. This
observation throws some interesting challenges in terms of exploration strategies to be adopted
especially for the offshore part of the basin.
Reservoir
Rock

Sands within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formation and also the sands within Vadaparru Shale are
important potential levels and are known to house significant hydrocarbon accumulations in the
basin. Recent discoveries in the channel- levee complexes in intra slope terrace/basin setting
within Godavari Clay of Pliocene-Pleistocene has opened up hitherto unexplored frontiers of the
basin for exploration.

Shales within Matsyapuri and Ravva Formations, Vadaparru Shale and Godavari Clay act as
effective seals.
Though structural element plays dominant role for hydrocarbon accumulations in this system,
role of strati-structural element is noticed. Clear understanding of sediment induced tectonics
Entrapment and precise mapping techniques for reservoir facies can yield very rich dividends especially in
the younger sequences.
Krishna-Godavari Basin endowed with such effective petroleum systems ranging from PermoCap Rock

15
Triassic to Pleistocene offer very exciting exploration challenges with matching rewards
especially in deep water areas.

Petroleum Plays:
Syn-rift Mesozoic play
Pennar-Krishna Graben, Nizapattinam depression, both onland and offshore, Synrift grabens in shallow and deep
waters (Block KG-OSN-2003/1, KG-DWN-98/1)
Source Rock

Syn-rift Mesozoic sediments

Reservoir
Trap
Depositional
Environment

Sandstone
Structural and strati-structural. Draping over reactivated structural high and wedgeouts.

Discovery Wells

Continental (Fluvial to Laccustrine )

KG-15, KG-16, & KG-8, KG-17 (Block KG-OSN-2003/1), KG-D4-MD1 (Block KGDWN-98/1)

UD-1
(KGDWN-98/2)
KG-D6-MA1 was the 19th exploration well drilled by RIL that was designed to test the
MA-1(Block KG- hydrocarbons potential of the Cretaceous in the D6 block in offshore Andhra Pradesh, Bay
DWN-98/3)
of Bengal. The well is located in water depth of 1189 m in the Krishna Godavari basin.
Significant oil discovery was made in this well in the Cretaceous section.
Early Miocene Mid Miocene Play
Shallow and Deep offshore area, Ravva Field, KG-OSN-2001/1(Dhirubhai-28,36,37), KG-DWN-98/3
Source Rock

Eocene / Cretaceous

Reservoir

Sandstone

Trap

Depositional
Environment
Discovery Wells

Structural/Strati-structural growth related /roll over/faulted /unconformity

related
Erosional subcrop beyond major sequence boundary (stratigraphic )
Combined fault seal and erosional remnant (strati-structural)
Tilted faults block(structural )
Updip stratigraphic pinch out on sequence boundary.

Shore face to deep- water channel and slope fan system

Ravva wells R-2 to R-5, 1987-1990.

The Mio-Pliocene sequence in offshore part is promising. The commercial hydrocarbon accumulation in Ravva field
is well known. The prospects GS-38, G-1 and G-2 are also hydrocarbon bearing in Mio-Pliocene strata. As many as
fourteen commercial finds have come from this sequence.

Mumbai offshore

16
Basin Introduction:
Geographic Location of the basin
Mumbai Offshore basin is located on the western continental shelf of India between Saurashtra basin
in NNW and Kerela Konkan in the south.
Category of the basin
The basin falls under the category I, which implies that the basin has proven commercial productivity.
Area
It covers an area of about 116,000 km2 from coast to 200 m isobath.
Age of the Basin & Sediment-thickness
The age of the basin ranges from late Cretaceous to Holocene with thick sedimentary fill ranging from 1100-5000
m. Though possibility of occurrence of Mesozoic synrift sequences in the deep-water basin have been indicated by
the recently acquired seismic data by GXT, it needs to be further ascertained by future studies.

Generalized Stratigraphy:
Standard stratigraphic table.

Sedimentation History and Depositional Environment

Late
This phase signifies the early syn-rift stage & is represented by trap-derived clastics contributed
Paleoceneby the then existing paleo-highs essentially in continental to fluvial environment in its lower
Early Eocene part (Panna Formation). It is overlain by grey to dark grey shales with subordinate sands

17
possibly representing the first marine transgression into the basin. Presence of carbonaceous
shale and coal at a few places suggest localized restricted conditions.
Main clastic depocenters like Surat Depression and the contiguous southward lows like Central
Graben (Panna Bassien block) and Vijayadurg Graben (Ratnagiri Block) received these
sediments in considerable thickness aided by syn-sedimentary activity of the bounding faults. A
few localized depressions in Mumbai Platform and over some other horst blocks also received
these sediments. Panna Formation is wide spread in the basin except over the crestal parts of
prominent paleo-highs like Mumbai High, Heera etc. Its thickness varies from almost nil to
hundreds of meters in deep sinks.
Shelf Margin block, though under deep marine realm seem to have received lesser quantities of
sediments which were either derived from the Diu Arch (?) or from localized provenances. The
facies developed in this block are mainly claystone, argillaceous and carbonates with some
amount of pelagic fauna.
Carbonate facies (Devgarh Formation) development is observed towards the southern edge
of Mumbai High in the form of muddy foraminiferal- algal banks; Deep Continental Shelf area
and isolated off-shelf carbonate build-ups at a few places in Shelf Margin and Ratnagiri.
The syn-rift stage of Late Paleocene-Early Eocene period got terminated with a basin wide
regression and development of an unconformity
After a period of peneplanation, the basin witnessed a major transgression. Extensive carbonate
sedimentation occurred in the shallow shelf area of Mumbai Platform, Panna-Bassein-Heera
block and Ratnagiri block(Bassein Formation). However the period witnessed essentially
clastic sedimentation in Surat Depression(Belapur and Diu formations) with occasional
carbonate bands and a few sand stringers and argillaceous carbonates and shales in Central and
Middle Late Vijayadurg Grabens (Panna-Bassein-Heera block and Ratnagiri block). Shelf margin was
Eocene
generally starved of clastics with deposition of minor claystone and carbonates of mixed middle
shelf to bathyal origin ( Belapur Formation)
Bassein Formation also indicates a wide range of environments restricted platform, shelf
lagoon with isolated shoals in Bassein area to open carbonate shelf in DCS and Ratnagiri and
finally deep water carbonates in Shelf Margin area. It also formed wedge outs against the rising
flanks of Mumbai High and Heera, which can be considered as potential exploration targets.
During this period, Surat Depression experienced the maximum subsidence-accumulating
thick under compacted claystone relating to the prograding delta from northeast (Mahuva
Early
Formation). The Mumbai platform experienced generally shallower water depths and shale
Oligocene
interbeds within limestone becoming more frequent. In Shelf Margin area thinner carbonates
are deposited under relatively deeper conditions.
End of Early Oligocene also witnessed initiation of the westerly tilt of the basin.

Late
Oligocene

Close of Early Oligocene is marked by a minor period of non-deposition except in Shelf

Margin area. A few brief spells of transgression followed by continuous eustatic rise in sea
level up to Early Miocene marked this period. Crestal part of Mumbai High that hitherto
remained a positive area also got submerged during this period.
Surat Depression witnessed reduced subsidence resulting in a regressive coastline. A package
consisting of sand bodies deposited in distributary channels, coastal bars, tidal deltas and other
transitional environments encased in marginal marine normally pressured silty and
carbonaceous shale overlying over pressured prodelta clay stone of Early Oligocene. (Daman
Formation) The reservoir facies within this Formation have assumed great importance as they
have been found to host significant amounts of hydrocarbons.
There was faster subsidence in Shelf Margin to accommodate the increased sediment load
supplied by the westward prograding delta system. The finer clastics reaching the Shelf
Margin block were mainly deposited in the depression between Kori High and the carbonate
platform. (Alibag Formation)
Southward Close of Early Oligocene is marked by a minor period of non-deposition except
in Shelf Margin area. A few brief spells of transgression followed by continuous eustatic rise in
sea level up to Early Miocene marked this period. Crestal part of Mumbai High that hitherto
remained a positive area also got submerged during this period.
Southward from Surat Depression, clays got dispersed over Panna-Bassein-Heera block,

18
including the crestal areas and the northern part of Ratnagiri block as well as Bombay Platform.
While in Mumbai High-DCS area and southern part of Ratnagiri, the unit is termed as Panvel
Formation, in Panna-Bassein-Heera and northern part of Ratnagiri, the unit is named as Alibag
Formation.)

Early
Miocene

Middle
Miocene

Middle
MioceneHolocene

It was a period of eustatic rise in sea level punctuated by a brief spell. The finer clastics entering
into Surat Depression got mostly dispersed westward into Saurashtra basin and Shelf Margin
area. Limited quantity of clastics got dispersed southward and entered Mumbai platform at its
southeast and also up to Heera area. In response to the rising sea level, the delta being formed
in Surat Depression in Late Oligocene shifted eastward.
Bassein and the area to its south that experienced shoaling conditions during Eocene was the
site for fine clastic deposition during Early Miocene. Mumbai High and its western
part (DCS) underwent fairly thick carbonate sedimentation. In fact the major reservoir
of Mumbai High that hosts major part of the Countrys hydrocarbon reserves belongs to this
unit. While over the Mumbai High area the facies are low energy, very fine grained to clayey
carbonate reservoirs, the DCS area represents high-energy bio-clastic grainstone facies along
with minor mudstone and wackestone.
The sea level continued to rise during this period. Clastic supply also continued into the basin.
However much of the clastic material got dispersed westward into Saurashtra and Shelf
Margin areas. Considerable quantity of clastics got dispersed southward also covering the
entire Panna-Bassein area and also the Mumbai High and its immediate surroundings to the
west and south. This clastic unit over Mumbai High includes sheet like sand, which has also
been found to be hydrocarbon bearing. Carbonate sedimentation continued
in Ratnagiri and DCSareas. Toward the later part of Middle Miocene, clastic deposition almost
came to a halt in Mumbai High and other areas and consequently carbonates got deposited over
many areas. Uppermost part of the Middle Miocene Limestone in Heera field has been found to
be hydrocarbon bearing. Close of Middle Miocene was marked by a very pronounced
unconformity.
Post Middle Miocene witnessed a major transgression covering the entire basin coupled with
spectacular increase in clastic supply. The earlier initiated westerly tilt of the basin also became
more pronounced. All these events brought the carbonate sedimentation to a total halt. The
increased clastic supply also resulted in a significant progradation of Miocene shelf at places up
to 80 km (Chinchni Formation)

Petroleum System:
Source Rock
There are three major depocenters in the basin viz. Surat Depression in the north, Shelf Margin in the west and
Central and Vijayadurg Grabens in the south.
Source Rock
Blocks
Character

Surat
Depression

Shallow protected shelf facies consisting of

organic rich shales (Panna FormationPaleocene to early eocene & Belapur
Formation- Middle Eocene)
3-11% organic carbon and the kerogene type
is mixed Type II and Type III.
Expected oil window is around 3000 m

Shelf
Margin

Several layers of shale/claystone in a few

wells are reported to have requisite TOC and

Comments
The bounding faults of this tectonic unit have
been continuously active accommodating huge
pile of sediments that are being brought by the
Narmada/Tapti fluvial systems
The enclosure provided by the Diu Arch and
Mumbai High could have prevented free open
marine circulation and coupled with optimum
subsidence appears to have helped in
preservation of organic matter.
Possible reasons for the exploration setbacks
could be the speculative nature of reservoir rocks

19
have reached the oil window (Panna and hydrocarbon expulsion pressure did not
Formation & Belapur Formation)
exceed the ambient hyper pressure within the
The oil window from the available formation inhibiting primary migration .
geochemical data appears to be between
2900m and 3850m.
The finer clastics entering into Surat
Depression through Narmada /Tapti systems
have been getting partially dispersed
Central and southward and entering these two prominent
Vijaydurg
lows that appear to be an arm of the
grabens
Depression extending to the south. Syn
depositional sinking of these two lows
accommodating the huge clastic influx from
north is evident from the seismic data.

It is widely perceived that the Central Graben

in Panna-Bassein Heera block and Vijayadurg
Graben in Ratnagiri block had contributed to
huge hydrocarbon accumulations in many major
structural features like Panna, Bassein, Heera,
South Heera, etc. lying on the western horst
block suggesting a major westward hydrocarbon
migration. However discovery of Neelam field
within Central Graben indicated hydrocarbon
opportunities within the graben itself provided
better reservoir facies coupled with proper
entrapment condition is available.

Reservoir Rock
Mumbai offshore basin has been blessed with both clastic and carbonate reservoir facies in almost total Tertiary
Section ranging from Paleocene to Middle Miocene.
Reservoir
Age
Middle
Miocene

Lithology/Location

Comments

The uppermost part has been found to be

hydrocarbon bearing at a few places
Carbonate sections at Ratnagiri, Mumbai high
A sheet like sand deposited over Mumbai High
& Diu (Ratnagiri & Bandra formations)
(S1) is also proved to be gas bearing in
commercial quantity in Mumbai High

Deposited under cyclic sedimentation with each

cycle represented by lagoonal, algal mound,
Represented by a thick pile of carbonates foraminiferal mound and coastal marsh facies
Lower
hosting huge quantity of oil and gas over The porosity is mainly intergranular,
Miocene
Mumbai High (Bombay, Ratnagiri)
intragranular, moldic, vuggy and micro-fissures
and the solution cavities interconnected by
micro-fissures provided excellent permeability.
Sands in the central and mid-eastern part of
Surat depression i.e. Tapti- Daman area, Deposited under prograding delta conditions
Oligo Early
Daman
formation.
Miocene
Carbonates adjoining Mumbai High( Panvel Proved to be excellent reservoirs
formation )
Proven hydrocarbon bearing reservoirs in Tapti
E.Oligocene
clastics
of
Surat area.
depression(Mahuva
Formation) Gradual increase of sea level, shielding from the
Eocene and
Deposition of thicker carbonate facies over clastic onslaught from the northern part of the
Early
the horst blocks in Panna- Basein-Heera and basin.
Oligocene
Ratnagiri blocks (Bassein, Mukta & Heera The intervening regressive phases have aided in
formations).
developing good porosity in these rocks making
them excellent reservoir levels in the basin.
Coarser clastic facies developed within the The clastics of Panna formation are proved to be
Paleocene
upper marine shale sequence in areas of excellent reservoirs in the Sw flank of Panna
Mumbai High, Panna and Ratnagiri (Panna Basin platform.

20
Formation)

Cap Rocks
Shale encompassing the coarser clastic facies in the Paleocene section, widespread transgressive shale overlying the
Middle Eocene Bassein Formation, alternation of shale and tight limestone over early Oligocene Mukta Formation,
widespread intervening shale layers within Early Miocene Mumbai formation over Mumbai High and in DCS area,
post Middle Miocene clay/claystone of Chinchini Formation over parts of Heera etc. had provided effective seal for
the underlying hydrocarbon accumulations in the Mumbai offshore basin.
Entrapment
As mentioned earlier, Mumbai offshore basin has been endowed with a wide variety of entrapment situations likestructural closures with independent four way closures of very large, large, medium and small sizes, fault closures
and faulted closures with effective fault sealing, strati-structural features like Paleogene wedges against rising flanks
of paleohighs, mud mounds, carbonate build-ups, unconformity controlled traps, Paleogene and Neogene carbonate
wedges against the rising Eastern and Jaygad Homoclines. Mumbai Offshore Basin Introduction Tectonic History
Generalized Stratigraphy Petroleum System Petroleum Plays