INTRODUCTION

Control surveys provide horizontal and vertical positions of points to which

supplementary surveys are adjusted. Control surveys provide the standard of accuracy for
subsequent and subordinate surveys to attain. All projects, including route surveys,
photogrammetry, and topographic mapping are made up of a series of vertical and horizontal
eld surveys. These secondary surveys are dependent on control for position and relative
accuracy.
BASIC CONTROL NETWORKS
The U.S. Department of Commerce is responsible for establishing and maintaining basic
control networks for the nation. Through its office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), and NOAAs subordinate offices of the National Ocean Survey (NOS)
and National Geodetic Survey (NGS), horizontal and vertical geodetic control networks are
surveyed, adjusted, and the results published. Geodetic surveys are affected by and take into
account the curvature of the earth, astronomic observations and gravity determinations.
As part of the control program, the Federal Geodetic Control Committee (FGCC)
prepared classications and standards for geodetic control surveys. The specications were
reviewed, in part, by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), American Congress on
Surveying and Mapping (ACSM), and the American Geophysical Union. In 1974 the FGCC
published Classication, Standards of Accuracy, and General Specications of Geodetic
Control Surveys." To support the requirements the FGCC published in 1975, Specications to
Support Classication, Standards of Accuracy, and General Specications of Geodetic Control
Surveys." In 1984 Standards and Specifications for Geodetic control Networks was published to
replace parts of the previous publications. Because requirements and methods for acquisition of
geodetic control are changing rapidly, provisions were made to provide upon request, updated
information as it was released. The address to obtain current information or be placed upon a
mailing list is National Geodetic Information Branch, NCGI74, NCAA, Rockville MD 20852.
All Federal agencies are required to comply with the latest standards.
Table 1 outlines the FGCC general requirements for horizontal and vertical control.
The recommended uses range from local control surveys to the national control network.
Control surveys used to support the national network or for densication of the net must be
coordinated with the NOS. Special procedures, methods of recording, instrumentation, and other
requirements must strictly conform to them. See the reference section at the end of this chapter
for a list of publications related to geodetic surveying.

Table 1: Standards For The Classification Of Geodetic Control And Principle Recommended
Uses

HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CONTROL

Horizontal and vertical control is developed to create a framework around which other
surveys can be adjusted. These control surveys are used for accurate mapping projects in the
construction of underground utility systems, roadways, power lines, tunnels, and many other
high precision projects. Gresham and Associates, Inc. incorporates a complete range of Global
Positioning technology including Static GPS, Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GOS and Differential
GPS to provide high precision solutions for horizontal and vertical control documentation.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEYS
Horizontal control surveys coordinate horizontal positional data. These positions can be
referenced by parallels or plane coordinate axes. Because they are used as a framework for other
surveys, these surveys must be precise and accurate. These surveys provide a network of
monuments or points on the ground that can be used as the control for any other surveying
project, such as a boundary or construction survey. The advantages of using a horizontal control
survey is that lost monuments can be replaced accurately, surveys can be coordinated, more than
one network station can provide a check to the work, and a reduction in the cost of the project
can be achieved. Most horizontals should (and will) be connected to the control network.

VERTICAL CONTROL SURVEYS

A vertical control survey determines elevation with respect to sea level. These surveys
are also used as a benchmark upon which other surveys are based and high degree of accuracy is
required. These surveys are useful for tidal boundary surveys, route surveys, construction
surveys and topographic surveys. In a vertical control system, at least two permanent
benchmarks should be used, but more may be required depending upon the needs and complexity
of the project. These projects are needed for the construction of water and sewer systems,
highways, bridges, drains, and other major town or city infrastructure. These surveys can be done
alone, but are often done in conjunction with a horizontal control survey.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) maintains the National
Geodetic Survey to which all vertical control surveys should be connected for reference. For
more information about the National Geodetic Survey or the standards for vertical control
surveys
TRIANGULATION
Every survey, from mapping a continent to a small plot of land, depends upon a carefully
measured framework which is thereafter treated as free from error. Subsequently, the details are
lled in the framework by less elaborate methods. The fixation of a framework for a survey is
known as horizontal control. It can, in general be established either by traversing or triangulation
or by a combination of both. Some of the other methods to provide horizontal control are
trilateration and electromagnetic distance measurement (E.D.M.) traversing. The E.D.M.
traversing is rapidly replacing triangulation. Since the former is as accurate and far more
economical. Trilateration has not gained popularity, probably due to the lack of easy checks and
more tedious computations.
Horizontal control usually consists of a combination of triangulation and traverse. For
most of the surveys of small extent, e.g. plane surveys, where direct linear measurements are
impossible. Triangulation is most suited. It is also suitable when long sights are taken. In
triangulation, a number of lines of sight are required at each station. When the sights are long the
stations are elevated by building towers. In case the distances are short, the expense of towers
offsets any saving and traverse becomes economical. Therefore, the character of the physical
conditions encountered rather than the accuracy desired, governs the choice of the method of
horizontal control. Triangulation is most suited for hilly areas, whereas traversing is suitable for
at areas.
Triangulation is preferred for hills and undulating areas, since it is easy to establish
stations at reasonable distances apart, with intervisibility. In plane and crowded areas it is not
suitable as the intervisibility of stations is affected. The difficulty is overcome by building towers
which is quite expensive. The main disadvantage of Triangulation is the accumulation of error in
the lengths and directions of lines, since both of them, for successive lines; depend upon the
computations for those of the preceding line, which necessitates the check bases.
The direct object of triangulation is not to provide a complete plan showing details and
topographical features, but simply to locate a number of isolated points over the surface of the
country. When these points have been located, the topographical and other details are surveyed
by means of chain, traverse, plane table, stadia, or other surveys.
In triangulation the entire area to be surveyed is covered with a framework of triangles. If
the length and direction of one side, and all three angles of a triangle are measured precisely, the

lengths and directions of the remaining two sides of the triangle can be computed. The length of
the first line, which is measured precisely, is known as base line. The other two computed sides
are used as new base lines for two other triangles interconnected with the first triangle. By
extending this process, i.e. the measurement of the further interconnected triangles and using the
computed sides, a chain or network of triangles can be spread over the entire area. The apex of
the triangles so located with a relatively greater accuracy provides horizontal control of the
survey. Thus, triangulation may be defined as a system of multiplying ground controls on the
earth's surface. As a check, the length of one of the sides of the last triangle is also measured and
compared with the computed one. This method of surveying was first introduced by a Dutchman
named Sneli.
The field work of a triangulation is carried out in the following well-defined operations:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Reconnaissance
Station preparation
Base line measurement
Measurement of angles

Besides eld work, triangulation consists of the specications, the design of stations and
signals, and the reduction and adjustment of the observations. The description which follows
includes specications, signals and station marks, eld work, some geodetic practices, and office
work.
APPLICATIONS

Triangulation may be used for

1. Establishing accurately located control points for plane and geodetic surveys of large
areas.
2. Establishing accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying, and
3. Accurate location of engineering projects such as centre lines, terminal points and shafts
for long tunnels; and centre lines and abutments for long span bridges.
TRIANGULATION FIGURES OR SYSTEMS
It may be defined as a system consisting of triangulation stations connected by a chain of
triangles. The complete gure is called triangulation gure or triangulation system. The most
common type of gures used in a triangulation system is triangles, quadrilaterals and polygons.
All of these gures should fulfill the rigid geometric conditions given as follows:
1. The sum of the interior angles should be (2n - 4) x 90, where n is the number of sides of
the gure. The average number of seconds by which the sum of angles deviates from
180, plus the required spherical excess is known as triangular misclosure.
2. If all the angles are measured at a station, their sum should be 360.
3. The length of sides calculated through more than one routes should agree.

It is impossible to fulfill all the geometrical conditions, owing to the errors, until the field
measurements have been adjusted.
TRIANGLE
A chain of triangles is very rapid and economical when a narrow strip of terrain is to be
surveyed, e.g. highway, river, valley, etc. Angles less than 30 or more than 120 are not
permitted; for well-conditioned triangles, angles should not be less than 30 or more than l20.
ADVANTAGE
Simple, rapid and economical.
DISADVANTAGES
Since it is used to survey a long narrow strip, a number of base lines must be introduced
frequently to reduce the accumulation of errors. Therefore, a single chain of triangles is never
permitted in high order triangulation. The number of rigid geometrical conditions to be fulfilled
in the gures adjustment is small: so this system is least accurate.
Note: It is always advisable to use a double row of single triangles.
QUADRILATERALS
Quadrilaterals afford an excellent system since the various combinations of sides and
angles can be used to compute the lengths of the required sides and checks can be made
frequently. The best quadrilateral is a square. A quadrilateral with both diagonals having no
station at their intersection is usually employed. These are best suited for hilly areas.
ADVANTAGE
Most accurate system as the number of checks are more.
POLYGONS
When areas that are very wide in proportion to their lengths are to be surveyed, then
pentagonal or hexagonal gures may be economical. These may or may not have a central
station. However, the progress of work is slow because of more settings of the instrument.

Fig 1(a) : Chain of Simple Triangles

Fig 1(b) : Braced Quadrilaterals

Fig 1(c): Polygons with central Points

ADVANTAGES:
Such a system provides the desired checks on the computations and usually better
triangles can be selected from such a system than those provided by quadrilaterals.
In Fig.1, the double dark lines are bases and the dotted lines are the check base lines. If
any error is made in the measurement of a base line, it will result in a scale error throughout the
network. The scale errors defined as the difference between the measured and computed check
base. Therefore, to control this error, check base lines should be measured frequently.

TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
Trigonometric Leveling is the branch of Surveying in which we find out the vertical
distance between two points by taking the vertical angular observations and the known distances.
The known distances are either assumed to be horizontal or the geodetic lengths at the mean sea
level (MSL). The distances are measured directly (as in the plane surveying) or they are
computed as in the geodetic surveying.
The trigonometric Leveling can be done in two ways:
(1) Observations taken for the height and distances
(2) Geodetic Observations.
In the first way, we can measure the horizontal distance between the given points if it is
accessible.

We take the observation of the vertical angles and then compute the distances using them. If
the distances are large enough then we have to provide the correction for the curvature and
refraction and that we provide to the linearly to the distances that we have computed.
In the second way, i.e geodetic observations, the distances between the two points are
geodetic distances and the principles of the plane surveying are not applicable here. The
corrections for the curvature and refraction are applied directly to the angles directly.
Now we will discuss the various cases to find out the difference in elevation between the two.
(1) The two points are at known distance: The base of the object is accessible.
When the two points are at a known horizontal distance then we can find out the distance
between them by taking the vertical angle observations.

Fig 1: Trigonometric Leveling

If the vertical angle of elevation from the point to be observed to the instrument axis is
known, we can calculate the vertical distance using trigonometry.
Horizontal distance*tangent(vertical angle) = Vertical difference between the two.
If the points are at small distance apart then there is no need to apply the correction for
the curvature and refraction else you can apply the correction as given below:
C= 0.06728D*D
Where D is the horizontal distance between the given two points in Kilometers.
but the Correction is in meters (m).
(2) The base of the object is not accessible :
(a)( When the instrument is shifted to the nearby place and the observations are taken from
the same level of the line of sight: In such case we have to take the two angular observations of

the vertical angles. The instrument is shifted to a nearby place of known distance, and then with
the known distance between these two and the angular observations from these two stations, we
can find the vertical difference in distance between the line of sight of the instrument and the top
point of the object.
(b) When the line of sights of the two instrument setting is different:
Here again there are two cases: (i) when the lines of sights are at a small vertical distance
which can be measured through the vertical staff readings. (ii) When the difference is larger
than the staff height.
(i) In first case: It is advised to apply the formula for the difference in the height of the
top of the object from these two lines of sights. The difference in lines of sights is same as the
staff readings difference, when the staff is kept at a little distance from these two points. So we
can get the solution for the vertical distance easily.
(ii) In the second case, there is a need to put a vane staff at the first instrument station
and the angle of elevation is measured from the second point of observation. This gives us the
difference in the line of the sights between the two points of instrument station. Then again we
do the same.
(c) When the instrument station and the top of object are not in same vertical plane:
In this case there is a need to measure at-least two horizontal angles of the horizontal triangle
formed by the two instrument stations and the base of the object.
Again we will take the vertical angular observations from the two instrument stations also
and then we can apply the sine rule to solve the horizontal distances of the triangle. With the help
of these angles and the distances we can get the vertical distance between any two point
(Instrument station and the top of object).