hermodynamics:

1) it deals with the equilibrium states of matter & precludes the existence of a temp. gradient.
2) when a system changes from one equilibrium state to another, thermodynamics helps to
determine the quantity of work & heat interactions. it describes how much heat exchange during a
process is required but doesn't hint on how the same could be achieved.
heat transfer:
1) it is inherently a non equilibrium process since a temp. gradient must exist for the heat transfer to
occur
2) it helps to predict the distribution of temp across a surface and to determine the temp. gradient
that exists between different surfaceshermodynamics:
1) it deals with the equilibrium states of matter & precludes the existence of a temp. gradient.
2) when a system changes from one equilibrium state to another, thermodynamics helps to
determine the quantity of work & heat interactions. it describes how much heat exchange during a
process is required but doesn't hint on how the same could be achieved.
heat transfer:
1) it is inherently a non equilibrium process since a temp. gradient must exist for the heat transfer to
occur
2) it helps to predict the distribution of temp across a surface and to determine the temp. gradient
that exists between different surfaces
Heat transfer describes the exchange of thermal energy, between physical systems depending on
thetemperature and pressure, by dissipating heat. Systems which are not isolated may decrease
in entropy. Most objects emit infrared thermal radiation near room temperature. The fundamental
modes of heat transfer areconduction or diffusion, convection, advection and radiation.
The exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems which are at
different temperatures from each other or from their surroundings. Heat transfer always occurs from
a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature. Heat transfer changes
the internal energy of both systems involved according to the First Law of
Thermodynamics.[1] The Second Law of Thermodynamicsdefines the concept of
thermodynamic entropy, by measurable heat transfer.
Thermal equilibrium is reached when all involved bodies and the surroundings reach the same
temperature.Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a
change in temperature
eat transfer - the molecules (or atoms at a smaller level) of a substance which are on average moving
faster are hotter (more heat). When these molecules come in contact with another substance with slower
molecules they impact each other (either physically or through forces) and transfer some of their speed
(kinetic energy) to the slower molecules. Thus the temperature decreases in the first substance and
increases in the second substance.
Heat transfer is energy in transit due to temperature difference . Whenever there exists a temperature difference in a
medium or between media, heat transfer must occur. The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence
of temperature difference . There can be no net heat transfer between two mediums that are at the same temperature.
The temperature difference is the driving force for heat transfer, just as the voltage differenceis the driving force for
electric current flow and pressure difference is the driving force for fluid flow. The rate of heat transfer in a certain

direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature gradient (the temperature difference per unit length or the rate
of change of temperature) in that direction. The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.

THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER:

Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from one
another, and it gives no indication about how long the process will take. A thermodynamic analysis simply te
must be transferred to realize a specified change of state to satisfy the conservation of energy principle.

In practice, we are concerned with the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time) than we are with the am
For example, we can determine the amount of heat transferred from a thermos flask as the hot milk inside coo
by a thermodynamic analysis alone. But, a designer of the thermos flask is primarily interested in how long it
milk inside cools to 85oC, and a thermodynamic analysis cannot answer this question. Determining the rates
from a system and thus the time of cooling or heating, as well as the variation of temperature, is the subject of

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to another. Heat transfe
deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a non-equilibriumphenomenon. Therefore, the
cannot be based on the principles of thermodynamics alone. However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the fram
of heat transfer. The first law requires that the rate of energy transfer into a system be equal to the rate of incr
that system. Thesecond law requires that heat be transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature. It is ana
current flowing in the direction of decreasing voltage or the fluid flowing in the direction of decreasing pressure

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PHYSICAL ORIGINS AND RATE EQUATIONS:

It is important to understand the physical mechanisms which underlie the heat transfer modes and that we a
equations that quantify the amount of energy being transferred per unit time.
Conduction:

Conduction can be imagined as a atomic or molecular activity which involves the transfer of energy from the
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions between the particles.
Explanation:
The physical mechanism of conduction is explained as follows:

Consider a gas in which there exists a temperature gradient and assume that there is no bulk motion. The gas
between two surfaces that are maintained at different temperatures, as shown in Figure 1.2. The temperature at
with the energy of gas molecules in proximity to the point. This energy is related to the random translational m
internal rotational and vibrational motions, of the molecules.

Figure 1.2 Association Of Conduction Heat Transfer With Diffusion Of Energy Due
To Molecular Activity

Higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, and when neighboring molecules collide,
doing, a transfer of energy from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules must occur. In the prese
gradient, energy transfer by conduction must then occur in the direction of decreasing temperature. This tra
Figure 1.2. The hypothetical plane at xo is constantly being crossed by molecules from above and below due t
However, molecules from above are associated with a larger temperature than those from below, in whic
a net transfer of energy in the positive x- direction. Hence, the net transfer of energy by random molecular mo
as diffusion of energy.

It is possible to quantify heat transfer processes in terms of appropriate rate equations. These equations may b
amount of energy being transferred per unit time. The rate equation for heat conduction is known as Fourier's
for the one dimensional plane wall shown in Figure below, having a temperature distribution T(x) is given by

The heat flux

(W/m2) is the heat transfer rate in the x -direction per unit area perpendicular to the directi
proportional to the the temperature gradient, dT/dx , in this direction. The proportionality constantk is a transp

the thermal conductivity (W/m.K) and is a characteristic of the wall material. The minus sign is a consequence
is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Figure 1.3 One Dimensional Heat Transfer By Conduction

Under the steady state conditions shown in Figure 1.3, where the temperature distribution is linear, the tempe
expressed as

(1.2)

and the heat flux then

(1.3)

or

(1.4)

This equation provides a heat flux , that is, the rate of heat transfer per unit area. The heat rate by conduction
wall of area A is then the product of the flux and the area qx=
1

.A.
5

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CONVECTION:

Convection takes place when energy is transferred from a surface to a fluid flowing over it as a result of a differ
temperatures of the surface and the fluid. Convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms

Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion)

Energy transferred by the bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid ( advection)

This fluid motion is associated with the aggregate or collective movement of the large number of molecules. Su
presence of temperature gradient, contributes to the heat transfer. Because the molecules in the aggregate ret
motion, the total heat transfer is then due to a superposition of energy transport by the random motion of the m
bulk motion of the fluid.
Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.

Forced convection takes place when the flow is caused by an external agent such as fan, pu
winds. For example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling of hot
on a stack of printed circuit boards.
Natural convection takes place when the flow is induced by density differences caused by th
variations in the fluid. For example, consider heat transfer that occurs from hot components o
circuit boards in still air.
The rate equation for convection is known as Newton's law of cooling. This is given by

q" is the convective heat flux (W/m2). Convective heat flux is proportional to the difference b

and temperatures, Ts and

, respectively. The proportionality constant is termed the conv
coefficient. It depends on the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, and the fluid in
convection ultimately reduces to a study of the means by which h may be determined. Althou
these means is postponed to Chapter 6, convection heat transfer will frequently appear as a
the solution of conduction problems. In the solution of such problems we presume h to be kn
values gven in Table.
Table1.1:Typical values of the convection heat transfer c

Process

h (W/m2.K)

Free convection
Gases
Liquids

2-25
50-1000

Forced convection
Gases
Liquids

25-250
50-20,000

Convection with phase change

Boiling and Condensation

2500-100,000

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CONVECTION:

Convection takes place when energy is transferred from a surface to a fluid flowing over it as a result of a differ
temperatures of the surface and the fluid. Convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms

Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion)

Energy transferred by the bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid ( advection)

This fluid motion is associated with the aggregate or collective movement of the large number of molecules. Su
presence of temperature gradient, contributes to the heat transfer. Because the molecules in the aggregate ret
motion, the total heat transfer is then due to a superposition of energy transport by the random motion of the m
bulk motion of the fluid.
Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.

Forced convection takes place when the flow is caused by an external agent such as fan, pu
winds. For example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling of hot
on a stack of printed circuit boards.
Natural convection takes place when the flow is induced by density differences caused by th
variations in the fluid. For example, consider heat transfer that occurs from hot components o
circuit boards in still air.
The rate equation for convection is known as Newton's law of cooling. This is given by

q" is the convective heat flux (W/m2). Convective heat flux is proportional to the difference b

and temperatures, Ts and

, respectively. The proportionality constant is termed the conv
coefficient. It depends on the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, and the fluid in
convection ultimately reduces to a study of the means by which h may be determined. Althou
these means is postponed to Chapter 6, convection heat transfer will frequently appear as a
the solution of conduction problems. In the solution of such problems we presume h to be kn
values gven in Table.
Table1.1:Typical values of the convection heat transfer c

Process

h (W/m2.K)

Free convection
Gases
Liquids

2-25
50-1000

Forced convection
Gases
Liquids

25-250
50-20,000

Convection with phase change

Boiling and Condensation

2500-100,000

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CONVECTION:

Convection takes place when energy is transferred from a surface to a fluid flowing over it as a result of a differ
temperatures of the surface and the fluid. Convection heat transfer mode is comprised of two mechanisms

Energy transfer due to random molecular motion (diffusion)

Energy transferred by the bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid ( advection)

This fluid motion is associated with the aggregate or collective movement of the large number of molecules. Su
presence of temperature gradient, contributes to the heat transfer. Because the molecules in the aggregate ret
motion, the total heat transfer is then due to a superposition of energy transport by the random motion of the m
bulk motion of the fluid.
Convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of the flow.

Forced convection takes place when the flow is caused by an external agent such as fan, pu
winds. For example, consider the use of a fan to provide forced convection air cooling of hot
on a stack of printed circuit boards.
Natural convection takes place when the flow is induced by density differences caused by th
variations in the fluid. For example, consider heat transfer that occurs from hot components o
circuit boards in still air.
The rate equation for convection is known as Newton's law of cooling. This is given by

q" is the convective heat flux (W/m2). Convective heat flux is proportional to the difference b

and temperatures, Ts and

, respectively. The proportionality constant is termed the conv
coefficient. It depends on the surface geometry, the nature of the fluid motion, and the fluid in
convection ultimately reduces to a study of the means by which h may be determined. Althou
these means is postponed to Chapter 6, convection heat transfer will frequently appear as a
the solution of conduction problems. In the solution of such problems we presume h to be kn
values gven in Table.
Table1.1:Typical values of the convection heat transfer c

Process

h (W/m2.K)

Free convection
Gases
Liquids

2-25
50-1000

Forced convection
Gases
Liquids

25-250
50-20,000

Convection with phase change

Boiling and Condensation

2500-100,000

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RADIATION:

Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter that is at a finite temperature. Radiation occurs not only from
from liquids and gases. Regardless of the form of the matter, the emission may be attributed to changes in the
of the constituent atoms or molecules. The energy of the radiation field is transported by electromagnetic wave
energy by conduction and convection requires the presence of a material medium, radiation does not. In fact, ra
most efficiently in a vacuum.

Consider radiation transfer processes for the surface of Figure. 1.4. Radiation that is emitted by the surface orig
energy of matter bounded by the surface, and the rate at which the energy is released per unit area
surface emissive power E.

FIGURE 1.4 RADIATION EXCHANGE AT A SURFACE

There is an upper limit to the emissive power, which is prescribed by the Stefan-Boltzmann law

(
where Ts is the absolute temperature (K) of the surface and
surface is called an ideal radiator or black body.

is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (

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= 5.67 x

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER : There are three modes of heat transfer namely conduction, convection and

Conduction : Conduction refers to the heat transfer that occurs across the medium. Medium can be solid or a

Convection : Convection refers to the heat transfer that will occur between a surface and a moving fluid whe
temperatures.

Radiation : In radiation, in the absence of intervening medium, there is net heat transfer between two surface
temperatures in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Figure 1.1 Conduction, Convection And Radiation Heat Transfer Modes

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Engineering

Activities

Resources

Enrichment Program

Summer School

Heat Transfer

Heat is energy or more precisely transfer of thermal energy. As energy, heat is measure

watts (W) whilst temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (C) or Kelvin (K). The w

hot and cold only make sense on a relative basis. Thermal energy travels from h

material to cold material. Hot material heats up cold material, and cold material cools d

hot material. It is really that simple. When you feel heat, what you are sensing is a trans
thermal energy from something that's hot to something that is cold.

The discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the

of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat f

represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place. On a microscopic sca

thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material

temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested bo
linear motion and vibrational modes).

Conduction

The most efficient method of heat transfer is conduction. This mode of heat transfer oc

when there is a temperature gradient across a body. In this case, the energy is transfer

from a high temperature region to low temperature region due to random molecular mo

(diffusion). Conduction occurs similarly in liquids and gases. Regions with greater mole

kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy thro

direct molecular collisions. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal en

is also carried by conduction-band electrons. Different materials have varying abilities

conduct heat. Materials that conduct heat poorly (wood, styrofoam) are often

called insulators. However, materials that conduct heat well (metals, glass, some plast
have no special name.

The simplest conduction heat transfer can be described as one-dimensional heat flow

shown in the following figure. The rate of heat flow from one side of an object to the o

or between objects that touch, depends on the cross-sectional area of flow, the conducti

of the material and the temperature difference between the two surfaces or objects.

Mathematically, it can be expressed as

where q is the heat transfer rate in watts (W), k is the thermal conductivity of the mate
(W/m.K), A is the cross sectional area of heat path, and

is the temperature gradient

direction of the flow (K/m).

The above equation is known as Fouriers law of heat conduction. Therefore, the hea

transfer rate by conduction through the object in the above figure can be expressed a

Where L is the conductor thickness (or length), T is the temperature difference between

side and the other (for example, T = T1 T2 is the temperature difference between sid
and side 2).

The quantity (T/L) in Equation (16.5) is called the temperature gradient: it tells h

many 0C or K the temperature changes per unit of distance moved along the path of h
flow. The quantity L/kA is called the thermal resistance

Thermal resistance has SI units of kelvins per watt (K/W). Notice from Equation (16.6)

the thermal resistance depends on the nature of the material (thermal conductivity k a

geometry of the body d/A). We realize from the above equations, we realize the heat tra

rate as a flow, and the combination of thermal conductivity, thickness of material and ar
a resistance to this flow.

Considering the temperature as a potential function of the heat flow, the Fourier law c
written as

If we define the resistance as the ratio of potential to the corresponding transfer rate, t
thermal resistance for conduction can be expressed as

It is clear from the above equation that decreasing the thickness or increasing the cros
sectional area or thermal conductivity of an object will decrease its thermal resistance
increase its heat transfer rate.

Convection

A slower method of heat transfer is convection, which involves fluid currents that carry

from one place to another. In conduction, energy flows through a material but the mate

itself does not move. In convection, the material itself moves from one place to another

convection heat transfer is comprised of two mechanisms: random molecular motion

(diffusion) and energy transferred by bulk or macroscopic motion of the fluid. Heat tran

from a solid to a fluid (liquid or gaseous) is more complex than solid-solid transfer as h

differentials within the fluid generally cause internal movement known as convectio

currents. As volume increases with temperature, warmer areas of a fluid have less mass

colder areas. Air is poor conductor of heat, but it can easily flow and carry heat by

convection. The use of sealed, double-paned windows replaces the larger air gap betwe

storm window and regular window with a much smaller gap. The smaller air gap minim
circulating convection currents between the two panes.

The magnitude of convective heat flow within the fluid depends upon the area of con

with the solid, its viscosity, velocity past the solid, flow characteristics and the overa

temperature difference between the two. The term convection has also been used histor

to describe the transport of heat from one solid to another separated by a fluid medium

Newtons law of cooling expresses the overall effect of convection:

Where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K), A is the surface area, T =
Tf is the temperature difference between the surface temperature Ts, and the fluid

temperature Tf . As in the case of conduction, thermal resistance is also associated with

convection heat transfer and can be expressed as

The convection heat transfer may be classified according to the nature of fluid flow

Forced convection occurs when the flow is caused by external means, such as a fan, a p
etc.

Radiation

The least efficient method of heat transfer is radiation. Radiant heat is simply heat ener

transit as electromagnetic radiation. All materials radiate thermal energy in amount

determined by their temperature, where the energy is carried by photons of light in th

infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In this case, heat move
through space as an electromagnetic radiation without the assistance of a physical

substance. All objects that contain heat emit some level of radiant energy. The amoun

radiation is inversely proportional to its wavelength (the shorter the wavelength the gre

the energy content) which is, in turn, inversely proportional to its temperature (in K

The Suns heat is an example of thermal radiation that reaches the Earth. Radiative he

transferred directly into the surface of any solid object it hits (unless it is highly reflecti

but passes readily through transparent materials such as air and glass. An ideal therm

radiator or a blackbody, will emit energy at a rate proportional to the forth power of i
absolute temperature and its surface area. Mathematically, that is

where is a proportionality constant (Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.669 10-8 W/m2.

The above equation is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law of thermal radiation and it app

only to the blackbodies. The fourth-power temperature dependence implies that the po

emitted is very sensitive to temperature changes. If the absolute temperature of a bod

doubles, the energy emitted increases by a factor of 24 = 16.

For bodies not behaving as a blackbody a factor known as emissivity e, which relates

radiation of a surface to that of an ideal black surface is introduced. The equation beco

The emissivity ranges from 0 to 1; e = 1 for a perfect radiator and absorber ( a blackbo

and e = 0 for a perfect radiator. Human skin, for example, no matter what the pigmenta

has an emissivity of about 0.97 in the infrared part of the spectrum. While a polishe
aluminum has an emissivity of about 0.05.

Thermal radiation from a body is used as a diagnostic tool in medicine. A thermogra

shows whether one area is radiating more heat than it should, indicating a higher temper

due to abnormal cellular activity. Thermography or thermovision in medicine is based o

natural thermal radiation of the skin. Most advantage is the radiance free of the measur
principle.
Certain body regions have different temperature levels. If one exposes the body e.g.

cooling attraction, then the body zones of the skin react, in order to repair the heat balan

the body. Thereby the thermal regulation of diseased body regions and organs is differe
healthy one. The so-called "regulation thermography" is based on this principle.

Summary

Picture: University of Wisconsin

Examples
Greenhouse Effect

Multiple-Choice Question
Consider the following cooking pan.

Which of the following is important while selecting a material for the pan's handle?

1. High thermal expansion. 2. Low thermal conductivity. 3. High elasticity. 4. High hard

Open-Ended Question

Consider a house with a basement, first floor, and second floor. Design and sketch a water heating

house. Give an example of where heat convection and heat radiation occur in the heating system. S
of the pipes carrying the hot water. Do ceiling fans help in heating the house?

Under Steady state conditions the temperature within the system does not change
with time. Conversely, under unsteady state conditions the temperature within the
system does vary with time.
Unsteady state conditions are a precursor to steady state conditions. No system
exists initially under steady state conditions. Some time must pass, after heat transfer
is initiated, before the system reaches steady state. During that period of transition the
system is under unsteady state conditions.
Clearly, no system can remain under unsteady state conditions perpetually. The
temperature of the system will eventually reach the temperature of the heat source, and
once this happens, the system will be at steady state. Even if the amount of heat being
transferred into the system is increased, at some point the system reaches its critical
temperature and the energy transferred into it the starts causing phase changes within
the system rather than temperatures increases.
Phase transition or phase change, takes place in a thermodynamic system from one phase or state
of matter to another one by heat transfer. Phase change examples are the melting of ice or the
boiling of water. The Mason equation explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of
heat transport on evaporation and condensation.
Types of phase transition occurring in the four fundamental states of matter, include:

Solid - Deposition, freezing and solid to solid transformation.

Gas - Boiling/evaporation, recombination/deionization, and sublimation.

Liquid - Condensation and melting/fusion.