o

OF
UNIVERSITY

W O LV E RHA M PT ON

& the Built

Schoolof Engineering
Environment

ET1004

1
TechnologY
Sustainable

ModuleGuide

Note:
The te.minoloqy in this template(e.9. Key skills, lntellectual
skills) is relevantfor Levels 0, 'l and 4 modules. Levels 2 & 3
modules use different leaming outcome descriptors bul the
module guides willfollow a similar foamatto this template.

ofWolverhamPton
@TheUniveity
andtheBuiltEnvtonment
SchoolofEngneering
SchoolAssessmentHandbook

ModuleGuide
ModuleTitle:

1
TechnologY
Sustainable

ModuleCode:

ET1004

Pre-requisites:

None

Co-requisites:

lT & Mathsand MaterialsTechnology1

Year:
Semester/Academic

2005/06

credit Valuo:

15

Level of sludy:

Level1

ModulLeador:

GrahamOakes
Room:MA109g
Phone:0190232(3888)
Fax:.0'190232(2743)
uk
E-mail:g.Loakss@wlv.ac.

lnternalModerator:

Df KaddaYahiaoui

Rationale

The principalaim of this moduleis to use case studiesof sustainable

tol
technologies
.
.

ol the basicscienlificprinciplesthat govern

Dvelopknowledgeand undorstanding
products
systems.
and
engineering
of
ihe behaviour
of routine methodsfor the analysisof
and
undeFtanding
Develop knowledge
solutions.
productsand engineering
syslemsandusethemto specifyappropriate

Learninqoutcomes

willbe ableto:
completion
of themodulestudents
Bv successful
of scientificprinciplesallowsmoreeffectiveand efficient
1. Apprcciatehow knowledge
to be designed
paoduct
systems
and engineering
to make simple design calculationsabout the
methods
and
use
rcutine
2. Seleci
systems
behaviourof products/enginoering
3. Cafry out strengthcalcllationsfof rigid bodiessubjeclto tension,comprcssion,
andtofsion
shear,bending
ofworkand energyfor rigidbodiesin motion
4. Carryoui calculations
roTheunivers
ty of wolverhampton
andtheBuiltEnvironfient
schoololEngineeinq
schoolAsessmenlHandbook

calculationsfor
5 . Carry out simple energy, power and torque
6.

cry"ffit

power transmlsslon

calculations
transfer
t undeneruy
"i.pt" ""t

WeeklytoPicgui de
to amendthe schedule)
(Pteasenotethat on occasionsit may be necessary
WeekNo

Indicatlvel\roduleP,ogramme
.
gtaticsrForcevectors,
Stalics Shearforceand bendlngmomenl
Er.ri"-".qq rreamsbuill-inend caniilevedbeams

of msterial
N;tion of stress and strain-significance
andshear
compression
fortension,
Do-sion
7
8

10
11
13
1415
16

Desianfor bendingandtolslg!
Strateoiesfot reducin0sttess

Kid;;tics+inear andfoielt !!s!jg!

of energyanowork
Frincip-les
'l
Firwertransmission
Powertransmission
?
Conduc!!9!
Basisheattransfer:

eqlqrqqlig!..raI1{3gl4l-sl
Effiasicheatransf
W6ek
Readinq

-l

AssessmenUExamln9!!9lw!q!
-AssessmenvExamlnationWeek

:-4 SPeclalist Resourc

Notapplicable

(Student videdwithcostIndicated)
scialistResources
NotAppllcable

IndicativReadingand Loarni

Lecturenotesandtutorialhandouts
1999 Ashby,Mike. - Meterialsstoctionln ngineeringdesign,ButteMorth-Helnemann,
0750643579
Education
design- Mccraw-Hlll
engifleerlng
J.E.. Mechanical
Shlgley,
- Europe,2001 007116'1865
mechanics
englneering
- Longman'1997 ' 0582297990
Oorodnik,PeterJ. - Fundamental
for
successfulproductenglneedngintegrated
methods
desion:
Total
Pioh. Stuart. 1
0201416395
990.
Addlson-Wesley,
W;kinqhamr
designprocess_ 2nd ed - NewYork;London:McGEwullman-.DavidG. - The mechanical
Hi , 1997.- 0071155767
Baxtor.Mike. - Productdesignla practicalguide to systematicmethodsof new pfoduct
& Hall''1995.
Chapman
- 0412632306
development.
- London:
Amold,1998.- 0340692367
design
London:
Childs,PeterR. N. - Mechanical
engineering
andproductdesign_ LondonlMccraw'
in
ght,
methods
lan Clifford.- Oesign
W
Hi , 1S98.- 0077093763
approach- 3rd ed'
design:a matedalsand processing
Dieier,GeofgeEllwood.- Engineering
0071162046
2000.
l\4ccraw-Hill,
London:
- Boston,[[,4ass.]t
oi WolverhamPton
@TheUnllersily
andtheAul[ Environmenl
ot Engineering
Schoor
Handb@k
schoolassessmeni

3 ot 6

Teaching

Methods

ThismoduIeinlroducesthestudentlobasicscientificpinciplesandp-rovidesanopportunity
to analysewelldefineddesignproblems'
,^^r"
anat,rtical
methodsandtechn:ques
"i-.le
-ii"J,ir!i"i. !i"a""iJttilh computersofiwarethat assistswithsolvingsiandaddesign
how
to demonsttate
technologies
of sustainable
;ill usecasestuclies
;;;i;;.'il;;;;;
systems'
products
and
engineering
can Ueappliedin the designof
itreseorinciptes
It is coreto the CAPDand CAEDpathways
pfesentations'
Tuto als, practicalsand seminafactivitywill involveyou in investigatjons'
peet
assessment
self
and
aiifussioni and/orexerciseson settopicsand may involve
This aDoroachsees the learningneeds as the focus of the leaming activity with the
for yourownlearning
tnat youwill needto takeon somerosponsibility
unOersianOing

Assssment
8.1 Methodsand Weightings:

ln;ut bEf desciAtb; of assessmenfnethods/weghtingsand minimumgrade

for thismodule
andcomponents
elements
requhedforindividual
50o/o)
1: In classopenbooktesit(welghting
Comoonent'1-Elemnl
(wightlng
project
50o/o
and
anelysis
Design
com;onont1-Element2:
grade
achigved
in eachelementand a minimum
E4
must
bo
of
p;ss
a
minimum
the module,
To
gmdeof D5 is requiredfor eachcomponent

4,2

nts
c
uompong
ASSeSSmenr
Assess
DESCRIPTION

o
z
L.arnlngOutcomeg

'l
1-El6men1
Component
1-Element
2
Component

1-6

o
ul
3

suBMtsstoN
WEEK
(Univ.rsity
week)

50%

WeekI

50%

Week13

8.3 MarkingCriteria

briefat the
Full detailsof the markingcriteriawill be issuedto you as partof the assignmont
startofthe module.

8.4 Submissionof Coursework

shouldbe handedin at the CityCempusStudontRegistry(MT Block)and a

The assignments
rcceiptobtained.

8,5 Extensions

and you musthavea valldcause

circumstances
wil! onlv b allowedin exceptional
Exiensions
for exensionsneedto
Applications
(normallycovered,for example,by a medicalcertificate).
StudentRegistry'
be rnadeusingthe AU33 form obtaineblefrom the City Campus/Telford
@TheUnive6ity ot wolvefiahPlon
and lhe Buill Environmeni
Schoolof Engineering
SchoolAssssmentHandbook

extensionwill be
(N,4T
Block/ SB0O2)Assignmentssubmittedlate wilhout a sanctioned
markedF0.
gfanted;or if
,""0r" ,o submityourwork by the deadlineor withinany extension
iilitr*I.
you
circumstances
exceptional
some
by
uol considervour performancehas beenatfected
should
cases
such
ln
circumstances
vou
for Extenuating/Mitigatinq
i;;,,;;;il;;;dltii
forsdvice
Counsellor
futor or a University
vourperc6nat
"nnirtt

8.6 Returnof Coursework

to you withinthree
form will nofmallybe retLtrned
of the studentAssessment
ir," oint
you
to keepyorlrown
are
advised
and
"oo" studentwork ls not nomally relurned
vv.rri"o*",jli.
hardaid soft copyof any worksubmitted

8.7 Retrievalof Failure

on youra\rard in padiculatupon
govemingretrieval
ol failurevarydepending
Requlations
qualiflcation
Pleaserelerlo y0ur
wnitneryouire stuoiingfor a degreeor a highernational
Guide'fofsludents
scheme
Modular
l*"iJ rianurool'oith" univ"rsity's'Undergraduale
2005/06.

Plagiarismand Collusion
Plaoiarismand collusionare very seriousoffencesthat can result in expulsionfrom the
Uni;e.sitv.This is beoausethosefoundguinyol plagiarismor collusionwill not only have
aliemotedto oresentsomeone6lse'sworkas theif ownbut havealsosoltghtto Oainan unfa'I
adva;tageovertheirfellowstudents

9.1 AvoidingPlagiarismand Collusion

the
1 . ' l n t h ec se o fg ro u p w o rkyousr eaclivelyncour agedtowor However
kinateam
mustbeyourownindividuaiwork'
thatyouanswer
oftheassignmenl
sections
havebeenused;whefe
2 You shouldmakeit very clearwhatsourcesof information
usingthe
quoted
clearly
feferenced
it mustbe
is
fromthesesourc6s
matoal/information
or
on-line
Centres
(Detalls
obisined
froin
Learning
canbe
System.
Refrenclng
Harvard
CentreHomePage).
vialhe Learning
work
another
student's
to copyor paruphrase
3. Nevefattempt

for Students2005/06
1O AwardHandbookand AcademicRegulations
withthe terms and conditionscontainedln
This mod!le guideshouldbe readin conjunction
SchomeGuide'for
l\'lodulaf
youfAwerd'Pathway
Gulde'andtheUniversity's'Undrgraduate
Students2005/06.

Modulepartici
Graham
Oakes
Room: i/A1099
32(3E6E)
Phone:01902
Fax. 0190232(2743)
E'mailrg.l.oakes@wlv.ac.uk

l\roduleLeader:

ModuleTeam:

Dr KaddaYahaoui

12 Registration
You are remindedthat only studentswho have formallyregisteredas participantson a
modulewill be able10gaincredils.

'l3 MobilePhones
In the interestof courtesyto otherstudentsand staff Dleaseensurethat mobilephonesare
the module
switchedoff duringlecturcsand tutorialclasses In exceptionalcircumstances
ol WoverhamPion
@TheUniversity
andthe BuiltEnvironmenl
Schoolol Engineenng
schooAsessmenlHandbook

who
student
phones
to bekepton if a validrcasonis given'.Any
leadern3y allowindividual
pdor
lecture
to
the
."".lO"rrln"u have a valid reasonmusl discussthis with the lecturer
slanng.

oThe UnrveFityol Wo verhamplon

SchoololEngneerngand the Bu lt Environmeni
Sch@lAssessmenlHandbook

zj /03/ob
@
UNTVERSITYOF WOLVEREAMPTON
SEBE- DepartmentofArchitectureandProductDesign
ETl004 SustainableTechnolow I

1 Element1 - Chair
Component
ModuleTutor;G Oakes,'DrK Yahiaoui

An imageof a chairis givenbelow:

j5 u u

1t&111w^) _
O-zE'ig^=s6o
^,i
Leg sectionproperties
aredetailedbelo*-

O E*=o,6xio+

35mm

Wall thicknessis 3mmthroughout

thesection.
Distancefiom top surfaceto NeutralAxis (NA) is l3 rnm,.
as
shown.
. SecondmdmentofareaI aboutNA = 54500mma
Chairinformationis givenbelow:. Numberof chairlecsis 5
o Lengthof eachleg fromwheelsupportto centreof vedicalsupport
is 320mm
e Diameterof singlecentralsupportmemberis 28mm
o DesisnLoad for chair is 1000N

Mu b"Lof".lr +Lechajr cs,*.

3upo"tt=lmoy

''

,,'Jq'"

,) t

Forthis assisnment
vou shouldproducea reportthataddresses
the
followinetopics:
l. Introductionto report
2. Materialpropertyconsiderations
3. Compressive
stressconsiderations
4. Bendiagstressconsiderations
5. 'SingleShear'stressconsiderations
6. 'DoubleShear'stressconsiderations
7. Conclusionandrecommendations

8. References
9. Bibliography
Furtherinformationon somespecificheadingsis givenbelow:-

Makean assumptionofthe typesof structuralmaterialsusedin this

designandfromtheseassumptions
find valuesfor thematerialproperties
andlist them,togetherwith proofofwheretheproperties
wereobtained.
Plasticsandmetalsshouldbothbe investigated
aspotentiallysuitable
materials.

3. Compressive
stressconsiderations
Calculatethe compressive
stressin themaincentralverticalsupport
membertogetherwith its factorof safetyfor your specifiedmaterials.

z>/03/cC
4. Bendingstressconsiderations
Calculatethebendingstressin eachleg at thepositionwherethe legjoins
themaincentralsupportmembertogetherwith its associated
factorof
safetyfor your specifiedmaterials.

5. 'SingleShear'stressconsiderations
Speciffa pointon thechairwhereyou considera 'SingleShear'stressis
actrng,
For your specifiedpoint,calculatethe 'Singleshear'stresstogetherwith
its associated
f'actorof safetyfor your specifiedmaterials.

6. 'DoubleShear'stressconsiderations
Specifya pointonthe chairwhereyou considera 'DoubleShear'stressis
actrng.
For your specihedpoint,calculatethe 'Doubleshear'stresstogetherwith
its associated
factorof safetyfor your specifiedmaterials.

Note: Any further dimensionsthat you requireto completeANY part of

thisassigffnentshouldbe measured
from a suitablechairor estimated.
For all ofthe aboveconditions2 to 6 providea completesetof design
calculations
togetherwith cleardetailedsketches
to indicatepreciselythe
locationofthe stresses
on thechair.

Elementweighting= 50%
Issuedate:23-04-06
Handin date:l2-05-06

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l;n

otJ'er

d"$i,,. o- Cr- J-U'*^.

ol

{"o-"

o-

tro

3JsteYh

..

to{.r"tt

Aotion 3

dd,ve= Y,-Y,
tr

')a

tl-

.r., rs t['-

p.sitt"'r

Car

oI

tL" fo't;"I'
tL. la*icle
"l

d*"!oor"s

o-

l3

Ott

t\fie

T'-o.

sk hwtc-t .

v^,.,,'us.

0 l.r..tio"

{u
SPed o('\o\
e /, ea.st)
"f b"tl., tL
+"^*is trou.!,!.6. fe.I""<-rg it tt t\"

6f'() cL^

//

Deatingwith UnitsandPcn,ersof trS

1) Expressthe followingin telmsofpowersoften:
a ) 1 0 0 0 0 0 = tr\o ".
b ) 1 00 0 00 0 0 : t xto
c) 0 .0 i rxto -,
d ) 0 .0 0-0 =t
1 rto " ..
'
e ) l i 1 0 0 0 -\x\o

=i"""'.,., -- r"t.i
fj toolo.oot

2) Pedo!tr,I
thefollowingoperations
andexplessthefinal resultsaspowersof
a) 10/10=\ = A O ' ix lo - '
b) 10000n0= \o. , o = \ { \ o 3

c) 10/10
000= r xrdl
d) 0.01n00: \x \ o - {
') lo'2*l0'6 -rr\o-ts
1l oi * l o5 = rr ro o

d 1o'rlor= rrroo

tr; tO "l tOO= +.

rl

rv ,rv

\o-q' = o.or,1\ .to'(= \.r..\c;l

_ \^ ?

andtimearekg,m ands respectively,

3) If tbebasicunitsofmass,length
express
in temsof thesebasicunits:
theunitsof thesefollowhgvariables
a) Volume

b)
i)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

vn 3

d <: o

perunit rime {:
veiocity definedasdisplacement
definedaschangeofvelocityper unii rime T-,
AccelerarioE
1Densitydefmedasmassper unit volume F \;5
AJea
-a
Displacement
- changein lengrtrperunir leugrh <
Srain defmedas
ForcedefinedasmasstimesarceleratioDKJ aa
^

4) Given that:

I (tga unrts= I u'r.lnirs

I Mega units= I 0" urits
1 kiio units= l0' rmits
I mllll urut= lu - u l
1 miqo rmit= 10-6unit

often:
Sortoutthefollowingaspowers
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

= t"l Mega/l Gi g a= 4
\
f
1
.
,
l G i ga/1\4e g a1mi ]]i /l mi cr o=
l micro/ l milli
I milli /1 kilo

l mi l i /1 Gi g a
l mi cro *l mi l l i
h) l Gi g a +l mi cro
i \ l Mega/ I miclo
100Giga/ 10milli
,
k) 1000milli / 10''kilo

veryoften,arenaEred
5) Someengineering
units,youarelikely to encounter
or engineers.
Expressthemin termsofthe basicutrits
afrgrfamousscintists
listedabove:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Ne$'to!(Nr)asa unitof forcedefinedasllass timesacceleration

Pascal(Pa)asauld1of stessor plessuredefinedasforceperunit area
timesdistance
Joule(I) asa uoit of energydefinedasdisplacement
watt (w) asa unit ofpowcrdefiaedaschangeof energypcrunit time
definedasnumberof cyclesperuait
HerEGIz)asa urit for &equency
time
{

Fo r c.

cilc s.11,

ol

ase stingat a point andis callda per.,rre.

4 smalobjedis regardd

qussb s-"tt i"

Anobjqtwhose

toEGifrrlFTIGtETitr

its massis igtrorcd-Srrchanobjet

-*id",.a
rnaybea p"rri"t"

FORCE

$|IE,

.l @ g lln m r w L

THE CONCEPTOF FORCE

un,t

it *" be fi"" ."urg

"
".
",
asbctig rwoiimcnsionalad is

lA
,r -- Note.that 'snan'
is a compamtiveterD, e.& a FrsoD could be lhousht ofas a
nry ttot"d as a ureightlessparticlc in relation to -the Forth
l'odgq DutcertaDlytrot in rElatioD!o a chair.
is.lsually ignored (on the grounds thal ir is generaly smaU
f._:*yq
@mp6rld w|th othe{ torcs).
fuy obln atfac[ed rigidly !o the eadb is called
to be
/rxed and is coDsidcred
ulxnoveirDE t orccslhat act on a fired objctarc disRgcrded.

i:nillg;.n?iHTam,.tf"fiffi
tt.#S"td(rinmari:$).Now

ll,l";
[,#:::ti1lry!!'rils{,#:ffsr##,tr,.c'f
Ducrelot cementfrom groundlevelto roof l"igb,,
rusnesand.pu s are borh forcesad tbesesirlje I Uiikbr,;uls-it uo
ritrr tioos ilisfir- tiii
lorce ts neded!o make an obljct
start !o BovE

::nTili:H,ff
[:rfl]i;*'f*,ffi,"fi
"rffifiH,ffi
h"ppenswhm someone
whois hotdiosa slooeteb ir

|".:":"":jil::y3,

droD.

TYPESOF FORCE
Forces of Attraction
qf:avitational-anjarfionis
most iDporlant forceof this type rnd allnost the
-thebook. The gavilational
otrly.oDeqe_shall-mrel
h this
attractibnof tle earlh on
oDryl (atsorelifid to asa_body) iscalledtbeweightof theobjecrm,l its a(1s
1tr
rerucal|ydowtrwardon the object.lt is almostalwaysgiventheiymbol ltz.
The etrectofrvejght can be seeDwhenan ottct falls and alsoit can befelt
when
an.objtrt is hel( i.e. the weigh of an obkct a,.rl'on it at all imes whather
the
w1e4 B m@oryor not(Therearcother forcesof attraclionsuchas tbosebtwcna mxgnet
cnd an iroD
obitd. )

i"'"'fi
ffi
:["';ffi'h$:y't:'ir'"-""riLJfi
"gi"!i
'ru''ffi
&',ii"i;;,"^;;;;";x"";'2h-h"itr;"hvffL:i{fr
y#x

Atook resurrgon a borizonlalsurfacqon the

olher hand,doesDol hlls dowtrso

i"'iffi
iit'ff&"Ji:,,K'
;LH;*'rmrg,'g,,g}
[:"&n
-.- *
1upward) and the rveighrof tbe book (downward
) rnrrsttalao*

#* h""*tr#T""t""' -"-'
O'Jt-

,".*

rh,,;
""drtr"r..""

}tt

Contact Forces

Conventions

C-onsidcregein_
n book rcstingin contactwith a horizontalsurface. The forct

a crqtptex_subFct
andil is inpossibh!o dalwirha.[arpcts
Y::]fi_allf r.er|i"t
of rlle
j.lll" 1l q: 's,
Socerrainsimptifica'tions
tavero te rraaein o,ndo ali

,*{gr-"^
Dolmatractiotractsin a directiontha ii perpenaiilar ro Ue
iunT ol cootag. awayfrom tbat surface. So in thiJ caserhe zozrci
_ltrd
fddcrr@
actsrrertcalyupwrd on theboo|L

li"*T,*;ffi
trffi;
lfJ"j"t1lTl"+,F,i".1i",nHr.*:fl
il1fi[:,i!ffi
"Ti

i.:'lXil
*'fu'"J,
i:,fiHil#:"'$'#*#iff

;-Za

Thetwo for6 acringor| thbook,i.e. thercrmal

reacriotr.l&lrndtlrcwEight:.tLarcsbownin the
(nagram

ii
DRAWING DIAGRAMS
iltj:ii:,1#tii,63x1,;#;'i"xT,[Hf
;
",,'.1-5,Hl-yffi
rot,move.
Why.not?
There
musth another
force, ,"a .pp*i"i" iii
"q"rf

:jtdg,l",:,ldl:i
i"'r"1"$;".5;.#H#F*"
I#W:in

contact
and
inadi'r*ion
tr'#; Yl"i#r"!;y#,or

Thi\ diagnmshowsall $e loroesaclingon the

book
ll 15rcry l i,r Ibr thereto & no fricttonat all
berween
anobjectanda sufacebut
*r rrs

$:j.,fil1;:.,lia"

etre(r
can
bediscounr"o.
rn,ii,o." r" *iiJi"

Forces of Attachment
Con_sider
a mass.hangrng
by a stringfrom a lded point. The

rrownward
must
be
il1fllTfllfil'"i:'r:.:'ight acting

t lis lol f t_\t'*g4h rhesrrin&

ir isa force
of atrachDrenr.
Noreharasrring
t{i niverpush
andil canpulonlyiftt jsraul.

Whenmnsidering
any situalionconceming
the actionof forccson a bod) the
rrsl and ltutt.slep ls to draw a clear,uncomplicated
dia&ramo[ the forccs
acungon tne object.
Somr uieful points to rememberare:
Unlessthe objctis light, its weightac$ verticallydownwards.
If the body is in contactwith anothersurfdce,a nomal reactiooalwaysactson
the body. In addition,unlssthe contactis smooth,theremay bc a frictional
force.
If thebodyisatEchedto anorherby a slringor hinge.a forceacrson lhebodydt
tnepomtot attachment.
Thercisa cotrunon
misconcption
that.all thetimean ohjectis moving.thereldr
lo be a forcein thedirecrionof morion.Tbis is nor rru;. Oneof rherlpesof
torce,described
earlierin lle chaplernd), be actjngin rhedirectionol motion
but rl noneol themis.do trot tall into thelrap of introduclng
an .extrc.lorce.
Two or moreobjectsmay belinked,or may bein contactwith eachother. Whn
consideringorreof-thesobjects,rnakesurethat you draw only thosforcesthat
act on ihat sparate
part anddo not includeforceswhichapply10anotlr part of
t-besysem.Thisappliespanicularly
in problems
uheretwo objecsarearteched
to eachothe[ iI theyareconnected
by istring. oneobjecrisaflecred
ontyby Lhe
tensionat thendofa stdngto whichit is attached- the tensionar theoihei enrl
acti on the otler object.
Finally.do not drawtoo smalla rliagmmand ma[elhe forcelineslongenouglt
to oe seenoqtrly,

r or i

t a stringcannotbeiaul at i,*
fjteaIlachmen
-sun gtlr"i
srriDg
""1;"a
exerts
an/rwaftlpulJ
areach
:::. on:'.1h.
eno
lhe object {.".qur
which is dttachedat thal end.

jrftEsi
j"fr
j"atf
$i;.,fiJJl1"$:il;r,iF"
[r#i]
l,*\#+1-

ilT-+#H:*i*ti,g{
l'5tfu
1}#';T'"'.i1"ilil1

Examples,la
Each of the following xampiesdescritEsa situalion and shows how a workinr
diasram can be drawn
A snall block is slidins down a smooth inclined ptrne.

I'i'*,*fr
ffirill'#m*y,l1ffi"F;'r'j#",.-;:
E*ffii*'fi

Thl nomal scrion

{ s p.rp{dicul,r

ro rbe pla.e khjch B rle

74

2. A load is being pu ed arors a rough

horizonrat floor

at 50"

tona"ere't'ic-no'erd
nsinewhichis being

f"*f:,:,"JTii".',i#,roP"

Thc tricrionat aore ek atotrc rh. ptinc

h $. dirrrio!

o?Fdr. b r[. nolior of rh. to..t.

CoMilcirl! rbclrucl. dE ootyt@ &ritrr.E d. rcish of rh. lrucl. rh. E,tiqt

ftc r*i@ i! rh. rcF rhin .dr .my rm rl. rer ( i:.. in*..d lrons rhcroFr . nomarE,clio0 ,.d
r.:." ir,,i ii. i,i"".
roG or
dsiE do.r &, rcr @ th. rct, it i, lh; t.uion i" ,r,.
, r o,l|! ,r,.
r.*",i
'!!
""J
-p.

3- A laddtr res|swirh irs foot on rough

groundand lhe rop against{
smootft

thc Eisnq ln. mnnd E&rjon. rh( drivinsroE !.d Lh.r.Dion in

l91!,T
*.1sl_.!N.n.bw
@ roF r|M
&L l@rd. lh. mlE of rh. roF ti... il n I d6s on rh. ;gi,c)

6. A par t i. leis_f asl4edr ooneend of a ligit st r inS. t he ur her

end of r he \ lr ine
E nerc and the parlrcte is whirted round in a ci,cte In a verri(al
ntnne

r.* od',,on!,trc
r#il'frfi,fJiltj.?,11"",g.y,'nFrric,iotr',

;::ii*
4.

"lii"T:t
ilri:?i#,,l;"tsr,r,"";r:r*i
;'##;ffiffi :#ffiF"*"

60",'.i;he'
* ffl?:,H'fi',T;iil#iji;"yi,*:"f*il, isinc,iodnar

r1. od' f':|'g .clrs @ rh. purik

lkdb"
oJ at*5 oJ tk ,ctkh.

irr Ei3hr r.d rh. knrion jd th. siin|.

:ih.rc ir no!tur. ir fi.

EXERCISEla

r-10.6,
copyrhcdiasram
anddrawtheforces
acrins
on rhe

ll:L1yF^ry.
obJcctto thr spccificdsituarior.
SrycD
t.

*:'"iiTl'::;',S:,,3fr,i::'.nching.*cr,.o. rrEbq'
rlrcr

on k

wil k

now b d.r.minc rhi, lnsrc.

)

.+5

t'r,i
40., /
2. \lr=:.:,:Js.e/
tI_'-",'

, {l

d *.om.r .oi,i.s.& e@!or

A block st rlst ;; s snoolh

A plank rcsting on two suppo s,

5.

12- Two briclE sr! placd.onc on top of the other, on a hofl?onrat surface.
umw rp.mte

A rod hinged ro a walt and hctd in a

horizontal positio' by a strins.

A sna bt@t rr r.ciLtr a roush

diagraDs to show rh. for6

(a)

ftc rop btck

(b)

rh. lower brick.

acring on

13. A b.aD is hinied rt one end A to a wall and is htd horibntal

by a rope

!o rT olhercod_
B aodro a poinioo rhew.rr uun" e. rr,. iip. i"
::5:hed
4)- to l|lc watt. A cTaihangsfrom B. Draw separare
diagramsro strowrtre",
forcls acting oo

6.

(s) rhe ban

(b) the qa.e.
19 The diasramshowsa roughptankresringon a cytinderand wirh oneend
ol
-- rtrcpkor oD rougbaround.
q^
.

A light s t nng
particle tied ro the othe. .nd beine
pulled aside by a horizontal fore.

A sall

picbrc supportcd bJ rwo

Fo rhe remainios questionsdraw a diagran

of rhe $pocifrdobjccl ad mart otr
rhe diag.am a th forcsadins oo the;bd.
7. A ladder wirh i1s foot on rough ground
is teaning agahsr a rough $rI.
8. A parliclejs a ached ro on end ofa
ti8hr srrDS whosc olhcr qd is fired
to a
point A. Tte panicte is
@
(b)

hang' ng
" r ," .1
rotatins in a horizontat circlc betow A

(c)

held at 30. ro rhe venical by I horizonrat

rbrce.

Draw diaSmms to show:

(a)

the forces acting on the plank,

(b)

the forc6 actin8 on rhe cylinder.

15. A pIson staoditrs on thc edge of a nat roof towers a packaS over rhe
edse,
by a rop, for a collqgue ro co ect. oraw ahgrams to sho;
(a)

the forces actins on rhe packag

(b)

the forces actbg on lho pcrsor on rb. roof.

9. A stone that has b! thrown vertically

up into the air wher it i$
(a) soins up
(b) coning down.

to

1^::o_:t"l*r,l

r m is hiDsed
ar ooendro a wa[. rr is hetdb a ho]izoorai

* i;0ilfd il;J:"
ffilT:i""j:ti"ij:T:iiJ1;T#1..11"
"",
"
r1. A shell AA is supportd by
trro lerlicat s .

i;:f,;"."
:*nr;';',1;
1;;."*:*"ljlii#ili"T',it"#,i#,iT:
(a) rheshetf

(b)

the vasc.

FINDINGTHE RESULTANTOF COPLANARFORCES

It is quitcommon,as $ harc seenfrom theexamples

above.for an obiectlo be
uder the,glion of several
coplanarforces(i.e. ;U in one plane;in"ditteren
onEcuor lo n\sfugatethe overallellect of theseforceswe needlo ta .ible
tofud. r rcsulta|It.

wesawrhatrte masdtude
anddircsionof theresut*m;
Sj3lfl t torces
was
easy
ro
fiod.
For
,.r" ,l"o *" i"dT#vll
f:J:'yop'
scarc.
dmwrng
androasurdEnt
wasttsed.e" rni,."ma gr* iifv? i.,,ifr

l?S'offitg.*"tt

!oconsider
4urdv
!oocfrtl4r"
o",5,,lui-tir

79

Calculating the Resultant

rtu

"iifi

,": perlrendlttardircctio_os
andfindrhec@poDetrts
I: f: q_r.":,"n*f
of aII
th." g*Sonq compooeh in a cI""_
T:
]:{cT,*
O_toD
i"Ool*- *iit
nose-mtheopposihdiectionareneqative"*
ny co ecbngeachsetofcomponents
ft cannowrtplaa tte odgi&I scfoffor$
Dyan equrvalenl
pairof forEes
in perpendic.rrHr
orneqrcrlsdefininga direcrionaq say,.alongag rndiot
I:l:
_{ql
plane,is amtisuous
DecauT
tt.couidmeaDeitherup or jown tl
sinph
Pa;Hrl
waym clarif
ue oerflbon ,s to addao rrro* in rr,"
"orrf,
Consider._
for elampb,a smallbloct nstinp

horizonrar
ar30..ir,;r..i. i"i'jiii'iti'BrH"#:fl.*Toffi.*,b"

7yY-{l]:11

","r.."'t"a

by.randexgs$ion
[2]by I,

wehave

X = tysin 30._ F.\

I = X- l/ cos30'

therEsultatrL
4 of ,f aDdy is

1./.-_.'/

aodn maH qlaryle d with theplanewhere

f6}=Y/b

t" u ca;TEA-/;f

ffiJ

fte forcesis givenir lhe form di + rj theforcesarc

inthedircctions
ori andJ and it remains
ffiffifr"ponenrs

Examples 4b
1. A ladder of wei8ht r/ restswith its lop aSainsra rough \aatt
and its foor on
rcugn gound whrch stopesdown trom the bast ot the walt aL t0"
ro rhe
hoizootal. R6ohr. horizonra y and vertica y. a the forces
acrins on rhe
laddc..

toeecb
other,
ff ;t":ff'fiJffil'TJ"$*#*Trt'#T perpendiorrar
it
two
dirEcrioDs,
i...arone
r..-raniFle;:fililitffi,ilTd*.tsc
Dnri!!

rnc cmpqatt

ot

ud F, on *Fntc
^r

lfrffT,tr'#flHffitr**m**'

atrd perpeodiorlar!o thc

Resolving </

gves ,/ sitr30.- F

Resolving \

gves R -W('.tsn

tu
T4

|ir

Rcsolvitrg 3

glvcs

Rsolving

svs

rml

d,.s6ru en h.tp.

";**,$
t'o

l0'

nr - 12 co6 lo" + n, sin 10"

rr - tr+ F2 sin lo'+ Rr c.s 10.

a0
Fo.-

Fin-i

'lre.oacnirude ot the rerutratrtof rhe *r ot tores 3t t 51,

i
]'l
: l . 3n J IJ i h a .h to ' e i s me a $ ' d i n m* to' l ;.
rnra
-o '. roe dngte btweenthe resuttanrand the unir vedor i.

T,

Let theresultanr
beXt + ri
xi + r j : (3t+51)+ (_7j) + ( 4t+ llj)+ 5 1
+ (r+ 3i)
: (3_4+5+l)i + (5 7+lt + 3 x
=5i+l2i

J s l + l 2 il= /(2 5 +t4 4 )= 1 3

t a n , '= + :2 .a
d :

67' (nearest degree)

Tbe resultant is li N ar 67" io l.

I;f;1;'*,,,,",

al

So@ifils thc.dirEcrionsof a group of forcesarEgiven with referenceto tle

slos\olzgoDalsetc' ot a polygon; the magnitudesof the forces are given
seDomteN.
It"is inportad !o realisethat, in srrh cases,the tbrcesarc not necessariht
rcprcsented
by t$ /argtrr or loJtio',r of lhe lioesh the polygon.

"+4"L,

. 4. ABCDEF is a reeular hosos. Four forcesact on parricle.

a
The forcesare
' ofmagnituds I N, 4 N, 2t\|
and 6 N and rhey aci in the dirctions of rhe sides
AB. AC, EA and AF respectively.
Find the inagnitudeof the 13 lraot force and rhe ansle ir mat{eswirb AB.

shown
in rhe
"|",,'.to,esor'4.0.2andr new,o,,s

Itt rhe resuttanrhak mmpoDenrsX

and y rcr{,ronsltr the

lJt tlrc r8ultart hrve componenrsX newronsand I newtons.Daralleland

Frpcndicular to AB as shown.

Resolvin8 the torcesalons Ox atrd O,,

we have:

.r:

4+6cos60" 2 cos60"
: 4+l - I = 6
I:6sin60'-j+2sio60,
: 8x0.8660_3 = 3-928

Rsolvins T

(@h.,

rhlr

R.sotlne

X= 3+4cos30" 6cos 60"

= 3+3.4&-3 :3.4&

ResolYins I

)':4sin30"-2+6sin60"
:2-2+5-196 = 5_t96

If th resuhaDi fo.ce i3 n newtons

and

R : Jg, + y,, = \/(62+3.s282)

__7.17 {l sr)
392a
r "nn : f:
- ^ a.,.
:

33"

(ne{.st degree)

Therefore the resuttant fo.co is 7.tZ

If R newtoN is thc resuliant force rhen, correct to 3 sf,

R2 = Xr+y1 : t2+2t = 39

.-.
and

x : y'39
bnd

=::

3.461
N ar ti, to the foi@ of4

",-h. Gnltrnr ,,,ce is ./19 N at 56. to AB ( nearsrdesree).

u
EXERCISE,tb

lti::l,xTlfJ,ff
T":,:"J;,1':."
fi ?l'J#iHi,.l:
H*ffi:i",,:
i::i,".

./a. V"lo.iti"s, io m"tro per scond,represnred

by
4i-2, _3t+8J, 2r+31, st and t+l
r'L

DsplacGmctrt!,nissured i4 metre!, reprcsentedby

-6i+1, 2t- sl, t+4j

and 3t+2j

"4o. Forces"in newrons,represnlcd by

/
{1.

,,/s.

2t+4, l-2,

6r+l

ABCD is a rcctanstein which AB:4 m and Bc:3

D_ A for(:eof
masnitudeI N acrsatonsAB rowardsB. e""rr,"|. r"r*
+ r.r
atonsAc rowardsc aod a rhird rorce.j N. acrsar."e "r.rg"il,j.
""r"
eo ,."-",J" 6. ei"Jii"
magtrrtude
of rhe rcsutranrof rhesrorcsand nnd rr,i _er. rh.
.*rl,""i ;"-l;r'

13. A-suneyorstansfrom^a pointO

and walks200m due norrh. He rhenrums
croc(wls(trroush120"and walks too m aner whicht.
*,rr, rOO. J,"
Whl. is his resultani displacnen!from O?
"i,,.
bo-ysarc puttitrga healTrrolteyby maDsof threeropes.
n\' Three
The bo) in
rbe,niddh is.ereninga pu

../t.

or lm I.:. ihe orherr$o boys;whosero6i botr

mare ad atrsleof 30'wirh rheentre rope.are pu i,g *tir,i-*"
riOI
purron
"rrs;rin.ri"ei.r
rh;rroeya"uar*r,"rangre
",a

L.lilJ*:jJX"

ABCD is a square.
In each question froin 7 b t0,
(a) ilusrrar rhe vecro.s
by a
(b)
(cl

ABCDEFGH is a rcgutar odagon.

skctcb

express,in the form ai+ri,

the.esutant oftbe
Bivcn vec.ors
fiDd r}e ma8nirudeof rhe resulranr,
and give thc aogtc rhar lhe
m.j<esw h the vcror i
rcsuttaor

r /. rour torces,measuredio
newrons.rcpre!nledby
_
4i 3i, | + 6i, -2t + 5J,
and ii

"""rrant

Jt.

S.tartioA,from
O. a poinr p rracs our consecurive
displarmenrve(rorsof
2I+ll
-l+4J, ?t-5i and i+li
I'hat is rhe linat disptacment
of p tr; O?

! 15-

Anver is flowing due .{sr at a spdof 3 m/s. A boy

itr a rowins boa1,
wbo can rcw at 5 m/s in srill warcr, slarts fr;m a point
o oo tr," io"ir, i"nr.
r.ccB tbc bqt at righl andcs to lhe bank. .fl
",a

wind
a,4m/s$outh_wes,.r"u,, d; ;ff Bfili#T,::::,':,:IJli. "
"""" boarinrherormpr r qi ,"ai."*
vrociry
orrhe

ffififfi*.lr#"e

IA

q'.pr..4

-YI,\
,=' A:nsmalt boal rs (ravellirb

f9

*i.oi"ui"*i,e
iu-1.i";fi.H;.I I HE ilTff"t$*,'_*#oTl
*,
of magniruds5 m/s, ? n/s! a m/s_rod
Jr7. vetociries.
6 m/! rcr iD rh. diEcrioo,

:;'Jiffi"l,:,T*#jitrt

/u

SUMMARY

rhrough the
with an dgirc specdof S h/h.
rr rs Dcrnerr..rd du. srbut tberciswalcl
l

adws(
r""p'Etiwrvr".t"er

(a) draw a sterch showingthc sparatc

vclocirici
(b) find, in {re form at+rj,
rhc r6uttlnr vctocitv
(c) tind (be besrinCof the
rsutttrr vtocily
(d) find the rduhanrspeed.

-d

i J;;i;b.

Li.Dsrcand D i, rhe midpohr of Bc.

lggl1.i,
T:,j.,..ar
Forccsof
m_agnrttrdes
E N. 6 N atrd 12N acr rloD,

:#',**'*"
::ini"rrx'ii:r".,rlfr
trtr:li*:ifi.S$ffi

Vectors
A quao^ltythat has bo|h EagDihlde
alld dirEftotr ll a vector.
,r vEcroacao be .eprEseoLdby a line qmenl

T fq, -"a*of tberctoris reprcseated leuth oI rlv r:o?andthe

.rfton
of tbewctorby* o,r""i,oo, *"o,lr*1"
'tw:!y,:!h1:cto6.w:h
rhesaDemasDitude
e4u I ureyareil thesanedircction an:

egrttr.rtd oppafitelt theyare h opposjte

dirctjoDs_
lf two rdors r and b arEpq|dlel thn
! = tb-_

ffi.'ffiffi;#AT"Ftr#""#A
*_,w{H
ql
atd
)
frFW,ec,ors.

makesan arglca wiih rhewctor p wterc

tana _ pfq

lecrors
canbecolcurakd
byresolviirg
aI foroes

ffiffiH:lm

Vc.torsof unit magditudilr the

direclions of Or and O/ are
denoted
rspedrwlyby I ad i

Otry wbosecoDponcnbin rhdirEcliocs

l,ff::j"
l, can
Ox andOy aIt d
aDa
D respectivetry,
bewd0eD ai + rl.

*LTlf";:

0'" vectorcl+ri is denored

by lai+ril andis or

Types of Force
C-oolactforcesoccur whensolirl
obieclsa

Fffih.$#
;:trffil
ffi o; ;-'t; ;t J"fr""bH

"ffi
ffi i;$#,,ffH5ffi
frfrj[ffj"*

##lftHH.r,irqf
#:I,tr
ffimT$}ffi

3t6
)l

'".,u
I

It

(b) \r

(b) |

j 4+-+_-t
if-t f l
i

ti

2j

(a)

f'
J-,J
J'"

l l ' r,
7. ( ^) s
(b) 13
@)\A
a. 24i, r 8l
9. ( a) - t lt + 4j
{b) r,4f7
lO 8i- 6. i or 8 t+ 6 1
r r . { a) 35i
tb) 8t 4J

&,1

Ex.nis. 4b - p. 32
t. 7t7N, 33"
2
a,
a
t
6.

tR'
t^,
ill
jli
r-J;.

h,

t t . 8.22-\t, 49.
1Z
13. :v: r. E-11. 9l+51
15. $ 2A)i + (5 - 2!4)l: 2-rBn/s
7.03kh/i. I t3"
17.

z (")

(b) 6i+ 8j
& (.)

;r

2.

( b) 3t _41
(c) 5 N, 127.

t.,r] N, 1?0P
2,'9 N.234"
t2.t N, 38.
8 18N, 5r
t7-2N, 61"

rh

CHAPTER 4

4"

10. ( a)

(a ) | -J

6. (a)

(b)

(c) I0 N, 5l'

(b) 0_3641+
7.71i
( dj7. 1t n/ s
14. r.ot N. 83.

(c) ool.

CONSOLIDATIONA
Miscellaneous Erercise A p.87
l. B

N
n

4. 3t +7i
5. 8
6. 2i + lli r24"

(b) l2r+ 5,

8. ( a) 9l+ l7j

( b) r 9. 2N

(c) 0.468
(e/v3-)
10,

n\ y'n

FI
*w
(b) 2l

( b ) 1 2m i h l r 6
( c) 1 6r h
s : te .6 ( t_ 2 )
4 .e ( t - 2 ) ,,
t = t96t 4.9t, 2. 9.8 m/s. 9.8 mA

@
t:

3tYeet
9lte?o

Stress
& Strain
GrahamOakes

-stressandSti"ain
Stressandstrainarethe quantitieswe
useto comparefairlythe effectsof a
forceon a material.
Insteadofthe appliedforceweuse
stress;andinsteadof extension(or
weusestrain.
compression),

Stress& Strain
th forcessquashthe materialit fu saidto b undr compression. When
forc$ tDdto twist the materialor to makeobepart of ifmor,e relativeto
anotherpart it is describeda3bingin shear.

3 typesof forcecanbeappliedto a matedal:

. Tensile(stretching)
. Compressive
(squeezing)
. Shear(sliding)
By conventiorwewill alwaysdlf,netensionass pogitiveste$, ard
comprcSston
asa negauve
strcss.
o. > 0 positivastressis tcnsion
strcdsi9comprcssion
d,< 0 negativa

Compressive:

Shear:

6
6trelph
(6 = changein length)

Everylittle bit of thmatrialexprinces

thesamestess!!
sLE$h.ble Tfthno oly I

Theappliedforceis distributedevenly,tbereforeeverylittle
exDriences
thesamestless!!
bit ofthematerial

Stress,o =

F/4 _

WhatDoesStrainMean?
Imaginetwo piecesof ideltical wirc. SampleD is 3 tims lonter
thatr sample-C.they areboth pulledwith the samestress.Wlich
odewill stretchmore?TheloDter piece-Sa&pleD. It will have
thrce timesthe extensiou.You canthilk of it beilg oade up of
threeshoderlenSths,achofwhich stretchesby the 6aae
a4ouit .s ssmpleC.AlthoughsdmpleD hastlree times tle
exteDsion,it! srdin is the same.Ihis is becauseit wasthree
times1o!8erto stad with so its relati!'eextensioDir the 6ame.

Sample
D
Sample
C
-l

Stress
StrainCurve
Proportional
limit: t'ie maximumstressfor which

o
(N/rn)

ca'v" {L''. ^p1{,",

f . , " t lA ).
Gradient= E = I

E = Young'sModulus

Hooke's
Law
Hooke's
lawstates
thatstressis proportional
to strain
s ti es s o

!- =.-=_

sffatn

. - - F- t

rJ

I)O

Thlsisthemathematical
statement
of Hooke's
law,
Hooke's
lawonlyapplles
upto theproportlonal
limit
of thematerlal.
Strainisdimensionless,
theelastic
modulus,
E,hasthe
sameunitsasstress.
Themodulus
isa measure
of
qr reslstance
thestiffness
of a material
to loads.

Axially
Loaded
Members
r FromHooke's
law

o =E t
r Whenthestress
andstrainarecaused
by axialloads,.wg
have
- D\t'

5 = :-:AE

TypicalE (Young'sModulus)Values
Material

N/m2

. CarboirStel

E= 2l0xlOe

. Copper

E= l20xlOe

. Castfton

E= 100x10e

. Brass

E= 90xlOe

. Aluminiwtr

E= 90x lOe

. Rubber

E=2.5x10e

Determine
thetotalchatgein-lengthof the 25mm-diameter
rodwhenit is actedon by three
forces.LetF70000MPa
0.sm ---20 kN
L

' ' ip t . \

45t

a -z__-

,4

\tx -

)*2"

-\l

_ , t?
+9 | r--^ :4qr
f!A{e,.=
tr"''z4"
6
@7;*'\':si
t
+;tio3
/i,"L
1(: o,5rjd /
-'\\.b51\o
c-el!:r4=\'fl*lc

c \ . " -1 .
J

{\o

F4

=6 .33

O.L\=0

61-d

t\o
J - 1 .c,7)

z ^t

t=

4 o . 7 } 1 \o

l. 5. gut i- i n

-3
)'l

a tti
/n-

Example
Fortherod below:
F - 60kl.I;diametr= l5.96mm;originallength,L = 80rm;
x = 0.1l7mm.
extensioa
GN/ar)
DetemdneE. (205.1

I ShearStrainCurve
ShearStress

Jl,;," +t*s5
(Jra(ue

^
=U=

J_a
^,
I

--z

G = Modulusof Rigidity

.
_6\pa<

4+.(d!,
--

TypicalG (Modulusof Rigidity)Values

Material
. 0.250lc steel
. 0.75%C Steel

G=82.2x10e

. Hardened
Steel

G=77.8x10e

. Casthon

G=60x 10e

. Copper

G=48.3x10e
G = 2 6 . 1 x1 0 e

. Aluminium

N/m2

G = 8 1 . 1x l0 e

Example
Eachrivothasdia$eter= 8m!,
Calculalcthashcatforcandshearstcssin cachrivat./100N.8MN/ )

.6 kN

1 .6

ilt

(F-.'

1.6Ru=t6oou
,

o- *d'
+

=-"r-

_ l\ ^:tt\ po-a --+*+J5o.z6xlo-'

I
r )

'')

E4-- '
4'

,9
,'2

R oot

1'L
c/\
I, TL

4-F

DoubleShear
ow considera bolrthatis exposed
to doubleshear.
Belowwe canseea sectionview ofa pin through
two members.

Example
A tow-baris shounbelow,If thepin hasa dianeterof30mm,
determine
theshearstessifa forceof 10kNis aoolied.
11
,
4. r.. J '_ ,tnu. c , u , - _ .- 1 . 1 y r lO I

l Li oc(r
2^?

,\7

o1r\oa

_ . o7 rr ,u/,.L

tF

Example
A composite
baris 300mmlongandconsists
ofa coppertubebutt-welded
to
thcendofa steelbar.Ttr. tubedimensions
are20mmdiax l0mmborex
200f|mloDg,andthesteclbaris 20rDm
diax l00mmlong.
Ifthebarsupports
anaxialforc
of2kN.determincl
a) Thestresscs
in thecopperandihc stcel
b) Thechangcin lenglhofihe compositc
bar
(E,hr= 200GN/m,;E..!e-= lzocN/mr)

G f F ( 6 =A .\\ A %\.
''t<.|

6' C1' 1

N/ , "1
'

L= +,or . io-:<
[ =a.\q x\o

$:

O . . , c , ''l 't '^

r In the

E:2000

andv=0.303.
Findthe

modulus,

Po\<ao^:

{c.I1o

Leta]"< n

R,[or,".*.\

G. -E--=
+v )
LCl

o.^tr
q

,1..":---E"! toooootrl=

2(110.^,o!)

| ,30)

l0

Technology1
Sustainable
Stressandstrain- the significanceofmaterialoroperties
After the linearrelationshipbetweenstressandstain (or load andextension)
the secondregionof interestis calledtheplasticregion.In this regionthe
relationshipbetweendirectstess andstrainis unclearandis not linear.
Thepoint wherethe linearrelationshipbetweenstressandstrainbreaksdormr
is calledthe elasticlimit.

Herepermanent,
or plastic,deformation
beginsto occurwithinthematerial.
Theelasticlimit is closelyfollowed
by yield,whichoccurs
attheyieldstress
gr; thisis themaximumstressamaterialcanwithstand
beforeplasliq
deformation
occurs.
In, somematerials,in padicularlow-carbonsteels,thereis markedyield, as
illushatedin Figure l. in othermaterialsthe yield is not soapparentandmay
becompletelyundetectable.
for estimatins
Laterwe shallseemethods
a valueofvield shess.
For designers,
the yield stressof a materialis a very importantpieceof
information.Ifa componentwereloadedsuchthatthis stresswasreachedthen
mostengineerswould considertheir design,or choiceof materials,to have
failed.It is quitecommon,in fact,to applysafetyfactorsto a designsuch
that...notevenone-halfo, is achieved,let alonethe full value.
A materialloadedsuchthat it operatesin the plasticregionwill experience
pen'nanent
deformation.Theratherbizarrephenomenon
that occurs,oncethe
loadhasbeenremoved,is thatthe materialattemptsto retumto its original

shapeby obeyingHooke'slaw. Ho\ryevelthepermanentdeformationthat

occmedalwaysremains.
Thestress-strain
curvewill alwaysreacha maximumlevel of stress.calledthe
ultimatesfess or tensilestengthofthe material.The fital stress,whichoccursat failure,is calledthe breakingstress.Becausethereis a
comparativefy
Iargeplasicregionthismaterialis calledductile. . .

Ductiliry
isaretative
quantity
- oneme**" i, .ir. p..".ffi*iilr"t,

- " Ju."l

,.

100)achievedbeforefailwe - but it is animportantfactorin materialchoice,

Thefailureofa ductilematerialis oftencharacterised
by localplastic
deformation.In particular,components
actingundertensionoftenshowsigts
ofneckingasillustated by the insetto Figue L

Ext ndon-rn ru n! d.vlc.

Alyplcaltn!ll. t !l.pacln.n

Curu.rn.ln.d wh.n unto.dtng

ii. .p.clm.n lromthk Dolnt

E - rlop. ofgllFh
Sp.clm.nh d.loh.d; lE drp. ch.nc.r;
dlm.ndonrohme.imrtld.l looh dldr.rr.d

plmaoant

Dhectsiraln

Figlre I rlpicalsress-srrajn
curvefor a ductilematerial

Althoughmostengineeringmaterialshavesfess-shaincurves,which are
sirnilarto Figure 1,thereaxesomeothercases,which areworthnotitg.
Figures2 and3 illusfratetwo firther cases,a materialwheretheyield is
undetectable
ard a brittle material.

!.!x-|!.:l-i/

rnt
l /.

o'l

oD!:'

!tra!l

- -.-a

ooY)r_6
_"<,u

yryEl^g

El.ltlo
rrglon

P!rm!n!nt
drJormtlon 0.1%
-

Dlrrctstrlln
l6t brrcrnt!9.slongltlonl

Figure2 identificationofproof stress

yi"!J Paint =

s,t,o,'t
f,Yotr

VaLrt L

Figure2 illustratesthe stress-strain

curvefor a particulff materialwhereyield
is undetectable.
Thereis a clearelasticregionanda clearplasticregior! but
the hansitionpoint is unclear.As designerswe needto assess
a material's
suitabilityfor a task andonequantifiablemeasureis its feld point.In these

prffilE6iF-snrcE
situations
clesigners
oftenreferto thematerial's
fiI9q
.of a materialis definedasIlqlevel SlC4lq1gSuired1gjq$gy9a
plasticdeformation
(often0.ll:oor 0.2%o).
amountof permanent
lnFottant The prcofstressis determinedby drawinga line parallelto the elasticportion

Pr""( sacs

' \l

[-

qi

\o, \ i
\*

ofthe curve.Theline startsat thevalueofpemranentplasticdeformationand

finishesat the actualsfess-straincurve.Thelevel of directstresswherethis
line crossesthe stress-strain
curveindicatesthe proof stressofthe material.
Figure3 illustratestherelationshipbetweendirectsnessandstrainfor {Effii4
material.

c
6,

rhow!lltd. dr nollonsf
Sp.olm.n
pl.cr. llt toe.th.r,.nd
d;formltlon;
oftanlookcryltallln..
rurtlc.a
fr&tura

Dlr.ctrtraln
Figule3 typical sbess-strain
curvefor a brittle material

Heretheplasticregionis very small,if it edsts at all. Thefailureofthe

materialis oftencharacterised
by a loud snap.On closeexaminationofthe
brokenpieces,the fracturedsurfacesappearcrystallineald oftenfit back
togetherperfectly.Examplesofbritde materialsarechallqtool steeb,concrete
andceramics.

Brittlematerials
areoftenusedin compression
rat@r14antenliqnb!:ca9se
properties
theirtensile
aresopoorin comparison
to theircompressive
propedies.

Il is interestirgto notethat materialsdo not havethe samepropertiesin

compression
asin tension,for exampleconsiderchalkandconcrete.
graphfor a material,which was
.Example1,Figure4 illustratesa stress-strain
conductedusinsa tensiletest.
Deterrninethemodulusof elasticityandthe 0.I % proof stressfor the material.

z
:

(t

000 2000 3000 4000 6000

) directstrainx l0'6

a ' zz
.l-to

30d

. - - - g.Le!PJ99!
!t lir -...

= 200

Panltlot/'

jrooioi"
'
! loo
,/

o.'t96p.rmancntrtnln

,/'.-"-'
O.aal

4000

1000

(b) directstrainx 10'6

l_?,*^---

Figure4

o.i i. = o'-!- =
too

I
looo

looo x '"

Solution1oexampleI .
Tbedefinitionsfo: modulusof clasticityE and0.I % poof s*ss providethe
solutiorto thisproblerl.
(a)Todetermine
E wedetennine
thcgradientofthe linein theelastic
rcgro'n

E* slopcofthcline
E= t00- t0. = 200cN/#
500x 105
(b)To dctermhcthe0,1%proofstress
wedrawa linc parallel!o theelastic
portionoftb0 curvebeginning
at 0.1%strain;
* 0.001snainort000x l0{
0.1%strainis equivalcut
to 0,1/100

r',.rt."

andthe0,1%proofstersis givenby
ool* = stresswhcrcthe0.1%linc intenec6thestess_ straincuryc
oo.rx= 270MN/m2

Sc . pr - . "

loo

l^ r../ t
/r.^

oco too x lo -6

s(rf &.

lo ,
C

{\ot

a 2-' (i r.,/ rr

Example2, Figure5 illustrates

several
tensileteststress-struin
relationships.
Fromthegaphsdetermiae
thefollowing:(a)the matedalwith the greatestmodulusof elasticity

g*J^n-.

(b)thematerialwith thesmallest
0.1%proofsress D
(c) the mostbrittle material B

'r490
2 300
=

I 200
g 100
6
0

.
.

400

1000 . 2000 3000

(a) dilect strein/ 10{

---.\

tu.tn Ptcot M..p,y-

//
0.1%proot
I^
/''
j---_=-.---*!tr.!riorD
- -. -.1 - -- -- - -. -../.. --..---,

E soo'

t
:

llE

I 'roo
I

6r *

;o

/r
t// ,/
1000

/ ,."
2000

3000

(b) directstrain/ l0-o

Figure5

,t000

5000

i. t\. gr."rat

Solutionto example
2.
(a)Thematerialwiththegreatest
modulusof elasticityE is thematerial
whosegradientis thegreatest
withintheelasticregion.
Figure5 (a)clearlyshowsthatthisis materialA.
-

withthe0.1%pefloannt
O) Figue 5 O) iilustatesthematerialproperties
sfain linadded.Fromthegaph it canbeseenthatthe0.1%proof
shesses
areasfollows:
Matcrial
Material

C: oo.rx=395MN/m2
= 3ZtMMrif
D: 60.r%

HencematerialD hasthesmallestvalueof0.1%proofstess,
.

(b)lvlaterials
A andB aretle mostbritde.
MatcrialB is morebrittlethanA because
it hasa lowershessatfailure.

Similargraphsto thosepresentedin the previousfiguresmaybe achievedfor

materials
subjectto shear(i.e.bendingofbeamsor torsionsofshafts)by
plottingshearstressagainstshearstrain,asin figure m.
Figure6, (whichis similarto figure2); theregionsofelasticity andplasticity
still eist but therelationshipis differentin the elasticregionbecause
ofthe
modeof loadine.

Elr.tio
ragron
:

Plaatloruglon

Ehrtlollmlt

/ curvr rttdnrd whrn

/-1;-

e-.toe.orc;"ph

Sh.!r irln
. dalohatlon

Figure6 tpical stress-strain

curvefor a ductilematerial
For shear,the gradient ofthe line in the elastic region is called the modulus of

I G. itsunitsareN/#
G= shear
suess = t

.i( designers
andenglneersoften assume
thatthe:o yield stressin shearfor a materialis approximatelyone-halfthatofthe
yield dueto directstress.
o for metals;themodulusofrigidityG caabeassumed
to be3/8ofthe
modulusof elasticityE.

G - p_ e
It

To summarise,
TableI lislssomecomrnonly
uscdengineering
materials
with
-

theirap'troxirnate
materialproperties.

Whcndoinganyformofdesigncalculation,
TableI canbeusedasa guide
butyoushouldalwayrreferto BritishStandads,
ISOstandards
or an
equivalent
for matetialsactualpropcrties.
TableI Somctlpicsl naterirl popcties

Matcrial

yield strcsso,

(cN/ml

(cN/#)

@N/mr)

Mild S&cl

200

75

220

Low-alloystccl

209

7t

Aluminium

10

26

500- 1980
40

Copper

124

47

60

Titaniun

116

180-t320

@ /'

Frne b*\

d*^d

rtJ\r(tr.
Ln t <xfv(L c,^-o\ EXt<Yv'.qV t-""-g

Technology
Sustainable
1
Graham
Oakes

Introduction
. Thesenotesprovide
anintroduction
to:
r Moment (Units= Nm)
r Torque (Units= Nm)
. Couple (Units= Nm)
= N)
(Units
r Shear
Force
diagram
(Unib= Nm)
r Bending
Moment
diagram

t-

F o rce .........
. is measuredin N

. hasmagnitude
anddirection
. whenactingI, is thesameas'weight'
g = 9.81nis2
Note:Ealth'sgravitational
apceleration

F = 196.2N
W = 196.2N

Nerrton's
law..,,.
I forceson a

frictionless

Torqueabouta point:

Torque,T = nd

(Nelvtons)
T = Force
x Distance
(metres)
65i b: Torquef= t:tn
Example:
electric
motor

Couple:A Specialparallel-force
system
consisting
oftwo parallelforcesofequal

Momentofcouple,M=Fd

(Newtons)
M = Force
(metres)
x Distance
Moment
of couple,
M = Nm
Example:
corkscrew
wlnebottleopener

NeMon'slaw......
! forceson a mass= mxa

lrictionless

Momentof forceabouta Doint:

|
r+t-

giuoL
^

'
:rrs:ucriL :ri - ru

-it F

(metres)
M = Force(Ne$/tons)
x Distance
Moment
M = Nm
Examples:
torquewrerrch,
slnglespanner

Therearetwo basicbalances
thatmust
existin any staticsoroblems

Ifa bodyis notaccelerating,

e,g,stationary
,...,..,
=0
E forcesin anvdirection
I
. =
I
point 0 -Z
t moments
about4r,Jr'
\

'5f\!clore

\ hAt<r**.r

Exarnple
Findthereactionsat thesupports:R^ andR":

Moments
aboutA:

(& x 4) - (50x 3) = 0

X forces= 0:

RB = 1 5 0 / 4 = 3 7 ' 5 k lv
Ra+ RB- 50kN= 0
RA= 50- 37.5= l2 5kll

\i
.)

FreeBodyDiagram
r Staticsinvolves
theforcesor
interactions
of bodies
oneachother,
Thebodiesmustbeseoarated
from
eachothersothatunknown
forcesmay
bedetermined.
Weselectandfreea
bodyfromitssurroundings,
A diagram
showing
theforcesactingonthe body
isthendrawn.Sucha diagram
iscalled
a free-body
diagram,

InternalandExternal
Forces
Internal
' theseforcesactonlywithina
freebody,andcancel
out unless
we
arelooking
at a sectionof a freebody,
External
- theseforcesacton a free
body,andtheyinducereaction
forces.
Examples
aregravity,andotherfree
bodies.

Freebodydiagram
example
r Barin tension
dueto ForceF

"*'

",*orGilo-,

Fibresin compression
. -Neutralaxis

Fibresin tension

F/2

)nearrorce - srgnconyennon

. Shaarforcebtwccn'A' and'B' +F
-

Shearforce= +F

. Sharrforrebctween'A' and'B' .F
-

Shearforce= +F

. Fo!pointloads,shearforcecanonlychangeattheloadpoints
. Positivcshearforceat anysection=
lotaluDwardforceto LEFTofthat section

Shearforce = -F
. For point loads,sharforcecanonly changQat the loadpoitrts
. Positiveshearforcc at anysection=
tolal upwardforce to LEFT of that sectio!

.FindRaandRs

A dinensiotg in n

(
A : Lo ^ ( t . 5 ) + R A ^ 5 5 = J o ^ r ) F ( :o ) x4 - >
3 o + 5 5 r R B = \ o t- \\o :>
\o o =tt. lz
5 5 R B = 1 3 c :- 3 c > ' = ;, Rflr =
.2 ")

. Bendingmomer(= +M

. Bandingmoment -M
-

= +M
mommt
' Bending
. Bendingmomentat any section
= > momentsto lefl ofthat sectioo
= t momentsto right ofthat section
(choose
theeasiest!!)
lForce = +veBM;

lForce = -veBM

10

Exercise
RAand& asFevious(of course)
.Findthebendingmomentsat redsectioff:

-. All dimewlonslh n

( 3 o ,,Q ) r(l or t) = 126a1.5)a( Q6< |>9)

R g = \c.l r tK./

SheEForce(SF)Diasram
Rules (or pointloadedbeans):

. Startat left.handsideofbeam
ananountequalto theyalueof theload
. theSFis constantbetwee[pointloads

11

BendinqMoment(BVODiaeram
R]l,les(rn poiq loodedbeans)i

. BM is zeroat earhndof beam

. calculate
theBM at eachpointload(eitherleft or rightof
pointload,whatever's
theeasiest)
. plottheBM valuesandjoin with lines

t2

1 8 . 1k8N

+
It

l.-

1 8 . 1k8N
BM (kNm
:21.27

II

. Find Ro, R"

. Sketchthe SF diagram
. SketchtheBM

RB

lo xl.5+ 30x2-.5=RBr5'6
,<.r 1.
t5
7 5 . . .t-.5. RA
2-

a ^a-9
B
=O
J/---16''6
t.5

RA:2j. d4

15.6+

t@
t!= t.axzz.6+S!-;Q
C = t9,( ri.64 -lo*t

"13,64
16,)6

14

TArlr l.-BENDTNo MoMENts,Sfl! R FoRcEsA\D DEFLEcno!'s

Confguratiol
andloading

la

RE

MsrimuE bctldiDg
momcntM

MexiErumd.ncdion d
[8, constallt]

Atr

n3BEI

^r--t-J
-

-T

=*

.{

ffi

RA

, t

.L

Fb

.- F.b

n.

{=-

"r!4,

M-F a

Fc(3Lz
- G')
AET

_uttt' - #t
AEI

T^aLE | .-(Conlinu.d)
Rcaction!

Coligurstio!
.!d loedilg

Marinun bcadia!

xB

M|tierE dli.ction d
[8, coartsD{

EOECNT M

*Lz/2

l'L

. rla/tE!
(-FL2lW

v
F t wlt

,?t|Jll,,d

wlLwitt

VL

FFn)

wL

, M:vLz/t
(;FL/8)

. Fpnl

ir/L.

snt

3UEI SI{EI
SMLZ

aga
m,&

rl

"n
a Lo!

/-o"-'9. I

ga.rS

TiorVtnT= F.J 0t.-)

naf mout3 Gtz*in"1) + ZF?J
oltie,tt"n)__o

TechnoloevI
Sustainable
ShearForceandBendingMomentdiagrams
- Tutorials
ConceirtratedLoads
Example1
loadW at its freeend.
A cantilever
of lengthlcaniesa concentrated
DrawtheS.F.andB.M.diagrams.
x fromthefreeend;consider
theforcesto the
At a sec'tion
a distanc
f-'--)-,
alongthe*fiole beam(i,e.for all valuesofx).
Thet F = -!/and is constant
Takingmoments
aboottt u ,."uon giu.(G-@o

thatthemaximum

occursatthefixeden4:y
bending.moment

thefixing momentappliedatthebuilt-ineNld
Fromequilibriumconsiderations,
is Wl, andthereaptionis W.

TheS.F.andB.M. diaerams
arethoeforeasshownin Fie 1below

Sher Forcediagram

BendingMomentdiagram
FigureI
Example2
loadW of 30ld,lat its free
A cantileverofleneth 10mcarriesa concentrated
end,Draw the S.F.andB.M, diagams.

Example3.
A beam10m long is simply supportedat its endsandcaries a concentrated
load of30 kN, 3m from the left handsideand50 kN, 3m from the right hand
side.
Draw the S,F.andB.M. diagrams.

Solutionis: -

3olN

4n

%6

R,l

.L5t ''"

5OITI

3n

/0n

R2

ShearForcediagramkl.l

t32
I

M
Ic
!-^

BendingMomentdiagamk},lm
7

hr

U"-T- = -?-96
-l

O= tq 3(

Figure
2

ar+

Thefollowinggeneralconclusions
canbedrawnwhenonlyconcentrated
loadsandreactions
areconcerned:
o Theshearing
change
whenpassing
forcesuffersa sudden
througha
equalto theload.
loadpoinl thechange
beingnumerically
o Thebending
diagrami9a seriesof straightlinesbetween
the
.moment
loadgtheslopeofthe linesbeingequalto theshearing
forcebetween
thosepoints,
Studenterrcloe.
.^.-....

Calculate
theslopeof$e BM diagramfor thefollowing3 straightlines:
Slopefor 0 < x < 3, is positive=
=
Slopefor 3 < x < 7, ispositive
=
Slopefor 7 < x < 10,is negative

Whatdoesthe slopdofthe bendingmomentdiagramequal?

UniformlvDlsfibuted Loads
Example4.
DrawtheS.F,andB.M. diagrarns
for a simplysupported
beamoflength10m
carryinga uniformlydistituted load1ll, N/m acrossthewholespan.
Thetotalloadcanied= 1000N/mx 10m = 10000N
By symmetry
thereactions
attheendsupports
areeach50000N
If a is thedistance
ofthe sectionconsidered
fromtheleft-handend

TheBendingMomentM atthesectiona is foundby teatingthedisnibuted

loadactingat its centeofgravity,whichis a2 fromthesection

N'
50000

50000N

+50000
N

-50000N

125000
Nm

Wlal2

Example
5.
DrawtheS.F,andB.M.diagrams
for a simplysupported
beamof length20m
carryinga uniformlydistibutedload3000N/macrossthewholespan,

UtrderstandingShearForceandBerdiDgMoment Diagnms

PageI of7

Understanding
ShearForceand BendingMoment
Diagrams
Shearforceandbendingmomentareexamples
of interanlforcesthatarcinducdin a shuctue
whenloadsareappliedto thststructure.
Loadingtendsto causefailurein two rnainways;
a) by shesringthebeanacrossits cross-section.

b) by bndingthebamto anexcessive
amount.

Shearforcemay\ d9filed as"thealgeblaicsumofth loadsto theleft or right ofa point(such

thattheadditionofthis force!storesvcrticalequilbrium)".
Theaccepedsignconventionis:

J=
l__

.lz

T-

+veshear
sumofforcesto theleft is upwards(+v)
sumofforcsto theright is do\rnwards(-v)

-vesnar
sumof forpesto theleft is downwards
(-ve)
sumof forcesto theright is upwards(+ve)

A shearforce diagam is onewhich showsvariation in shearforoe alongthe lengthof the beam.

http://wwr2.umistac.uk/constnrctior/intrdnsdGaching/un22lexp/sfbmdex.htm 5/lg12006

Uldentanding ShearForceandBendingMomentDiagnms

Pege2 of 7

Bendingmomentmaybe definedas"thesurnofmomentsaboutthatsectionof all extemalforces

actingto onesideofthat section".
Moments,at al|ypoint,arecalculated
by multiplyingthemagnitude
ofthe extemalforces(loadsor
reactiontby thedistancebetweenthepointat whichmoneotis beingdetermined
andthepointat
whichtheextemalforcs(loadsor rcactions)arebeingapplied.
Theaccepted
signcorventionis;
+vebendingmoment
sumofmomentsto theleft is clockwise
sumof moments
to theright is
anticlockwise
-vebendingmoment
sumofmomentsto theleft is anticlockwisc
sumofmomentsto theright is
clockwise
Note!
. Forbeamsspsnningbetwentwo simplepin-jointcdsupports(i.e.no cantilevers)
moment
will alwaysbepositiveand,althoughthbeamsags,momentis drawnabovctheaxis.
r Themaximumbendingmomntoccursat thepointofzero shearforce.
. Beforeshearforceandbendingmomentcanbecalculatd
thercactionsat thesupports
must
bedelermined,
This is usuallydoneby first takingmomnts abod oneofthe supports
( sum
of moments
sboutsupport= 0) to determine
thercaptiorlat theothcrsupportandiecondlyby
resolvingvedically(sumofverticalreactions
- 0) anddaerminingthereactionat thc oth!
support.
A bendingmomentdiagramis onewhichshowsvariationin bendingmomentalongthelngthof
thebeam.

ExampleI
Drawtheshearforceandbendingmomentdiagramsfor tlrebeamshownbelow

1okN

a) determinethe reactionsat the suppons.

http://www2.unistac.
uldconstructior/intran
etltaching/u1222/
exp/stbmdex.
htm

5/18/2006

UnderstandilgShearForceandBendingMomentDiagrams

Page3 of7

=anti-clockwiso
TskiDgmomentsaboutA (clockwisemoments
momerts)
=
l0 x2 5Rc
5R{-20
Rr:20l5 =4kN
Resolvingvenically
RA+RC=lokN
Substituting
in Rc+kN
RA+4-10
Re=t0-4dk)'t
b) dnw lhe slrcarforccdiagram

10kN

6kN

2m

4kN

3m

workingfiom left to right:

thereactional A-f6lN
6kN

thc shearforccremainsconstantbehvecnA andB (i.e.6kl0 andsothesharforccdiagrunis

horizontslbtwenthsminb

6kN

at poi B wherthe 10lN pointloadis appliedtheshsrforcechanges

ftom +6lN to +6-10=-4kN

hup://www2.umist.ac.uldcolstructior/intr&net/teachiry/uD22lexp/sfbmdex.hlm 5l1g?cf,6

Understanding
Shea.ForceandBendingMomentDiagnms

Page4 ofj

theshearforceremainsconstantbetwEen
B andC (i.e.-4kN)andsotheshcarforcediagramis
horizontalbehveen
thesepoints.

at supportC thereactionof4kN bringsthevalueof shcarforcebackto zercandthediagamis

comDtgre.
6kN

c) drawthebcndingmomentdiagram:
10k N

6kN

2m

4kN

3m

Themomentsat thesupports
A andC arezero.Themaximutrmomenloccusat B (Dointof zero
shearforce).
Takingmoments
at B (to theleft)
M"d x 2 =l2kNm
B-endingmomentvariesuniformlybetwenA andB andbetweenB andC (i.e.thebendingmomnt
diagramis a straightline).For exarnplqthebendingmomentmidwaybetw;enA andB = 6 xl
dkNm whichis half thevalueofthe bendingmomentat B.
Thereforethebendingmomentdiagnmis:

tttn:t/wwwZ.umist.ac.uldconshuction/intranetraching/u1222lexp/sfbmdex.htm
s/1E12006

Urderstanding
SharForceandBendingMomentDiagrams

Page5 of7

12kNm

Example2
DIawttreshearforceandbEndingmomentdiagramsfor thebeamshowbelow:
10kN/m

a) dtormine
thc reactions
at thesupporis
Takingmoments
aboutA (clockwisemomcnts= anti-clockwise
momen*)
(10x6)x3 -6Rc wherel0x6d0tN-total load8nd3m=distanc
fromA to whererlrcload
s achng.
6Rc=180

Rc=taol6
=3OkN
Resolvingvenically
Ro+Ra=l0 x 6 d0ti.I
Substituting
in Rc=3okN
RA+30<0
RAdo-30-30kN
NotIn thisexrmple,because
theloadingis appliedsymmetrically
thcreactionset eachsupport
mgstbe equslandrre thereforchalftheload.It is accptsble
to asiumethis andnotlecessaryto
calculatethercactions.
-

b) drawtheshearforcediagram

http://rMlrv2-umistac.uk/consbuctiodintranet/teaching/u1222lexp/sfbmdex.htn5IVZ0O6

Unde$tandingShearForceand BendingMomeDtDiagrams

Page6 of1

10kN/m

Wo*ing from left to right:

thercaction8t A - +30kN

30kN

Movingfromleft to righttheshearforccreduccsby lOkNpcrmete andsochangs

ftom +3OkNat
A to +30-(6xl0h-30kNat C. Thc sherrforcdiagnmb slopingbetweenA andC andthepointaof
zcroshearforceoccursat B, theccnf point.

At supportC thercactionof 30kNbringsthevaluof she3rforcbsckto zeroandthdisgramis

comdctc.

30kN

30kN
c) drawthebndingmomentdiagrsm

http://www2.umistac-ul/colstuction/intraDct/teaching/un22lexlsfbmdex.hlrn

sn8/2006

UndefitandingShearForceandBendingMomentDiagrams

Page? of 7

Themomentsatthesupports
A andC arezro.Themaximurnmomentocculsat B (Dointof zero
shearforce).
TakingmomertsaboutB (1otheleft)
M"{30 x3)-(l0x3x[32])
= 90 -45 = 45kNm
wherel0 x3 =30kNis thevalueof uniformloadcontrfuutingto themomentat B
ad 3/2is thedistancc&omB io thepointwhffe thisloadis assumed
to act.
Bcndingmomentdoesnotvaryunifomly betweenA andB andbtweenB andC but thebnding
momentdiagrunis pa.abolic(ourved).Thisganbedmonstated
by calculatingOrbending
moment&t lm intcrvals.measuedfiom A:
BM1a30xl)-(10x1x [1/2])-25kNm
BMr{30x2)"( 10x2x [2J2]F40kNm
BM3<30X3X10x3
x [32)=45kNm
BMan30x4)"(10x4x [4/2])+0ld.lm
BMr{30x5}(10x5x [52]F25kNm
45kNm
40kNm

Note It is usuallysuftioientto calculstethc maximummomentonly.

http://\er r2.umistac.uk/conskuction/htranell@ctt1ngul222/explsfbmdex.htn

5^S2@6

,.d

.J

,l

Simplebendingformula
(producinga bendingstress)

and
Simpletorsionformula
(producing
a torsionalshearstess)

of Beams
Bending
by the
in beamsareprcduced
Thebendingmoments
pure
moments
or
shear
bendlng
actionof elther
loads.
bending
arisesIn beamswhlchhave
Symmetrlcal
cross-sections
eitherslngleor doublysymmetdcal

W ffi W
& tuffi|

s*"2y1?rt

Nar uezKt d^"ror' "[

F.o.= =

tooc> /' N/^L

\o
''^t + t^'/'"

: +

'y=*
\\

'

\) oj99

Loo

"rJ\

u"*"7tya

rur tru*

t\ t+ *.-.r' ,\\

t,.!-

(r

. Thebeam.is
to
subjected
purebending

metres
R = radiusofcurvature,

Above
a{s,
theneutral
longitudinal
fibresstretch.

Blowtheneutralaxis,
Neutral
longitudlnal
fibrescomprss.

Variationof stress

Maxisumsts in
comFc$iotr= o"
StEsraty,=o,=+Yl

Cross-section

oooo
o oa o

Forcesout

X XXX

Foraes
in

XXXX
y fromthe
to thedistance
Thebendingstressis proportional
neutralaxis.

formula
bending
r Simple

Nm
moment
M = bending
I = secondmomentof areaaboutcentroidof section,
of sectionm4
upongeometry
dependent
y fromneutralaxis
6 = bendingstressat distance
N/m2
stress
+ = tensilestress,- = compressive
fromneutralaxism
v = distance
N/m'z
modulus
E = Young's
of beamm
R = radiusof curvature

,f Bending
Formula
Stress
-7148--*My
givesthenormal
stressat
Thisformula
a distance
anypointona crosssection
y fromtheneutral
axisin termsof the
moment
andthegeometry
of
bending
of thebeam.
thesection

I-values
d

BD3
.
-12

bd3

t2

.
BD3
-1 2

bd3
12

1:
Example
beam3,5m longsupporba loadof 20kNon its
. A cantilever
freeend.Thebeamandcrosssedionareshowin following
stressin thebeam,
bending
fig. Findthemaximum

is
Solution

a. c 5

rM= 70 kNm
x 106mma
r I= 320.83

r o= 38.2MN/m2TensandComp

+-+
t= '""ifu"'-:J!#t

e'+#

q=+

*-5
' 3toGX\oo

is woundon a
Steelwire.4mn diameter
circulardrum3 m diameter.
themaximum
calculate
If E = 200GN/m2
stressdueto bending.
(266.3MN/m2.)
o ooa

$-fr." e-

o' ,/n"

r . Z e( .' )
o. P o3

t/\-z'

F-

bending
,**[*Tutorial2,
."tl$f-.*.-r Whatis thesmallest
diameter
drumon
whichsteelstrip2 mmthickoanbewound
permanently
withoutbecoming
bent,if the
steelhasanelasticlimit stressof 320
MN/m2andits modulusof elasticityis 200
GN/m2?
(Answer.
l248mm.)

O.oaL

(= \Ls

fn ;

c d/""

rz --'too

- q - - ER_
.ro*/
I
o.oo r

--

t-^td,
'x+0 ooil1 .s\l

':!oo"';;;o-

A ,.,/
3.2,9o . ;;;_
. j.2^r"+3.zx\o ' ?A zrt:l'q166
{= o.6zti\- edzt*-

O =2" 6zt*= tr(b

s - t'..'*ltL = t.,i"I.
d= b

= tLcK
"er!,
-r- u.".;.:'

j5

'l-..ir.

ending
r A bar2 m long,30mm wide,and5 mm thick is
horizontallyon knife edges| .2 m aparl
supportdd
so thatthe overhangat eachendis 0.4m. A
downwardforceof 15N is appliedto eachendof
thebar,producinga radiusof curvatureof 10.6m,
r CalculateE, themodulusof elasticityof the bar.
(Answer.203.3GN/m2.)
E

_-

K ',

rtr

A.l,r.

F_

--

t'
t\\o
\'\15r\o'
e6'-\.

\5,,r .a L

-L
L r . , \ . ( \ 5 . ' . r, i- \ > { ' r/ ' 1 , 1 . e ' -: lr. -' r -"

,'e,\'i , !_l_ -=fl

. ,...
r1

ii.<i

to r"

):O
| ' 1o)

r Determine
themaximumbendingstressin a
mild steel
4 m lengthof 30 mmdiameter
at its endsandacted
bar,simplysupported
on onlyby gravity.
Thedensityof mild steelis 8000kg/m3.
(Answer.
41.86MN/m'z.)
= f5s
Donsiq
(J

VoL\^$e

y-

rc r:.o32r4-2-83 r\f,3 :

De.sit1---M1-

3
3
x9 ,o o .= a l;!f,,
:
- , >f o - e 1z.tstto

{ o \!*c

= Lz"FoYc" = a'l.61t \-t\

r- {aa _- 19j.-.3\

6q
6+
xu
) --\ \ \
A =C||l )-(ltlxl

gr.t-o'
(trr12) - lzzzr z

l ') .!r \o '

"( ;/

'

Tutorial5, bending
5
Figure

'iV,

Tutorial

Ing

Figure5 showsthesectionof a beam.

themaximumtensileand
Determine
dueto bendingif the
compressive
stresses
attwopoints6 m
beamis simplysupported
load
apartandcarriesa centralconcentrated
of 20kN.
AE
-T.=i=-d

Tutorial bending
the neutralaxisis positioned92mmbelow
the top surface,
ma
I abouttheneutralaxisis 91.2x 10-6

+;J r ?.et

(58.5MN/m2,tensile)
)
130.3MN/m2.compressive.

shafts
of circular
. I Torsion
-r_ _ @ $ --

Theeffectof puretorsionon a shaftof circular

pureshearstresses
in its
sectionis to produce
materlal,
Theeffectwlllbethatthe shaftwllltwist,it will
wlll notchange.
remainstraight,
anditsdimenslons
a
A straightlinedrawnon itssurfacewlllbecome
helix.
angularmovement
of oneendof
Thecorresponding
to the otheris caliedthe angleof
the shaftrelative
twist 0.
in radians
0 is measured

6..

shafts
of circular
Torsion
Anti{lockiise torque'T
Angleoftwist

Clockwistorqu+T

It is alsoassumed
that;
is homogeneous
Thematerial
Thetwistls uniformalonglts length
Shearstressls dlrectlyproportlonal
to radlus

t2

formula
torsion
Simple
T

rG 0

r.J.*^

torque,Nm
T = applied
moment
of area,aboutitspole,m4
second
J = Dolar
r fromthepole,N/m2
at radius
r = shearstress
fromthepole,m
r = radius
N/m2
of thematerlal,
of Rigidlty
G = lvlodulus
e = angleof twist,radlans"
L = lengthof shaft,m

Polarsecondmomentof area,J
d
for a shaftof diameter
J=

fla

t
t

3Z

Unitsarem4

l3

Polarsecondmomentof area,J
for a shaftof:

D
diameter
outside

-rffit
d --ro6p[
diameter
inside
i'

, n( oa- t )
J =--

'l

32 I
!

Unitsarema

shearstress
Maximum
shearstressis at thesuface
e maximum
diameter,
of theoutside
. Formula
is;
.
r
r
.

IT

N/m2
shear
stress,
r = maxlmum
T = applied
torqueNm
radius
of shaftm
r = outside
moment
of areama
3 = polarsecond

rev/minto rad/sec
shaftsit is
withrotating
. Whendealing
speedin
to quotetherotational
norrnal
rev/minnot rad/sec

o'o = rad/sec
60
Provethisconversion
Question.
Rev/minx

transmission
*1. Power
by a shaftis calculated
by
. Thepowertransmitted
formula:
uslngthe followlng
power= torquex angularvelocity
' _----i
( p=Tol
PowerP = Watts
TorqueT = Nm
Angularvelociiy(0= radlans/second

t)

Tutorial

ll+

ftr*
qt

of 30mm,
r A solidshafthasa diameter
rotatesat 1000rev/min andtransmits
25 kW.
themaximumshearstressin the
Determine
shaft,andtheangleoftwist overa lm
lengthif G = 80GN/m2.
(Answer.
45.0MN/m2 2.15')
Q=O'o375 t"].
T- -t ,,v'

f --o o315r'"$i-1 . z.15o

,.1

2, torsion
Tutorial

of 150
diameter
A hollowshafthasanexternal
of 100mm.
mmandanintemaldiameter
is notto exceed
50
sheax
stress
If themaximum
MN/m2,detennine;
themdximumpowerthatcouldbetransmittedby
theshaftwhenrotatingat I 80rev/min,
overa 5 m length.
theangleoftwist(in degrees)
of rigidityof the
Assume
G,themodulus
material,
is 80GN/mz.
(Answer.
501.3kW 2.39')

y-V

,rhr 9:*

---->

Y' outriJ''

.t

5L^,[t

",uI*ry

t,"49

y''o={uo (y'('
16

@
,/

pre==crYe, uaorK,po-.r,
$.,ncip\-

of

E .[1
gnsevtcrirovlJ

1
TechnologY
Sustainable
Oakes
Graham
Energy,
Work,Power.
Pressure,
-Prlnciple
of Energy
of Conseruatlon

anIntroduction
to: Thlslectureorovides

= N/mz= Pascal
Pa]
Pressure
lUnlts
Work lunlts= Joule]
PowerfUnlts= Watt]
Energylunlts= Joule]
of energy
of conservatlon
Princlple

-*

to a suface
Theeffectof a forceapplied
whichtheforce
area
over
irponthe
depends
isapplied.
Thatiswhynallsandpinshavesharppolnts,
overa verysmallarea.
sotheforcels applled
is
used
fortheforce
ThetermDressure
perunitarea.
applied
istheN/m2
Theunltof pressure
(Pa)
ThisisgiventhenamePascal

1
Example
A steelblockhavinga massof 80 kg
restson a table,theareaof contact
withthetablebeing2000mm2.
Calculate:
(i) downward
forcein Newtons
(ii)pressure
onthetablein kN/m2

Downwaidforceon table = welghtof block

80 kgx 9.81m/sz= 784,8N

(il)
Areaof contact = 2000mm2
= 0.002m2

Solution
pressure
ontable = force/ area
downward
force
areaof contact
784.8N
0,002m2
392.4kN/m2

Work
-"I
-#-a body
is exerted
against
Whena.force
in thedirection
of
througha distance
theforce,workis saidto bedone.
workis doneif a bodyis:Forexample,
the
upwards
against
. liftedvertically
pullof theeadh
gravitational
. if a springisstretched
or compressed.

.. I M/nrk

-r-"

Theunitof workistheJoule(symbol,
J) to
physlclst
commemorate
the English
JamesP.
famousfor hisexperimenb
Joule(1818-89),
between
mechanical
onthe relationship
and
thermalenergies.
Thejouleisdefined
astheworkdonewhena
forceof 1 Newtonis exededthrougha
distance
of 1 metrein thedirection
of the
force.

Work
througha
if a forceF is exerted
Hence,
of theforce,
dlstanies in thedlrectlon
x s [metres]
workdone= F lNevvtons]
= Fs Joules
1 kllojoule
[kJ]= 1000:
1 Megajoule
[MJ]= 1 000000J

Theworkdonein movinga body

of 30 m is 500J,
a distance
through
theforceto actin the
Assuming
calculate
theforce.
of motion,
direction
6 0 0J=F x30m
F = 600/30= 20 N

3
Example
lftedthrougha
= 20kgx 9,81m/sz= 195'2N
Welght
= 195.2
N x 15m = 2943J
Workdone
= 2.943ld'

Powerls defined
astherateof doingwork
of theworkdoneoer
andisa measure
secon0.
Theunitof powerlstheWatt(symbol,
W),
namedafterthefamousScottish
enqlneer
Watt(1735- 1819),
James
TheWattls equalto 1 joulepersecond(J/s)
1 kilowatt[kW]= 1696Y,
1 Megawatt
[MW]= 1 000000W

to a body
forceof 60 N is applled
A horizontal
througha
to moveit at a uniformvelocity
of the
of 20m InI s in thedirectlon
dlstance
power
requlred.
the
force.calculate
Workdone= 60N x 20m = 1200J
power= workdonepersecond
= 1200J
8s

= 150W

Example
5
to lift a massof
thepowerrequired
Calculate
veloclty
througha
300kgat a constant
height
of 200m In4 mln.
vertlcal
Forcereouired
to lift load
= 300kSx 9.81m/s2= 2943N.
WorkdoneIn4 mln= 2943Nx 200m
= 588600J.

't

5 continued
* Example
Pgwer= 588600J
4x60s
= 2453W
= 2,453kW

of doingworlqit is
Whena bodylscapable
whlchmaytake
saidto possess
energy,
formssuchasmechanical
energy.
varlous

I
I

weareonlyconcerned
with
In thlsmodule
whichisof twokinds:mechanlcal
energy,
kineticenergy(ke)
potentlal
energy(pe)

kineticenergy
Thekineticenergyof a bodYis the
by vidueof its
it possesses
energY
motion,
a bodysetin motionbYa
Therefore
forcedoingworkuponit acquires
it to do
whichenables
energy,
kinetic
forces.
workagainstresisting

inJoules
kinetlc
energy
= 1 x masskgx velocity2
(m/s)z
z

ke = 1mv2Joules
Therefore,
2

potential
energy
energyof a bodyistheenergy
Thepotential
possesses
dueto ltsPosition:
it
Fora bodyof massm kg liftedthrougha
helghtof h metres
inJoules
energy
Potential
m/s2x helghtm
- masskgx acceleration
pe= mgh Joules
Therefore,

An illustration
of thestorageof
potential
energyis wherea spring,
initially
at rest,(i,e.in itszeroposition),
is stretched,
therebystoringpotential
energyin thespring.

10

I peto keconversion
of a clockis anexample
Thependulum
backwards
of energybeingchanged
thekineticform
andforwardsbetween
form,
andtheDotential
masshasits
Thustheoscillating
energyat thelowest
kinetic
maximum
pointof itstravel,its potential
energy
beinqthenzero.

f keto peconversion

--rBr--"
energyof
Onthe otherhand,the potential
is a maximum
at theendof
the pendulum
its kinetic
eachswing,itsspeedandtherefore
energybeingthenzero.
Thesmalllossof energydueto frictionis
givenregularly
bythe impulse
supplied
mechanism
fromthe
throughtheescapement
mainspring.

11

energy
I potential
of potential
sources
Oneof thenatural
energyis waterliftedbyevaporation
fromsealevelto lakesandriversat
intowhichit is deposited
higherlevels
asralnor snow.

peto ke- conversion

.,1
-if-*_**waterturbines
Withthe aidof pipessupplying
energyof the
at a lowerlevel,the potential
at a highlevelcan
waterstoredin a reservoir
intokineticenergyandthereby
beconverted
whichin turndrive
usedto drivetheturbines
generators
or othermachinery,
electrical
energyof thewaterin the
Thusthe potential
intousefulwork.
reservoir
is conveded

72

Principleof the Conservationof

Energy
principle
statesthat
Thisimportant
fromone
energyis converted
whenever
noenergyis lost.
formto another,
to or from
is thusconvefted
Energy
energy
someformof mechanical
energy
andpotential
kinetic
including
energy.

Principleof the Conservationof

Energy
intothermal
Orit maybeconverted
or chemical
electrical
energy
energy,
Alltheenergy
involved
in the
energy.
for in
canbeaccounted
conversion
someformor another.
Thisconstancy
of thetotalenergyis
to asthePrinciple
of the
referred
of Energy.
Conservation

.tJ

Principleof the Conservationof

f Energy
--ff*-'-"'
wecanhave,to a
In somesituations
a
approximation,
reasonable
energy.
of mechanical
conservation
of
Thuswiththeswinging
Pendulum
energyat theendof
theclocKpotential
to kinetic
eachswingis convefted
at thelowestpointof itstravel.
energy
andkinetic
Thesumof thepotential
isa constant.
energies

I Summary

. ! -" --

. PressureisforceDerunitareaandthe unit
(Pa),
isthe Pascal
of pressure
wh ere lPa=1N/ m 2,
. Theunitof Work isthejoule.It isthework
through
donewhena forceof 1 N is exerted
of 1 m in the direction
of theforce.
a distance
Workdone,injoules= FL

74

r Power is the rateof doingworkand

the unitof poweris theWatt,whichis
1 Joule/second,
TheEnergyof a bodyis its capacity
' for doingwork.

by
r kineticenergylstheenergypossessed
vlrtueof its motion.
= 1mv2Joules
kinetic
energy
2
r potentialenergyls theenergypossessed
or stateof
bya bodybyvlrtueof lts posltlon
straln.
= mghJoules
enerPY
Potentlal

I)

of energy:
oftheconservation
r Principle.
principle
that
states
Thisimpoftant
fromone
energyis converted
whenever
noenergyis lost.
formto another,

-LO

Technology
I
Sustainable
PotentialenergyandKineticenergy
Tutorialquestions
Potentialenerqv
I.

Thework donein movinga bodythrougha distanceof I 00min the

directionofthe forceis 750J.
r , -value
ofthe
force.
the
Calculate
?= ;;:
'= -'- " ,/
roo
=-]r'
t7.5|q
ra
15o. F '
"/

2.

Calculatethework done,in kilojoules,in lifting a massof 800kg

througha verticalheightof40m.
F =x.a = g ro r.q ,: \=' tr <U6N
[314kJ]
cJ= 7641140."-r\v.3

3.

to a body,If theworkdoneis 30kJwhat

,A.forceof250Nis applied
is the distancethroughwhichthebodyhasmoved?
r!

F=75oN
U: = Irorj
/l

(^ -- 3l apf1

jo"oo = 2do< 4, ,

,------r

V: y : )

[l20ml
-

7-

Thework donein lifting a bodyverticallythroughafstalggf--

l20mis5Watthours.
(i)

\--rt,o'-

themassof thebody.
Calculate

6I:9)

*""=:j:,tl\:';*"I l ).JKgl

(ii)

valueof
Ifthe timetakenis 2 minutes,whatis theaverage
thepower?

p. J!33' @7

5.

r,ro*r

If theworkdonein movinga bodyis i 500Jandthetimetakenis

12seconds.
Whatis themeanvalueof thepower?

tl2swl
1:lrP=
'!z

:=:=-

->

? - lz 5 t '

6.

of
A bodyhavinga massof300kg is lifted througha distance
200m in l2seconds
What is the averagevalueofthe power?

p_ zoorll>rqr\ .iEjC
7.

+
1 ---\t"z t '

l3e.24kw)

A bargeis towed alonga canalat 5km,tr.The towropeis inclined at

an angleof30o to thedirectionof motionofthe bargeandthepull
-,. uoo
v\n
ontheropeis 400N.
U::
, ,
Ca l cu l a te -:

(i)

A=, r . t

F=24 ( .t!\
t=l 5 r6 o ' qoo t

F- - *

thework donein kilojoulesin 15minutes.

, ^ r . , J J .- . = o + ,.r r r ,.\2 5 -r
P ^ r.rr. v

/ : li
-

.\.-o

":

t433kJl

(iD thepowerrequired.

d.tzs t

8.

l^.: aoo F-1

J = r'o -*

qai 13

t4 S3 Wl

- ',91 1 1t

Theropeusedto haula sledgealonglevelgroundis inclinedat an

angleof20" with thegound andthetensionin theropeis 300N.
Calculate:(D thework donewhenthe sledgeis hauleda distance
of
xt|m
).
nr(n'-2o^t\d
= ZL>tL
J:

(iD

)'

' v \

[22.s6k]J

whatis theaverage
ifthis workis donein 3 minutes,
valueofthe power?

n25.3wl

Y=.=----'.'-'.

Kineticenerqv

9.

A carhavinga massof900kg is travellingat 100km.&.

Calculate:(D thecar'skineticenergyin kilojoules.
(.e = ! / qoo..'('!:qJ34? Kj
L

(iD

[347kJ]

1b'

what constantbraking force is requiredto bring the

car to rest in 6 seconds?

,..1

\'(

r r7
'\12
^

[2.081N]

*/s
l = 71.71
(?
,* --v .t ' t ' l - i= r d = 1 6 (
..

U, cI- t"d- ,-

-l
F = =f '

341?z1(aj x,'/- . 7 o 6 iN' 1 ' a $ ( n )

\66 .6-1'".' l

10. A bodyhavinga massof500kg is travellingat 120mls.

Calculate:
(i)
the body's kinetic enerry in.megajoules.

t3.6MJ]
(ii)

whatconstantbrykingforceis requiredto bringthe

bodyto restin{ krn}
tl'SkI'Il
m=7ooKJ
v i tzo'/5
|
I
rLolt=l.f nj
K.e=
J
+/5oo, l
t-- L9

't-Vt

r llox l, = llro h

a . 6 r \ &= F \ ^ lr o

a=tr.d
PotentialenerqvandKineticenerEy
11. A bodyhavinga massof5Okgis supported
40mabovetheground.
Whatis thebody'spotentialenergy?
l19.62kll
Ifthe bodyis allowedto fall freely,
Calculatethebody'spotentialenergy(pe)andkineticenergyfte)
when:
(D thebodyis 30mabovetheground
ke= 4.905kI]
[pe= 14.715kJ,
(ii)

just beforeit touchestheground"

[pe= 0, ke = 19.621{

Drawa diagramandcomparethepe andke at heightsof: Ground,just abovetheground,30mand40mabovetheground,

ri
Pe=-31, = 5o xQ'(tx 4o = rr ' sz
(\ ) p ,

**
i1i ;

*c 6\*50= \\ ?{ 5.t' J
--*a \ = 5 a

*it-

rGl\5'
-- to* q

* .=* .^\
tee= rq"'6r-o"l q

\'C6tt)

6\to=.o
6t rF1

TAV olp r",gfr

1
TechnologY
SustAinable

Kinematics
Oakes
Graham

Frameof reference
themotlonof anobject.
r Letusconslder
its posltlon.
To beginwith,let usdescrlbe
r In orderto saywhereanobjectis,we must
system.
flrstdeflnea co-ordinate
Thisls knownasa frameof reference.

Frameof reference
we
we liveInthreedimenslons,
Slnce
of anobjectbystatlng
theposition
descrlbe
howfar awaytheobjectlsfromthree
axes.
co-ordinate
separate
onedimension
letusconsider
Forslmplicity,
onry.
we
theposition,
Thenin orderto describe
line
needonlyknowthepolntona number
wheretheobjectls at.

wayof seeing
thisisto lookat a graphof
easiest
position
of time,If theobjftis not
the
as'afunction
moving,
thenthegraphwouldlookllke
Posltbn[

. Note:the slopeof the lineof an objectat restis

zerc.

at if the objectweremovingat a

onsranffiffityi fli'e graphof the

velocityasa functionof timewouldbe
q
Velocityl

Similarly,if anobjectmoveswith constant

positionat a
locity,thenit is changing

nstant?fldilA;grapliotthbposition
asa
functionof timewouldbelikethis

nrefl
Herethe slopeofthe line is a constant,andis equal
to the velocity.

Lastlv. we can ulto askwhat would happenif we let

the velocity changeat a constantrate? A changein
the velocityofthe objectis calledits acceleration.

m before,we seethatgaphsof thevelocityand

versustimewouldlook like
acceleration

ocitEl
,

-.,--

Fcceht"ffi;l
------L_

{"< nmeEl
-_

" rimeE'

I ne easrest
wav to analvseone

dimensional
motionis to lookat it
graphically.
But, if theobjecthasa complicated
motion,or it movesin morethanone
dimension,
it is notalwayseasyto plot on
a gaph.

1'

=-

X " -X t
t2' tl

time,we
Lookingat thegraphofthe velocityverses
recallthattheslopeofthatlinewastheacceleration,
asbeforeto
sowe car follow thesameapproach
definetheaverageacceleration
lz- lt
t 2 -t l

positionis in metres,

p91sgcond
velSgrtyLlg[_e-q9.s

per
is in metrespersecond
acceleration
qr metrespersecond
squared.
second,
between
velocityand
The relationship
positionis

x(t) - x" +vt

ro is thepositionof theparticleattimet = 0.
x(t/ is thepositionof theparticleattlmet*p.

r Similarly,wefind that

-v(r;- vo+at

r It canalsobeshownthat
x(t) = xo+vot+ +atz
(V= f ;'-t v"Ioc*\

JV'-;r.*tr.LB

Or.- t

Example
r A car'svelocityis 45 m/swhenthetraffrc
at 5
lighttumsred. If thecardecelerates
longdoesit taketo stop?
m/sec2,'how
r How far awayfrom thetrafltc light mustthe
carstartbrakingin orderto stopin time?

vE

u. l7l.

.- E-l

T
-L

t@-@-

r-------lxl--n
V=' gtt

45'6^t
r^

fortimet
Solution
v=vo-at

A/.dr

]r'-1"
t = - =------:-

(o+)-Gs+)l

/-!o-^t

"-+3 - 5 t

rej)
oord't".tt+J

for distance
Solution
x(t)=)co+vot+tat2
t(s s)(e')'
s)++
'
2\ - s2
3)(e

=-202.5m

r x(t) = x(attimeof 9 sec)= Q

r Xs- c?rstationary,
to befound
r vo= Velocity
at timet = 0 = 45m/S
.t= 9 s e c
r a = 5m/s2

of a projectile
Trajectory
r An importantexampleof this is whenthe
is dueto gravitY.
acceleration
r Themotionof anobjeotdueto gravityis
knownasballisticmotion.
themotion
it alsodescribes
r As anexample
of a ballthatis fired.

r A cannon
is firedwithaninitialvelocitvof45 m/secatan
ancleof30'.
How far awayAomthecannondoestheball land?
heightoftheball?
whatis themaximum
whatis theflighttime?

0 = angleof deParture degrees

m/s
u = initialvelocity

m
m

r = range
t = timeof flight

u' sit' 0
heqh4h)=
zg

u7 sin20
range(t\=

2lsin I
time(t)=

452sin23o 2025x0.5?=
25.*n
heisht(h)=
2x 9.81

19.62

range(r) =

45'sin60 2025x0.866
= 178.8n
9.81
9.81

tim{t)=

2x 4 5 x s i n 3 0 45 =
4.59s
9 .8 1
9 .8 1

10

r A ball is thrownwith aninidalvelocityof 20 m/secat anangle

g.=9 81m,/s2
of30o.Assume
heightof theball?
I what is themaximum
r How far awayfrom thecannondoestheball land?
. Whatis theflighttime?
height-!;!!1q ranger = 353m,timet = 2 04s]
[Solution;

atics
themotionof
r Rotationalmotionooncems
anobjectaboutsome@ntralpoint
withtheobject.Weshallsee
associated
thatwe
thatall ofthe linearrelationships
in
havefoundsofar haveequivalents
rotationalmotion.

11

ular Dis

0=z

Angular Velocity
. Therelationship
[etweenangularvelocity
c.l r, linearvelocityI andradiusr is
Q= -

(, a = radians/second
V | = metres/second
r = metres

L2

Angular Acceleration
is thechangein
r Angularacceleration
angularvelocityPerunittime
a =-=0rr

Example
. Theradiusof theearthis approximately
6400km.
If it takes24hoursto rotateonceon its axis.
velocityofthe earth.
find theangular
c --ztl-(=kozlz

, v&%-!&:

.- lo3-

r*"-

K_

6oo

\l --)6s -le
V :tS.rr^ s = V
y

t( Qo o r *
-4 4 5 n -\.-n

\ o5_

-+ 3f
*

1
Technology
Sustainable
ET1004
bi provldes
anInkoductlon
Thlslecture
Heat trlntfll
GEham Oakes

Heattransfer
Heatls ! folln of.nargv, \4hldlls fansEmd
fromon. bodyto anodErbody.t a lo .r
by vlrtE of thc ta,npcrailrr
lempcrEtrJrc,
dlfftrEn . b.tw.sl th. bodl.s
wlh ha rataat whlch
wa shallbc concarnad
h.rt B t'anstsrcd.

.-

ol*unitormrateol neallransler
"d*-

-___---_-_--

Thcratc of hcat!' sftr maYbc const6ntor

vadablgd.pandlngon whctha{@ndliorE
arasuchthat thc tcmparaurasrmaintha
safie or dEnga coninuallywlthlme
wlll bc cdE.med
h thlsmotulc .ll problems
wlthst!dystatahert tar6ltr, In whldrhcat
llowscondnuoGlyat a unllbm rate,

h,* is

.""3J

3 methodsof heattransfer
In generdlthercarethrcewa)En
whkhheatmaybetransferredi
I Conducton
,. convcthn
3. Ftadlauon

1.Conduction
ts tha transfarof haailioanonapartof a
subctanarto anodrarpartol thr samasub6bnaa,
to ano$ErIn ph!6lcal
or fromonasubstanaa
coni.Etwl$ ll lbr.xamPl.: . Haattsansltrad ln a mctalbarwlthoncdd et
0.Cand100'Cat th. othcr
. Hcatt'.r6funed llom oncmatalbarat 0'c to
.nothcr mctalbarat 10ec

Conduction
. solderlng
lrcn
. thermostat
- blmeblllcstrlp
. heatslnksturelectrlcalcomponents
. Hat13 c< Fo.h ovr o(htb

2. Convection
Is the kansferof heatwidrina ffuidbvthe
mixjnqof oneportionof the flu d wisr
by
oftle lluidmaybecausd
Thenovement
in densityrcsultlnqfromthe
differcnces
as In nQ[]|al
trnperatlredifrerences

H ea*

v<\s tt\v"gL
b.*v<\s

or

'
I z .Convection
. Theheattransltred froma hoi plaleto
the alnosphereis by naEralconvactloi
fan'
bya domestic
r Thchaattransfercd
heater,
In whlcha fanblowsalradossan
clcctrlcelemcnt,ls by brccd convedloi,

h-r,"1 d".t: -'.o.oL"r""t

b"5cY-..{ h"""t

examDles
2. Convection
.
.
r
r

heater
lmmeEion
kettleelement
heaters
convectot
strangeas it mightseem- a mdiator

.30:5

oven

emlbelectroAllmattercontlnLrously
unlessits
radiation
magnetic
zero.
ls absolute
tempeEture
the
Thehlgherthetemperature,
greaterthe amountof enerqyls
radiated.

tr"sle

ot h,zrr

3. Radiation enct5tr f\ro'1ir eqaceareso

lf two bodlesat dlfferenltcmpcrai.rrs
olacedthat tlc radlatlonfromcachbodyls
bv thc othar,fren fl bodvat
inlerceDted
wlll receivemorc
the lowertemperaturc
energytlan it ls radiatng,andhncelts
fle
nergry
willincrcasei
slmllarly
intamal
htemd enerEyof the boly at the h ghar
willdco'ease.
temprature
Ncatlstransftredbyradladon,

3. Radiation
Fl,adiant
energy,belngelectro-magnetic
requlres
ladlatlon,
no medlumtor lts
propagation,
andwlllpassthrouqha
vacuum.

e*amples
] 3. Radiation
-

in-

. Sunto Earth
EmP6
. tanning
. arcwelding- burningof skin

' li'e Pla.c

{t"-" ..-il- g't-t-

o Lot
a-92&,e
"

).".'*nt

together?
] lt : --types
--

--tf-----

ln practlce
example
h anypadlcular
bya
heatmaybetransferred
convetion,
of conductlon,
comblnatlon
andladlatlon.
posslble
to assess
the
It b usually
effecbof eachmodeof heathansfer
andthensumtheresulb,
separately

Two maingroupsofproblems;
fansfor of heatto or ftoma
t . th. dsirable
boileror
nuide.g.a heatexchanger,
2. the lceledigB of heatlc6sesftom a fluld
e.9.keeping
fle lnslde
to ltssunoundinos
of a building
w:rm in \ainler.

Fourier'slaw of conduction
Thlsstatesthattherateof flowof heat
solldb
a slnglehomogeneous
through
proportional
area
A of
to
the
dlrectiy
the
angles
to
rlght
sectlon
at
the
of heatflow,andto the
dlre.tlon
wlthr6pectto
of temperature
change
of thepathof theheatflow.
thelength

law
.1..Fourier's
.. of conduction
rirc_................
Th.lawls ilhlsratd h igur. 1 Inwhlcha
tr n slabof naiarialof trlcknessx and
su.facaarla A fus onchce at a hlgh_
tamPrauGtr and$a otharat a low_
t.mperaoi! t2
hc. to
Hcatfrowsftomtha hlgh{empcrab,lrc
tha low{rmpcraturchc

Fourier'slaw of conduction

f
.#---^-------.
FlguEI

k.4 ,
/1-::Ir

-t

lawof conduction
Fourier's
G.fot: uuitofhati!.D
Q - Iat! ofhcsl Ilow'Ys =W
k - tlcnDdl conductiniy ofmatcrial WmK
x = thickrca8of slabm
lr = highesttmp.rarurK
t2= lowcatlcmpratu! K

Th.mal cdductvity k - WmX

385

154

k = WmK
IhermalconducrivitY
t4itdsteet
Lcad
Conoetc
bdck
Bullding

48.5
34.6
0.85to 1.4
0.35to 0.7I)

k = WmK
Thrmal
conduclvlty
wood(oak)

0.15to 0.2

Rubbcr

0.15

Corkboard

0.043

* Highand low k values

''?"'-.-----Materials wilh high lhermal oonduotivitis

ar. good conductorsofheet
Malerials wiill low thennal conductrvities
de Soodlhennal irsulalors

Highandlowk values
conductionof heatoccrrsmostreadivin
lessso n alo)s,andnuchless
metals,
DUre
of certain
Theverylow bemal conductivities
(e,9 corl)is dueto heir
insulalo6
thermal
wlthinthc matenal
d]. ak Eapped
oorcslw,
aclngasanrnsuElor'
casesandliqlids are goodlns'llators,bL,t
layerof fllld s
stagnant
a completey
unlcss
ojn entsEansferfaat
obtancd, convectlon

rt(=r).15 !n
of a planebrlckwalllsat
surface
TheLnncr
40.Candthe outi surlaceis at 20cc,
Calcllatetha rateof heattransferperrnzof
surfacearcaof the wall,whlchL5250mm
thlcK
of brickls: Thehermalconductlvity

A -l

,'' L

. KA
- o,4l!
o , l5

[41.6J/s]

a=!41l:$9:al
o.2.5

1
Tutorial
Theouterwallofan iceboxhasanareaof
is at 17oC,
2,4m?andlB surface
wl$ coft 50mmthick
Th. warlis Insulated
of thecorkis
andtheirlr.r walltemperaur.

r)-

.,.o.,3x J.,.:lg4-iz-)
o.o5

ro.qo

26C

howmuchheatfowsintotheice
Calculate

\6,9At( Z<oo -:

k for corkis0.043WmK
k-r]
[111.46

Q-

a,o13 x I rl

)li"'

A:2.4".'2
'L--o-o5

' . c '. 1 [

o.bW3*2''+

o ,o 5

:- -**".d!.)*."+!;
:.;#

.9 (5 /s

ao-q6

ls
16oo

x- h,5 n
l u to n alI

A=r
n - l4 o ( 1
t L o A <- 4 i! ) - ^ ( f

J/s is lostin heatenergypersquare

1,1065
mere of surfaceareafroma furnaceplateof
filckness,
500mm
of fre outsidfacais 15'c
If thetemperature
findd1ctemperatrreof t|e insldefaceof the
fumacc,
k forsteel5 48.5WmK
[160oc]

t-t5\

_ tt,_ td ) = t+ o 6 5 _ tb '
I t , - le ^ " ! |

'). -- d.l

1f

->

Yn

tat J
Oncwal of a rcftlleratedroomls ins! aied
bya layerofco* 200mm
thlck
ThnnertemparaNra
ts-15'candUreouler
s zooc,
walltemperahjre
thewailis
If he heatlealagethrough
detemlne
theheightof the
152,54ldlhour,
walllflE lalglhls 2m.
k tu corkls0,043WmK
[3m]

l< = O,o41

L5.ta - O. o{t)< 7Lr'z ( 2-o+15\

( .o 3 :o ,o r d

"

* < :- - 5

q. ob = rL*3.o\

trrl

10

IJNIVERSITYOFWOLVERIIAMPTON
SCHOOLOFENGINEERING
AI,IDTHEBTIILTEN!'IRONMENT

ET1OO4
- SUSTAINABLETECHNOLOGY1

END OFSEMESTER
PTIASETEST

MONDAY
24NMAY2OO4

AllowableTime:2 hours

THISISAN"OPEN
BOOK'ASSESSMENT

o
ANSWER&QIJESTIONS
Includc diegramsand all cdculationrtcpr in thc anrwers.

Exsminer:Dr KaddaYahiaoui

Qustionl.
Underwhatconditionsir a load;d strucluressidto be sraticallvinderenninate?
c":hen tl,o t'tdri4 e?v;X..bii',n9r.*6.3 o\(e "it >u(('. i"^t' (5 malks)
e" {.1
for Aettr-,*i-r
tl"e r"trn^*L '\!ce.s o' J
stYvcttm.
'*rio.o
Decidewtrichoffre followingfive casesis staticallydeterminate
or indeterninatel

o An engine
blockofknownmassheldin suspension
bytlree verticalwires
. A stationary
shaftrestingontwo bearings
andcarryinga knowntranwerse
load
aI ruc span
r A cantilever
beamundertheactionofits ownweightrestingona stopatthefree
end
. A parkedvehicleofknownweightW Assume
herethatthecnrofgravityof
thevehicleis atthecentreofthechassis detet *-.t <. A loncconcrete
cvlindermouttedontlrce 'ssddle'tvoesuooorts
lhdzrr+.*

(5 r,arks)

gsagebytwo equallength
A crateofrrass100k9is suspended
fromtheceiling-ofa
The
includd
cables.
anglebetween
thecbles
is 120'.Showthatthetnsionisboth
cables
isthesameandfnd itsvalue.
Q0 nuks)
Whatwouldhappen
ifone ofthecables
wa-sslightlylonger_than
theother?
(5 markt

st"J

.h'{ 4
MCYe,, \n
-.1"... .
uulnonz.
Qu6tion2.
st,<.t,",r
srr4cli",r
,
+o(cz,
I
1t'cs5,rL.*"a";oi-o
t\i: 1tY.e5,
\.+r*
{1..* "a*oD...\.i:.
qtrve.Droduced.
Briefly
Brieflvdescribe
describehow
how a tensiletst'.is"Lt-l
conductedanda stresVstrain

c.
rrdy uacrri-ao.rc\ ^ ( or..r\.i\\\
<eci.{h".
il:"%,.$:hfi
o.J
^"itas>t
-e,eS
si.ci.o''.
oP \\.*

i,t:",,(r",n",n,t

By leferenceto a typicalo- curve,list flve materialpropertiesthatcanbeleadily

obtained
fiom suchcurve.

(5 marks)

Underlaboratory
conditions,
a lmmthickhollowtube,insidediarnete!
l8rut! was
tensiletested.An fitensionof 5 lrmwasrecorded
whena loadof 500Nwasapplied.
Fhd themodulus
whnthegaugelengthistakenasloonrl
ofelasticityofthematerial
(15 narks)

strengsll is

&f-"1-

&?tUeA .L*..g

otg t["

-i$.,,r

^UlitJ

YrcM"\Z or

o{ c,-

^oterlo\

Iton+u"3.

\o vetist

Question3.
Brieflyexplainthedifferences
betweenthefollowirgl
Linearvelocity Je\10
'
.*,) ..1.r,* t..!..,&r'
Angularvelocity ql^grute
6b:"1'ie a-.
.l"t".11 i:*t
Relative
velocity
o Peripheral
\\ rs d1;ond.o't"' tv'e
velocity

u*
o t {p.*-\
Z^pw*al\a$

"{

* t'*

o^flle

to;a{

o!*t

^" "-r's

P{r o^'t

(a markt

oV"!!e'r'

Namethet)?e ofmotion for the followingsituations:

o A freefallingslcydiver
. A speeding
trainona straighlrracku^r(o-J{.i o\(,alJ('dir.t *\'oF
..)
ci'""!o"'
. A satelliteorbitingthe earth
tr*f.v-

.
.

peodulum
A swinging
A rollingmarble

(5 marks)

A cartavelsalongI flat motorway

witha constant
speed
of 120kn/h.
l) Howlongwill it taketo covera distance
of50 kn?
(6 marko
2) Onapproaching
ansdt sliproad,thedriverapplies
thebrakesfor 2Osto
slowthecarto 40kn/h.Deteminetheaccleration
ofthevehicleover
thistimeperiod.
(10ntark$
Qu$tion4.
Explaintheprincipleofenergyconservation,

(5 marks)

By coNidration
ofunitsonly,whatisthevariable
thatis compatible
withforceto result
in power?
(5 mark$
Ifa homeappliance
uses3 kW ofpowerwhenit revolvs
at3000rpm,whatwouldbe
thtransmitted
torquewder theseconditions?
(10majks)
lvhatwouldthetorquebeifboththepowerratingandrotational
speed
werehalved?
(5 marla)

'

UNI\ERSITY OF V/OLVERHAMPTON
AND TI{E BU1LTENVIRONMENT
SCHOOLOFENCINEERING

. SUSTAINABLETECHNOLOGY1
ET1OO4

PHASETEST
ENDOFSEMESTER

26I"MAY2OO5
THURSDAY

ALLOWABLETIME: 2 HOURS

ASSESSMENT
THISISAN "OPENBOOK"

ANSWER&QUESTIONS
Ilclude dirgr8Es andrll calculstlotrlteps Lr the anEwers'

Examiaer:Dr KaddaYahiaoui

Questionl.
By considerationofreactionsandfxing moments,explainhow the following supports
differ:

-Simplesupport
.Pinnedsupport
-Built-insupport
-Freeend
connection
-Welded

(5 marks)

loadof 10kN at0.5m from

beamcarriesa coacntated
A 2mlong,simplysupported
the
oneend.Calculate
(5 marks)
atthesuppods
-Reactions
point
(5
ttre
of
load
application
narks)
bending
momert
at
-The
Explainwhatwould happento theblding moltrentif the loadwele to be movedto the

(5ma*s)

cenbeofthe span.By howmuchwill it change?

Questior2.

by:
1) By &felenceto a Blical o-e curve,explainwhatyouunderstand
Elasticor Young'smodulus.rf,+ g,,t\in

itJ r.rti! (a,(o

Yieldstress
r'..."t
Proofstess is &{i""1 as tl^" .tt.Jr rlat f,ol"."l t 4ist".i{,t&
.aaL \^ a1 o'. t
P
l
arti
(
UltiEetetensilestess(uTS)
(5 marks)
le) Faihuesuess
?Vr_r.c&Jo.-.'rio^ rs l,.gt
f) r\" ^e"r,.i ',t'r* ot -u,L iryevcrg,L\c

2) Data-fioE a standardtensiletesthasshowl tbatthe elastic(linear)palt ofthe o(r?,' t\.

stain was1000pe,
o-e curveendedat a shess0f200MPawhentherecorded
forthematerialusedin thistest. (5 marks)
Calculate
theYoung'smodulus
_

hassquare
sides10
3) At whatloaddid theabovestesscorespondifthe specimen
(5 ma*s)
mmlong?
ifthe specimen's
origiaalgaugelengthwas
4) Whatwasthelecordedextension
(5 marks)
100mm?
Question3.
Usiagthebasicformulafor sizingcircularshafuundertorsionalloads,identiftthefour
(5 narks)
variablesinvolvedandstatethcir S.I.r.Dits.
Ifa shaftis to be designdto tran$dt 10kW at a speedof 1000lpm.
(2 marks)
a) Expressthe rotationalspeedin its S.I.units
b) Find the valueofthe iorque10be tansBitted undertheseconditions
(3 marks)
polar
Assuning that the shaftunderconsidentionhasa radiusof 50 mm, find its
(5 marks)
momeotof area.

ris <l^st,< ro^1g +," i.t'o,' p(o&<J i" .",

-..-*i.\
stv.sr q9\1.X.+' {'""r"'""'
{e:istc''t,"aviro''
oft) rs tj"
t\e- g"*ds
c'['\
ar<"') o'*
e*"
2; r;" ;;""({.-'-qev

c') altL,,
t- t\-

it q'."gr*"J

tor\s "-

br eoKg.

For thelattersizeanduder the aboveoperatingconditions,whatwill be the induced

(5 marks)
torsionalshearstress?
Questioo,l.
Briefly explainthe prhciple of energyconservationanddiscusshow frictional lossesale
15 merl rc\
accountedfor in theoveBll energybalance.

Identiffthreepracticalsituatioos
ofyourchoicewherefrictionallossesareimportant
(5 marks)
andh'yoothersihratiooswheresuchlossescar be rcslected.
A crdtehavinga massof 50 kg is io bemovedup a slope,which is inclinedat ar angle
of 30' to tbe horizontal.Whal will bethe acquiledpotentialenergyifthe covered

is 20ru?
!9!2944! distance

(5 marks)

position.Wlat
a 100g projectileis catapulted
fiom a stationary
Urderidealcooditions,
speedwill it needio reachto accutrulale
a totalkineticenergyof 5 J?(5marks)
Question5.
o! applications,
identiryandcommenton
Considering
thefollowingreallife situations
mostappropriatei
thedominantmodeof heattansfertlut youconsider
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

A 'hot &ink' flask

homecentalheatingradiatorr#r' or$(t"
A sEndard
A 'white-hot'netal ingotbhgrcr[ovedftoma fumacp6#j."'
coolingtow!&hv"rton
A powerstation
AliShtbulb Yot^ti.4

v^'"'at 'o'
(5 marks)

involvedin it andgivetheir
StatNewton'slawof coolilg,nameall thevariables
(5 marks)
standaldSIunits.
ofunits only, find a simplerelationshipbetwelheattansfe!
By consideration
(2 marks)
coefficientandthemal conductivity.

with brickshavinga thermalconductivityof0.02

Theoulerwall ofa fumaceis insulated
w/m'K. Thewallis 50cm thickandhasaltareaof 0.5m'. Howmuchheatwill flow out
of 750Candtheoutside
in onehourifthe innersideoftbe trick wall is at a-temperature
(8 marks)
wall is maintained
atanambientteEperature
of 20'C.