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What is a Topographic Map?

Answer: A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and
natural features on the ground.

A map is a way of representing on a two-dimensional surface, (a paper, a computer monitor, etc.)


any real-world location or object. Many maps only deal with the two-dimensional location of an
object without taking into account its elevation. Topographic maps on the other hand do deal
with the third dimension by using contour lines to show elevation change on the surface of the
earth, (or below the surface of the ocean).

The concept of a topographic map is, on the surface, fairly simple. Contour lines placed on the
map represent lines of equal elevation above (or below) a reference datum. To visualize what a
contour line represents, picture a mountain (or any other topographic feature) and imagine slicing
through it with a perfectly flat, horizontal piece of glass. The intersection of the mountain with
the glass is a line of constant elevation on the surface of the mountain and could be put on a map
as a contour line for the elevation of the slice above a reference datum.
The title of the quadrangle is printed in the upper and lower right corners of the map. In addition
to the title of the quadrangle itself, the titles of adjacent quadrangles are printed around the edges
and at the corners of the map. This allows you to easily find a neighboring map if you are
interested in an area not shown on your map. In addition there is information about the projection
and grid(s) used, scale, contour intervals, magnetic and declination.
The legend and margins of topographic quadrangles contain a myriad of other useful
information. Township and range designations, UTM coordinates, and minute and second
subdivisions are printed along the margins of the map. *Section numbers (from the PLS system)
appear as large numbers within a grid of lines spaced one mile apart. The legend also contains a
road classification chart showing different types of roads (paved, gravel, dirt, etc.).
The study or discipline of topography, while interested in relief, is actually a much
broader field of study which takes into account all natural and man made features
of terrain.

Using A Topographic Map


Tips for Understanding Contour Lines
When first looking at a topographic map, it may appear somewhat confusing and
not very useful. There are a few rules that topographic contours must obey,
however, and once you understand these rules the map becomes an extremely
useful and easy to use tool.
The rules are as follows:

• Every point on a contour line represents the exact same elevation (remember
the glass inserted into the mountain). As a result of this every contour line
must eventually close on itself to form an irregular circle (in other words, the
line created by the intersection of the glass with the mountain cannot simply
disappear on the backside of the mountain). Contour lines on the edge of a
map do not appear to close on themselves because they run into the edge of
the map, but if you got the adjacent map you would find that, eventually, the
contour will close on itself.
• Contour lines can never cross one another. Each line represents a separate
elevation, and you can’t have two different elevations at the same point. The
only exception to this rule is if you have an overhanging cliff or cave where, if
you drilled a hole straight down from the upper surface, you would intersect
the earth’s surface at two elevations at the same X,Y coordinate. In this
relatively rare case, the contour line representing the lower elevation is
dashed. The only time two contour lines may merge is if there is a vertical
cliff (see figure).
• Moving from one contour line to another always indicates a change in
elevation. To determine if it is a positive (uphill) or negative (downhill)
change you must look at the index contours on either side (see figure).
• On a hill with a consistent slope, there are always four intermediate contours
for every index contour. If there are more than four index contours it means
that there has been a change of slope and one or more contour line has been
duplicated. This is most common when going over the top of a hill or across a
valley (see figure).
• The closer contour lines are to one another, the steeper the slope is in the
real world. If the contour lines are evenly spaced it is a constant slope, if they
are not evenly spaced the slope changes.
• A series of closed contours (the contours make a circle) represents a hill. If
the closed contours are hatchured it indicates a closed depression (see
figure).
• Contour lines crossing a stream valley will form a "V" shape pointing in the
uphill (and upstream) direction.

Map Scales

Individual topographic maps are commonly referred to as quadrangles (or quads), with the name
of the quadrangle giving an idea of the amount of area covered by the map. The largest area
covered by most topographic maps used for scientific mapping purposes (i.e. geologic mapping,
habitat studies, etc.) are two degrees of longitude by one degree of latitude (see below).

A map of this size is referred to as a ‘two degree sheet’. One, two degree sheet can be divided
into four smaller quadrangles, each covering one degree of longitude and 1/2 degree of latitude
(‘one degree sheet’).
Each one degree sheet is subdivided into eight ‘fifteen minute quadrangles’, measuring fifteen
minutes of latitude and longitude.
Finally, the smallest topographic quadrangle commonly published by the U.S. geological survey
are 7.5 minute quadrangles, which measure 7.5 minutes of latitude and longitude. There are four
7.5 minute quads per fifteen minute quad, 32 per one degree sheet, and 128 per two degree sheet.
You can determine what type of quadrangle you are looking at by subtracting the longitude value
printed in the upper (or lower) left corner of the map from the longitude printed in the upper (or
lower) right corner of the map. This can also be done using latitude values, just remember that a
two degree sheet only covers one degree of latitude and and one degree sheet only covers thirty
minutes of latitude. This information is also commonly printed in the upper right hand corner of
a map, under the title of the map.

The

scale of a topographic map is here. In addition to a ratio scale, a bar scale is also shown to
allow measurement of distances on the map and conversion to real-world distances.
As alluded to above, topographic (and other maps as well) come in a variety of scales. The scale
of the map is determined by the amount of real-world area covered by the map. For example, 7.5
minute topographic quadrangles put out by the U.S. Geological Survey have a scale of 1:24,000.
This type of scale is known as a ratio scale and what it means is that one inch on the map is equal
to 24,000 inches (or 2000 ft) in the real world. Actually, it means that one of anything [cm, foot,
etc.) on the map is equal to 24,000 of the same thing on the map. Another way of writing this
would be a fractional scale of 1/24,000, meaning that objects on the map have been reduced to
1/24,000th of their original size.
Other map scales in common use for topographic maps are 1:62,500 (15 minute quadrangle),
1:100,000 (one degree sheet) and 1: 250,000 (2° sheet). The smaller the ratio is between distances
on the map and distances in the real world, the smaller the scale of the map is said to be. In other
words, a map with a scale of 1:250,000 is a smaller scale map than a 1:24,000 scale map, but it
covers a larger real-world area.

Continue to ... Reference Datums

Reference Datum
A reference datum is a known and constant surface which can be used to describe the location of
unknown points. On Earth, the normal reference datum is sea level. On other planets, such as the
Moon or Mars, the datum is the average radius of the planet.

The term "reference datum" was used rather than ‘above (or below) the earth’s surface’ or ‘above
(or below) sea level’. The reason for this is simple once you think about it…If you use the term
‘above the earth’s surface’, what exactly does that mean? In other words, the earth’s surface
where? Similarly, although we tend to think of sea level as a constant, it is not the same
everywhere on the globe, so sea level where? and sea level when? (high tide or low) become
pertinent questions. So, to avoid these problems, a reference datum is needed that represents the
same surface or elevation at all points on the earth and that remains constant over time. An
example of a datum that could be used for the earth is a sphere with a radius equal to the average
radius of the earth.
Most 7.5 minute topographic maps still in circulation use the NAD-27 (North American Datum,
1927) referencing system based on the Clarke ellipsoid of 1866. Technological advances that
allowed more precise measurements of the earth resulted in modifications of the Clarke ellipsoid,
producing the GRS-80 (Geographic Referencing System, 1980).

2. What information can I find on a topographic map?

Answer: A topographic map identifies numerous cultural and natural ground features which can
be grouped into the following categories:
• CULTURE: roads, buildings, urban development, boundaries,
railways, power transmission lines;
• WATER: lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, rapids;
• RELIEF: mountains, valleys, slopes, depressions;
• VEGETATION: wooded and cleared areas, vineyards and orchards;
• TOPONYMY: place names,
3. What do the different colours represent?

Seven colours can be found on a map, each relating to different types of features. Northern
areas of Canada are mapped in black and white (monochrome).
• BLACK shows cultural features such as buildings, railways and
power transmission lines. It is also used to show geographical
names (toponymy), certain symbols, geographic coordinates,
precise elevations, border information and surround information.
• RED is used for paved roads, highway numbers, interchange exit
numbers, certain symbols as well as for names of major
transportation routes. A red tint is used to show urban
development.
• ORANGE indicates unpaved roads and unclassified roads and
streets.
• BROWN shows contour lines, contour elevations, spot elevations,
sand and eskers.
• BLUE represents water features, such as lakes, streams, falls,
rapids, swamps and marshes. The names of bodies of water and
water courses are also shown in blue, as are magnetic declination
and UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) grid information.
• GREEN indicates wooded areas, orchards and vineyards.
• GREY is used on the back of the map where the different symbols
and a glossary of terms and abbreviations can be found.
Note: PURPLE can be used to show information added over the original map detail
4. Is a topo map similar to a road map?

They both show roads, water features, cities and provincial parks, but that's where the similarity
ends. Topographic maps also show relief, forest cover, marsh, pipelines, transmission lines,
buildings, various types of boundary lines, and many more features. Topographic maps show
both a geographic grid (latitude/longitude) and a UTM grid (kilometres), allowing the user to
determine precise positions.

7. What is a "grid"?

Answer: A grid is a pattern of parallel lines intersecting at right angles and forming squares or
rectangles; it is used to identify precise positions. To help you locate your position accurately on
the surface of the earth (or map sheet), topographic maps have two kinds of referencing
systems:
• Geographic: degrees, minutes and seconds (latitude/longitude)
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

8. Can a GPS be used with Topographic Maps?

Answer: Yes. Location can be obtained very quickly with a Global Positioning System (GPS)
receiver. This satellite receiving system displays a position in terms of latitude, longitude, and
height, providing you with exact coordinates for map reference. (Some receivers also provide a
direct conversion of position to a selected map grid such as UTM.)

Map conventions
For more about contour lines, see Cartographic relief depiction.

The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For
example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually
explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.[11]
Topographic maps are also commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States,
where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5 minute grid, they are often called
topo quads or quadrangles.
Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines.
Contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude (isohypse). In other
words, every point on the marked line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level.
These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies
of water, forest cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other
features and points of interest.
Today, topographic maps are prepared using photogrammetric interpretation of aerial
photography, LIDAR and other Remote sensing techniques. Older topographic maps were
prepared using traditional surveying instruments
History
History
Some of the earliest known maps were made in Mesopotamnia, in the area now known as Iraq,
where a series of maps showing property boundaries were drawn in about 2400 B.C. for the
purpose of land taxation. A Roman map dating from about 335-366 A.D. showed such
topographical features as roads, cities, rivers, and mountains. The word topography is derived
from the Greek words topos, meaning a place, and graphien, meaning to write. Thus, topography
is the written, or drawn, description of a place.
Although the basics of land surveying were known as early as 1200 B.C., and perhaps even
earlier, the use of surveying techniques in preparing maps was limited to cities and other small-
scale areas. Larger-scale maps were prepared from sketches or journals kept by explorers and
sometimes reflected more imagination than observation. As a result, the exact positions of points
on a map were often grossly in error
In 1539, the Dutch mathematician and geographer Reiner Gemma Frisius described
a method for surveying an area by dividing it into triangles. This concept of
triangulation became one of the basic techniques of field surveying and is still used
today. One of the first large-scale mapping projects using triangulation was started
in the 1670s by Giovanni Domenico Cassini, who had been persuaded to make a
detailed map of France. After Cassini's death, his children and grandchildren
continued to labor on the project. The final result, called the Carte de Cassini, was
published in 1793 and was the first accurate topographic map of an entire country.
Its only shortcoming was the general lack of elevation measurements, other than a
few spot elevations determined by measuring the variation in air pressure with
altitude using a barometer. The concept of contour lines to show different
elevations on a map was developed by the French engineer J.L. Dupain-Triel in
1791. Although this method allowed the accurate depiction of land contours and
elevations on a flat, two-dimensional map, it was not widely used until the mid-
1800s.

Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales,


these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a
variety of landmark and landscape information.[6] This is in contrast to older
cadastral surveys, which primarily show property and governmental boundaries.
The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte
géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789.[7] Topographic surveys were
prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive
emplacements (thus the name and history of the United Kingdom's Ordnance
Survey). As such, elevation information was of vital importance

The Future
Most of the topographic maps currently in use were produced manually. For mapmakers,
however, the future is here today. A well-established network of navigational satellites form the
basis of the Global Positioning System (GPS). This system allows field surveyors to accurately
determine horizontal positions within a few feet, even in the most remote terrain where
conventional surveying techniques are impossible.

Other satellites carrying a variety of sensors may soon replace the aerial
photography method of making maps. The first of a series of Landsat satellites was
launched in 1972, and by 1984 they could detect objects on the surface of Earth
about 100 ft (30 m) in size. In 1998, an American company was preparing to launch
a satellite that could detect objects as small as 3 ft (1 m), which would produce
images with as much detail as current USGS 7.5 minute maps. More importantly,
these images would be captured and transmitted as digital data, which could then
be processed and printed by computers. This would significantly reduce the time
required to produce or update maps and would improve the overall accuracy as
well.

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