What is Ethnographic Research?

Ethnographic research, or ethnography, is both a study of interactive strategies

in human life and an analytical descriptions of social scenes, individuals, and
groups that recreate their shared feelings, beliefs, practices, artifacts, folk
knowledge, and actions.
Ethnography is interactive research, it requires relatively extensive time in a
site or systematically observe, interview, and record processes as they occur
naturally at the selected location.
Ethnography has been called educational anthropology, participant
observation, field research, and naturalistic inquiry. Despite considerable
variation among ethnographic studies, common methodological strategies
distinguish this style of inquiry: participant observation, ethnographic
interviews, and artifact collection and analysis. Most ethnographic studies are
exploratory or discovery-oriented research to understand peoples' views of their
world and to develop new concepts.
Example
The Bubblio's living room is a good resource site on ethnography

2 kinds of ethnographic Research

Classic ethnographic research involves a detailed description of the whole of
a culture outside of the country of origin of the researcher. Traditionally those
engaging in ethnographic research spend years in the place of study, also
known as the field. As a result of the time spent living among communities,
ethnographers have been able to produce thick written cultural descriptions
known as ethnographies that communicate the information found in the field.
Contemporary ethnographic research has the added dimension of not
only looking at people outside of the country of origin of the researcher, but
also seeks to better understand those who reside within the county of origin.
Contemporary ethnographic research looks at what may be considered
ordinary or mundane to those living within a community, for example
shopping malls, corporations, towns, cities, cyberspace, garbage, libraries,
parks, etc,

What are Ethnographic Research methodologies?

There are several ways researchers conduct ethnographic research. Each, however, is
designed to perform a specific task. Each method is designed to solicit a particular
kind of information from participants. Some methods widely used by ethnographic
researchers include:

Participant Observation
Researcher's Role in Participant Observation
Possible Research Roles
Role

Description

Use

Observer

Researcher is physically and

psychological absent

Inappropriate for ethnographic study; may

be used for other forms of qualitative
research

Participant

Researcher lives through an

experience and recollects personal
insight

Inappropriate for ethnographic research

Participantobserver

Researcher creates role for purpose

Typical role in ethnographic study
of study

Insiderobserver

Researcher has a formal position in

Used in special circumstances
organization

Interviewer

Establishes role with each person

interviewed

Primarily used in ethnographic interview

studies

Requirements of Participant Observation

Participant observation must meet the following requirements:
1.
2.
3.
4.

On-site observation
Prolonged data collection
Participants' constructed realities that can be verbal, nonverbal, and tacit
Corroboration of field observations through multiple methods, multiple
participants, and multiple situations
5. Salient observations about who, what, where, when, how, and why?
6. Recording observations

Stages of Participant Observation

The process of participant observation is like a funnel, progressively narrowing and
directing researchers' attention deeper into the elements of the setting that has
emerged as theoretically and/or empirically essential. Participant observation usually
follows the following stages:

Site Selection: Negotiation and permission seeking

Initial observation, field mapping and purposeful sampling
Focus observation
Closing observation: observation data gathering continues until researchers
achieve theoretical saturation--that is, when the generic features of their new
data consistently replicate earlier ones.

Example

Ethnographic Interviews
Ethnographic interviews are open-response questions to obtain data of participant
meanings--how individuals conceive of their world and how they explain or "make
sense" of the important events in their lives. There are three types of interviews:
informal conversation interview, interview guide approach interview, and
standardized open-ended interview.

Sequence of Interview
Effective interviews depend on following a number of guidelines:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Accessing the setting

Understanding the language and culture of the respondents
Deciding on how to present oneself
Locating an informant
Field testing and refine questions, probes, intensity of pause
Statements of the researcher's purpose and focus
Establishing rapport and gaining trust
Ordering questions appropriately
Audio taping and maintaining interview records

10. Collecting relevant materials

Tao Kwan-Gett's Tips on Ethnographic Interview

Document and Artifact Collection

Artifact collection is a non interactive strategy for obtaining ethnographic data with
little or no reciprocity between the researcher and the participant. Artifact collections
are tangible manifestations of the beliefs and behaviors that form a culture, and they
describe peoples' experience, knowledge, actions, and values. Analysis of documents
and artifact are usually supplementary to participant observations and ethnographic
interviews.

Types of Artifacts
1.
2.
3.
4.

Personal documents
Official documents
Objects
Erosion measures

Literature Review:

before attempting to contact individuals for a study, ethnographic researchers

read literature about the subject under study. This is an important step because
the researcher does not want to repeat other studies. An ethnographer can also
learn from what is missing in the literature. Local historical sources are
important in placing a study within the proper context, a context that should
take into consideration interrelated issues, settings, the environment, and
relationships. Nothing is worse than a participant correcting a researcher on
common knowledge! For an example of how a literature review can aid in
understanding a people or place, see I. Sussers The Construction of Poverty
and Homelessness in US Cites and Michael Moffatts Ethnographic Writing
about American Culture.

Life History:

a type of interview that reveals an individuals lived experiences over a

chronological period of time. They are usually centered around a particular
theme (e.g., experiences with discrimination over ones lifetime) and are very

detailed. Unless you have a very experienced professional to make sense of all
the details, life histories can sit in file cabinets, unavailable to anyone.

Focus Groups:

questions asked of participants in a group setting. This method focuses on the

discourse of the community and also allows the researcher the opportunity to
observe the reaction of participants to one anothers ideas. Focus groups
generate a significant amount of data in a short period of time.

Field notes:

notes kept by anthropologists throughout the duration of their studies. Field

notes can include drawings, census, comments on social relationships, and
descriptions of places, events, and weather. Field notes become important
because they serve as a reminder of events that have occurred through the
duration of a study. Researchers know that relying on memory alone can alter
the perception of what actually took place during any given event.

Mapping:

technique used by ethnographers to better understand social and spatial

relationships within a community through the use of maps drawn by
community members. Mapping comes in a variety of forms, there can be
geographic maps that illustrate physical structures and distance, mental or
cognitive maps that give insight into the importance of a place or space
according to individual perception, and transect walks which involve a
researcher walking with a member of the community and asking questions
along a guided tour. These are but three types of mapping done by
anthropologists. To learn more abut mapping in ethnography see
Remember, the key to quality ethnographic research is trained researchers who are
knowledgeable of the subject under study and who are able to work within
community, time, budgetary, and personnel constraints.

Try It Yourself
Is it so obvious?
Interview

Interviews and participant observation are perhaps two of the more well-known
ethnographic methods. Interviewing allows an ethnographer to personally connect
with an individual while obtaining first hand information that is useful in answering a
question or questions that have obvious answers.
To get a feel of how interviewing works, try this.

Think of a job, position, or activity that you see people around you perform
everyday. Maybe someone who is a data specialist in your office, a supervisor,
a crossing guard, teacher, janitor, street vendor, etc.
Having this activity in mind, interview two people (they can each have
different jobs) and ask questions that address what it is they
actually doeveryday. You want to find out how they do this, step-by-step.
To begin, make a list of five questions that you would like to ask. For example,
what is the title of your job? What are your qualifications? When do you
perform your job? Is there a procedure to performing your job, etc.
After you have made this list, ask your fist interviewee these five questions.
When you have completed that interview, seek out interviewee number 2.
This time, ask interviewee 2 open-ended questions like what is it that
you doeveryday? Can you describe it to me?

Were their answers to your questions obvious? Is there a difference in the responses
that you received? Was one interview more informative or effective than the other?
Did you ask them how much money they make, and if not why not? Which questions
did you feel comfortable asking?
Try It Yourself
Grocery Store
Mental Maps and Observations

Mental maps provide valuable information about a place of study. The way in which
people remember a place or space can give insight into their impressions of that place,
its use, what was seen as being important enough to observe, and how they organize

information spatially. Mental maps can provide insight into an individuals

perspective regarding a place or space.
How well do you think you know familiar places, like your local grocery store?
Try this:

Take a few moments to map out your local grocery store on a piece of paper.
After you have mapped it, look for patterns throughout the store. Are certain
foods found near each other? Are beverages in more that one section, if so
why?
Can you categorize the various sections of your grocery store?
Now, after making a mental map, go to the grocery store to see if you were
correct.
Did you leave out anything? Have you noticed changes in the store since you
began shopping there?
Does this give you any perspective on what you might find of importance in
the grocery store?

Why is Ethnographic Research conducted?

Ethnographic research is conducted to contest and/or sustain stereotypes
of particular groups by telling the stories of the lived experiences of
individuals.

Ethnographic research is also done in an attempt to

discover patterns in human behavior.

Who conducts Ethnographic Research?

 Cultural anthropologists conduct most ethnographic research. Not only do they

look at past human experience, but living peoples ideas, values and viewpoints
as well. They do this by observing daily rounds or the day-to-day activities of
individuals within communities.

How is it different from other Social Science Research?

Research methodologies are what separate anthropological research from other
sciences. Cultural anthropology, as a social science, has ethnographic research as
its foundation. Other social sciences employ methods that include, but are not
limited to, hypothesis-testing, surveys, questionnaires, library research and the
collection of statistical data that yield results that can be quantified. While it is
true that cultural anthropologists also use these methods at times, their focus is
on methods that will produce qualitative (non-numerical) results such as
participant observation, linguistic analysis, archival research, the use of life and
oral histories, and focus groups. In sum, it is the methodology which cultural
anthropologists use that differentiates their research from other social science
research.
1. learning resources center

How does the National Park Service use Ethnographic

Research?
The National Park Service uses ethnographic research to perform a variety of tasks,
The specific research studies conducted by ethnographic researchers as outlined in the
Cultural Resources Management Guide are:

Ethnographic Overview and Assessmentcomprehensive background study

that reviews information on park resources traditionally valued by stakeholders.
Traditional Use Studydescribes and analyses traditional resource use and
management regimes.

Rapid Ethnographic Assessmentperformed within a limited amount of time

to gather information on how actions such as establishing a new park may
affect group resources and traditions.
Ethnohistorydocuments continuity and change in a group traditionally
associated with a park.
Oral and Life Historydocuments individual and community ways of life as
they relate to a park.
Ethnographic Landscape Studylimited field survey to identify and describe
the names, locations, distributions, and meanings of ethnographic landscape
features.
Cultural Affiliation and Lineal Descent Studiesaffiliation study to show the
relationship between parks and associated past and present peoples.

There are also examples of ethnographic research conducted for the NPS.

Calloway, Donald. Methods Used in Ethnographic Inquiry in Alaska.

Crespi, Muriel (Miki). A Brief Ethnography of Magnolia Plantation: Planning
for Cane River Creole National Historic Park.
Lawson Clark, Sherri. Conducting Ethnographic Research: Strategies and
Lessons Learned in African American Communities.
Schoepfle, Mark. Ethnographic Resources Inventory and the National Park
Service.
Williams, Brett. Rapid Ethnographic Assessment: Park Users and Neighbors,
Civil War Defenses of Washington and Anacostia Park, District of Colombia,
For Park Management Plans.

Who uses Ethnographic Research?

National Park Service, use ethnographic research in their quest to understand
humanity.
Census Bureau conducts ethnographic research to complement their survey
research.
The departments of Housing and Urban Development and Health and Human
Services.
Marketing companies are increasingly using ethnographic research to target
specific audiences such as youth, people 65 and older, and working moms.

How does Ethnographic Research help with the

preservation of Ethnographic Resources?

 Ethnographic research is useful in recognizing ethnographic resources.

Ethnographic resources are defined by the National Park Service as a
site, structure, object, landscape or natural resource assigned traditional
legendary, religious, subsistence, or other significance in the cultural system
of a group traditionally associated with it (DO-28: Appendix A, 181).
Ethnographic research the meaning of these resources with respect to
community members can be interpreted. With the aid of communities
traditionally associated or connected with the resources within and
surrounding parks, the importance of the preservation of these resources can
be communicated to visitors and employees of the National Parks.
Communication established between the community, visitors and park
employees help to better ensure the management of ethnographic resources.
.

El Santuario de Chimayo.

Ethics in Ethnographic Research

Responsibilities that anthropologists ought to be aware of including responsibilities to:

people and animals with whom they live and work. The primary ethical
obligation is to the people, species, and materials studied. They should gain
informed consent and can implement measures to ensure anonymity. There is to
be no intentional harm done to the people, animals or environment.
scholarship and science. Anthropologists should not intentionally deceive or
misrepresent information, should preserve opportunities for future fieldwork
for others who may come after them, and should consider all reasonable
requests to access data for purposes of research.
the public. Results of research should be accessible to the public,
anthropologists and non anthropologists alike.
students and trainees. No discrimination based on race, gender, class,
political position, etc should exist. Anthropologists are also responsible for the
encouragement of students and their interest, training of students, and the
acknowledgement of students and trainees publicly who contribute to research.

References
1. McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. S. (1997). Research in education: A
conceptual introduction. New York: Longman.