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1.

Empiricism views observation and experience as the bases of the formation of

knowledge.

The processes of doing research and forming knowledge are guided by sensory perceptions
of the researched phenomenon, and generalisation of knowledge obtained through
observations and experiences.

You can apply the acquired knowledge to other phenomena.

Throughout the history of science, variations of empiricism have developed.

2. Rationalism stresses the formation of knowledge and truth through reason and logic.

Rationalism views knowledge as a priori, i.e. existing independently of human perception.

Thus, the bases of rationalism are the abstraction and theorization of the researched
phenomena, and researchers apply either deductive or inductive logic to form their
reasoning. Rationalism and empiricism are fundamental principles in the philosophy of science.

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3. Realism stresses the notion of knowledge as an objective phenomenon, which exists
independently of observers.

The basis is that precise observations of a phenomenon enable you,to get closer to the
knowledge and truth (which are not dependent on the researcher, research perspective, or
circumstances)

Often forms the basis of quantitative research strategies and methods.

However, qualitative research methods are also valid Realism and positivism are closely
interwoven. Realism is a contrast orientation to relativism.
4. Positivism stresses the use of precise research methods, which are a fundamental
starting point of science in the formation of knowledge.

Considers as scientific only such methods, which are based on immediate observation and
measurement of phenomena with various quantitative variables

Emphasises the idea of objectivism in research methods

Emphasises that scientific observations and measurement methods are inherently objective,
Positivism is a contrast orientation to interpretivism.

5. Interpretivism stresses interpretations and interpreting processes in the formation of

knowledge.

a typical philosophical background in qualitative research

includes any precisely defined orientations, which stress interpretative processes.

Interpretivism forms a counter pair to positivism and is closely related to constructivism.

6. Relativism stresses relativity in the formation of knowledge and the significance of the
researchers position. Knowledge and truth are seen as being influenced by the
circumstances through which the phenomenon is observed and knowledge is produced.

Relativism views the notion that a single truth does not exist,

Based on ideas on the nature of reality and knowledge, Relativism is closely entwined with
interpretivism and forms a contrast orientation to realism.

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7. Pragmatism stresses the practical nature of knowledge, that the meaning of as idea in
its observable practical consequences.

includes various orientations sharing principles on action and practice in doing research,
defining aims for the research and producing knowledge and Pragmatism is a contrast
orientation to rationalism.

8. Hermeneutics stresses the understanding and interpretation of meaningful processes

and phenomena.

Human action is seen as intentional, and thus, the action and its results are seen as including
various meanings.

Knowledge is formed through perceiving relationships between phenomena and their

contexts, and by exploring phenomena in relation to other similar kinds of phenomena and
their development.

Knowledge is understood as a continuous process in which interpretations and knowledge are

renewed.

The process of the formation of knowledge is known as the hermeneutic circle.

Interpretation of details has an effect on the interpretation of the whole, and reinterpretations of previous interpretations of the researched phenomenon produce an ever
deepening understanding of the phenomenon and Hermeneutics is a key interpretivist
orientation.

9. Constructivism views knowledge as being formed in the research process.

Neither unchangeable truths nor a priori knowledge in the world exist because
researchers construct scientific knowledge and truth.

Human beings, who researchers select to be the focus of their research, produce
various truths and knowledge in their actions.

Phenomena and the meanings of the world are viewed as social and cultural
constructions.

Qualitative methods are the norm and Constructivism may be regarded as a contrast
orientation to positivism.

10. Phenomenology stresses the formation of knowledge based on human perception and
experiences.

Subjectivity and discussion of personal sensations, feelings and experiences are seen as
meaningful

Personal individual experiences and perceptions of the world are the only source of
knowledge.

Several variations exist, all emphasising the physical and bodily experiences of the world
in formation of the knowledge.

You need to be ready and willing to accept and understand new ideas, situations and
events.

You must approach the research topic without any previous presuppositions or
predefined ideas and be willing to do the research in a flexible theoretical framework
and Phenomenology is a contrast orientation to positivism.

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11. Instrumentalism primarily views theories and concepts as tools in producing useful
research results and social change. Instrumentalism is closely related to pragmatism.

12. Structuralism stresses the research of structures and meanings of structures in

understanding the entities.

The simple basic structural elements of culture, society and linguistics combine to form
complex phenomena with equally complex meanings.

You can use structuralism in various research orientations and disciplines.

13. Structuralism aims at either or both:

Examining the structural forms or models of the phenomenon.

Applying forms or models, which explain the internal structure, to the researched
phenomenon.

Structuralism is a contrast orientation to existentialism and Post-structuralism is a

critique of structuralism.

14. Psychoanalytic theory uses adapted concepts, theories and points of view tools of
psychoanalysis to analyse human beings, cultural phenomena and cultural and social
concepts and ideologies.

explores the construction of phenomena produced by complex and ambiguous desires.

can explore and reveal the hidden meanings, which phenomena have besides the obvious and
visible meanings.

The focus of the approach is usually phenomena related to the ego of the individual.

Results of the analysis can be extended to form an explanation model or as a starting point
of analysis of ideologies and broader cultural and social phenomena.

Psychoanalytic theory is closely related to hermeneutics and Applied Psychoanalytic theories

are related to postmodern thinking.

15. Post-structuralism stresses the view that different cultural and social meanings are
formed in research.

A priori structures in cultures or societies do not exist

knowledge and truths about structures are always subjective.

generated as a critic towards structuralism

is a loose denominator for various orientations in philosophy of science or theories of

knowledge, which stress subjectivity and criticise a priori truths and holistic explanation
models.

Post-structuralism, like deconstruction, is related to postmodern thinking.

16. Deconstruction stresses criticality in research of cultural texts. Deconstruction aims at

perceiving, categorizing and specifying polarity and contradictions between researched
phenomena, concepts and ways of understanding. This is usually done by perceiving
various contrasting pairs of elements within the researched topic.

There are no unanimous meanings in cultural texts.

It is possible to produce several possible, and also hidden and ignored, points of view to
the cultural texts.

Deconstruction, like post-structuralism, is related to postmodern thinking.

17. Social constructivism views knowledge, reality and its structures and phenomena as being
formed naturally in social and linguistic interaction even though they are developed and
produced consciously or unconsciously by certain cultures or societies.

a priori structures of knowledge and truth are questioned.

The level of questioning varies according to the orientation in social construction: there exist
looser and stricter views to the a priori structures of reality.

The loose version views reality as existing in, but not depending on, human representations,
like language.

The strict version stresses the impossibility for human beings to be in straight connection to
the world and reality, because between reality and people there always exists symbolical
structures of meanings, like linguistic structures.

Social constructivism is closely related to constructivism.

18. Existentialism stresses subjectivity, individual existence, uniqueness of individual

experience and the freedom of choice of individuals.

Rejects objectivity and ways of thinking which emphasis one-truth views.

Notions of the truth, right and wrong are formed through individual experiences and action
which follows the conviction of the individual.

Existentialism is closely related to phenomenology.