COE

Electric current at a particular point in a circuit is the rate of flow of positive charges past that point
I = Q/t (scalar)
- Units: A, ampere or 1
- Conventional flow of current = opp flow of electrons = flow of positive charges
- Electron has charge of 1.6 x 10^-19 C
Electric charge, which flows past a point in time when there is a constant current, is the product of current and time.
One coulomb is the quantity of electric charge passing a point in the circuit when there is a constant current of one ampere
for a time of 1 second.
Q=It (assuming current is constant)
For inconsistent current, = = area under current-time graph
Unit: Coulomb, C = As
Magnitude of electric current is affected by: (worked eg 2.4)
1) Mean drift speed of charged particles - Drift speed refers to the average distance traveled by a charge carrier per unit of
time.
2) Physical dimension of conductor
3) Type of material
Potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of electric energy that is converted to other forms of
energy when a unit charge passes from one point to another.
One volt is the potential difference between two points in a circuit in which one joule of energy is converted when one
coulomb of charge passes from one point to the other.
Apply PD, electric field created electric field exerts forces on the conduction electrons, causing them to move in the wire,
thus creating a net movement of electric charges flow of electrons
As positive charge moves from positive to negative terminal, its electric potential energy decreases due to loss of energy to
heat/light/etc energy
V=W/Q
W = energy converted from electrical to other forms
Q=It
V = W/Q = Pt/It = P/I
P = rate at which energy is converted/power

= Pt

The resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the p.d. across it to the current through it.
One ohm is the resistance of a conductor when a current of one ampere passes through it when the p.d. across it is one volt.
R = V/I
Units: or 1
Ohms law states that:
Under constant physical conditions, the steady current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
pd between its ends
*assumption: constant physical conditions (constant temp, pressure etc)

- no. of free electrons is fixed, rate of atomic vibration is constant constant resistance I/V is constant I V
straight line graph passing thru origin for current pd graph
- Gradient is resistance
- Conductors tt follow ohms law are ohmic conductors

Filament lamps
- non-ohmic
- Metal contains a lot of FREE electrons as electrons move thru metal lattice, they collide with vibrating metal ions
collisions oppose flow of electrons, causing metal to have resistance
- Current increases metal filament becomes hotter ions vibrate faster with greater amplitude more difficult for
electrons to pass thru metal lattice greater opposition of flow of electrons higher resistance Graph becomes less and
less steep as current increases from zero (V/I increases)
* caused more by increased vibration than increase in no. of charge carriers
Semiconductor diode
- Forward bias diode (A) very low resistance, when PD applied, large current that increases very quickly when pd > 0.7V
- Reverse bias diode (B) very high resistance, when PD applied, very small current

Thermistor (a kind of semiconductor)

- Has negative temperature coefficient of resistance Temp increase, resistance decreases
- in semiconductors, no. of free electrons is small compared to metals low temperatures, poor conductor
- as temp rises, more and more electrons break free from atoms more free electrons better conductor
* caused more by increase in no. of charge carriers than increased vibration

Resistivity
R=

A is cross sect area
L is length of conductor/wire
Units
High resistivity higher R poorer conductor

From V=P/I earlier,

P = VI = power supplied by source = rate of energy conversion in electrical device when there is pd across it and current
passing thru it
Power Rating
The rated power is the rate at which energy is used (power consumption) by a device when the device is operating at the
rated potential difference across it.
i.e. For an electrical device rated 100 W, 220 V, it means that when a potential difference of 220 V is applied across the
terminals of the device, the device dissipates 100 W of power.
*brightness of bulb depends on power
Kilowatt-hour = kWh can be used instead of joule
1kWh = 1 x 1000 x 60 x 60 = 3.6 x 106 J
One electronvolt is the energy transferred when an electron is moved through a potential difference of 1 volt.
1eV = 1.6 x 1019 J
Electromotive Force (e.m.f.) of a source is the amount of energy converted from other forms to electrical energy when the
source drives a unit charge round a complete circuit.
E = emf = W/Q
Unit: Volt, V
Difference between EMF and pd
- EMF is energy from other forms being converted to electrical energy
- PD is electrical energy being converted to other forms
- PD is btwn 2 points, EMF is whole circuit
**Battery has internal resistance (r)
Some electrical energy is converted to heat within battery due to internal resistance
Terminal pd = PD across battery terminal and the internal resistance < EMF
V=IR
IR + Ir = EMF
- When theres no current no pd across internal r = no heat loss due to internal resistance
Terminal PD = EMF y-intercept
- When theres current, terminal pd = EMF Ir, by math (y=mx+c) , r = gradient,
BY COE,
Rate of energy supplied by source = rate of heat loss by resistance of circuit and internal resistance
= = = 2 + 2
EMF = I(R+r)
MAXIMUM POWER THEOREM
Determining the value of R that results in max. power delivered to output
From output Power = 2 and EMF = I(R+r),
I = EMF/(R+r) = E/(R+r)
(P =

P=

2
(+)2

Since we want max power, dP/dR = 0

Resistance of load should be the same as internal resistance for max power delivered to a load
Read eg 4.2

DC CIRCUITS
Read pg1 for symbols
Kirchoffs current law (junction rule)
-Algebraic sum of currents at a junction is zero
- Sum of currents going into junction = sum of currents coming out of junction
- This is due to conservation of charge charges cannot be created nor destroyed (Q = It)
Kirchoffs voltage law (loop rule)
- Sum of emf = sum of pd of all individual components
- This is due to COE: electrical energy produced = sum of electrical energy consumed
by all components

Series

Parallel

Current same throughout circuit

Voltage same

Effective R is greater than any of the individual resistors

Effective R is smaller than any of the individual resistors

Potential divider

Thermistor
- Resistance is dependent on temperature
- It has a negative temperature coefficient, temp increase, resistance decrease

Light dependent resistor (LDR)

- Resistance depends on intensity of light
- Light intensity increase, resistance decrease

Due to imperfections of voltmeter in reality (finite resistance and draws a small current), potentiometer is used in a null
method are used to measure PD w/o drawing a current
Potentiometer circuit

= +

Pd btwn any 2 points on wire is proportional to their distance apart

= , where k is the potential gradient
Balanced potentials

At balance length, balance point is achieved, no current

flows in lower circuit no deflection

>

=
Null deflection = same voltage
That length is the balance length

<

When there is internal resistance in the unknown cell, balance point increases
When there is internal resistance in the driver cell, balance point decreases

= = 2.0 because no current flows thru CD, so just 2.0V (ignore resistor)
= 2.0 , then find resistor using potential divider formula

VAB = VCD
Looking at the top circuit,
V1 = 0.40 V

using potential divider formula,

Looking at the bottom circuit, it is a closed circuit

V10 = 0.4V
10

1.2 = 0.4

Find then Rx
Worked eg 11,12