Chapter 24: Human Reproduction System

(Week 25 & 26)

PowerPoint Slides
by Ms Lina Tang

Learning Objective (s)

Understanding mammalian ovary and testis and the
process of gametogenesis

Understanding menstrual cycle and the hormones

involved
Understanding contraception

Learning Outcome (s)

Describe the histology of mammalian ovary and testis
and outline the process in gametogenesis

Explain the role of hormones in maintenance of the

human menstrual cycle and link this to the changes in
the ovary and uterus during the cycle
Discuss and evaluate the biological, social and ethical
implications of the use of contraception
Outline the techniques of in vitro fertilisation (IVF)
3

Introduction
Reproduction system is a system of organs within an
organism which work together for the purpose of
reproduction
Non-living substances such as fluids, hormones,
pheromones are also important
Major organs:external genitalia (penis and vulva) and
also some internal organs (testiscles and ovaries)

 Both male and female reproductive systems contribute

to the events leading to fertilization
Female organs assume responsibility for the developing
human, birth and nursing
The make and female gonads (testes and ovaries)
produce sex cells (ova and sperm) and the hormones
necessary for the proper development, maintenance and
functioning of the organs of reproductions and other
organs and tissues involved

Female reproductive system

Located inside the body and around the pelvic region
Three main parts:
Vagina: where sperm are introduced during intercourse
Uterus: for developing fetus
Ovaries: producing females ova

 Oviduct / Fallopian tube: allows sperm to enter from the

uterus and carries eggs from ovary to the uterus:
fertilisation
Uterus wall:
Endometrium: allows fertilised egg to form a placental attachment
to the mother
Myometrium: smooth muscles which contract during childbirth

Cervix: contain a ring of muscle that separates the

uterus from the vagina

Male reproductive system

Located outside the body
Production of sperm cells are in testes which are housed
in the temperature regulating scrotum
Testis secretes sex hormones as well
Immature sperm then travel to epididymis for
development and storage

 Ejaculatory fluid producing glands:

Seminal vesicles: secretes some components of semen
Prostate: secrete some component of semen as well
Vas deferens: carries the sperm to the urthra

 Other structures:
Epididymis: storage of sperm until they mature
Penis: with erectile muscle filled with blood for erection
Urethra: carries sperm during sexual intercourse and urine during
urination
Vas deferens: carries sperm to the urethra
Bulbourethral gland / Cowpers gland: exocrine gland: secretes
some fluid for lubrication

Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis: production of gametes
1. Oogenesis: production of ovum
2. Spermatogenesis: production of sperm cells

A sperm cell

Sperm cell
Three parts:
Head:
Acrosome containing hydrolytic enzymes present at the head tip
to produce enzymes that help in penetrating the female egg
(ovum)
Contain nucleus that carry the genetic material

 Middle piece:
Contain mitochondria to provide energy to the sperm

Tail (flagellum):
Contain centrioles and microtubules, that move the sperm toward
the ovum

Testis

Spermatogenesis
Begins in a boy, around age of 11
Continues through the rest of his life
Estimated 100-200 millions sperms made each day

 Testis are made up of many seminiferous tubules

Spermatogenesis takes place in the wall of the tubules

 In the seminiferous tubules, spermatogenesis begins at

the outer edge in the germinal epithelium

1. Germ cells near the outer wall of the seminiferous

tubules differentiate into stem cells called
spermatogonia
2. Spermatogonia divide by mitosis
3. And then mature into primary spermatocytes (2n)
4. Each primary spermatocytes undergoes meiosis

5. Then two secondary spermatocytes (n) are formed

after meiosis I
6. Meiosis continues, forming four spermatids (n) after
meiosis II
7. Spermatids then migrate towards the lumen
8. Sertoli cells (nurse cells) supply the nutrients for the
spermatids, which mature into motile sperm in the
epididymis

Other cells involved

Leydig cells
secreting testosterone

Sertoli cells (nurse cells)

Secrete fluid into the lumen
Helps spermatids to mature into sperm

Oogenesis
Onset of meiosis can happen as early as 12th week in
the fetus
The germ cells develop into primary oocytes
The primary oocytes become arrested in the diplotene
stage of prophase I (the prophase of the first meiotic
division)
Shortly before birth, all the fetal oocytes in the female
ovary attained this stage
The meiotic resting phase is called dictyotene and it
lasts until puberty

Oogenesis at puberty
At puberty, the follicles (primary oocyte) (2n) then
develop into a mature secondary oocyte (n) also known
as Graffian follicle by meiosis I
The secondary oocyte continues into second division of
meiosis
Only one secondary oocyte will be develop from a
primary oocyte and three polar bodies will be formed,
which have no further role in the reproduction

 The size of the secondary oocyte will make the wall of

the ovary bulge prior to ovulation
Ovulation, with the rupture of the follicle wall
Oocyte is released into the oviduct
The oocytes is at metaphase II and will complete
meiosis only with fertilisation

An oocyte

The oocyte (egg)

Diameter is about 100um at the point of ovulation
The haploid nuclei (arrested at metaphase II) sits inside a cell
with a large volume of cytoplasm (yolk)
During follicle development, unequal division of the cell during
meiosis produces the 1st polar body that can be seen outside
the plasma membrane. These will not develop
The Zona pellucida surrounds the structure and is composed
of glycoproteins. With the corticle granules they will be
involved in the acrosome reaction at fertilisation
Around the outside are the follicular cells for protection of the
oocyte

Menstrual cycle
Hormones are involved
a chemical substances formed in a tissue of organ and carried by
the blood. It stimulates or inhibits the growth or function of
another part of the body

The changes in reproductive system caused by

hormones include ovulation, menstruation and
symptoms of the menstrual cycle

 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Produced by the hypothalamus gland
Stimulates the release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland

Follicle-stimulating hormone
Produced by pituitary gland
Stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries, which secrete
oestrogen

 Luteinizing hormone
Produced by the pituitary gland
Works with FSH to cause ovulation and later, the release of
oestrogen and progesterone

Progesterone
Hormone secreted by the corpus luteum that stimulates
thickening of the uterine wall (for the implantation of an egg) and
the formation of mammary ducts

 Oestrogen
Secreted by ovarian follicles and the corpus luteum
Stimulates thickening of the uterine wall, maturation of an egg
and developmetn of female sex characteristic
Provides feedback to inhibit FSH secretion and to increase LH
secretion

In menstrual cycle
Regulated by two hormones secreted from the
pituitary gland, FSH and LH
FSH and LH then control the production of
oestrogen and progesterone (produced in
ovaries)
Menstrual cycle begins at puberty and continues
throughout life until menopause (age 40-60)
Average menstrual cycle: 28 days
Three main phases: menstrual, follicular, luteal

Menstrual phase
Phase during the lining of the uterus, called the
endometrium, is shed as menstrual flow out of the
cervix and vagina
The menstrual flow consists not only blood, but also
some mucus and tissue
The first day of menstrual flow is defined as day number
one of the next menstrual cycle
Mensturation usually lasts for 3-7 days

 The menstruation is triggered by reduced levels of the

hormones oestrogen and progesterone (signal of no
pregnancy occurs) at the end of the previous menstrual
cycle
Onset of menstruation indicates that the woman is not
pregnant
But it doesnt mean that woman cannot get pregnant at
this stage

 High level of oestrogen suppress the FSH secretion, so

with low oestrogen, FSH is produced
During this phase, the pituitary gland begins to secrete
FSH and LH
FSH stimulate the follicle development

Follicular
Also know as proliferative phase
One of the follicles would respond to the high level of
FSH more than others and become dominant
It develop and mature in preparation for ovulation
Level of FSH increase in the blood stream, stimulate the
maturation of follicles where it contain the ovum or egg

 Maturation of follicle causes the follicle to secrete large

amount of oestrogen
Rising levels of oestrogen causing the lining of the
uterus to begin thickening
Once the levels of oestrogen is at their peak, the
pituitary gland slows the secretion of FSH
And the pituitary gland starts to secrete LH

 Increase in LH level, is accompanied by a transient rise

in body temperature which is a sign that ovulation is
about to happen
The LH surge causes the mature follicle ruptures and
releases the ovum from inside

 Once released, the ovum will travel to the Fallopian tube

(oviduct)
Release of the mature egg is called ovulation
It usually occurs 14 days before the beginning of the
next menstrual period
Ovulation is the most fertile time during a womens
menstrual cycle

Luteal Phase
Also known as secretory phase
After ovulation, LH causes the burst follicle to develop
into a corpus luteum
It is a small yellow structure in the ovary that secrete
oestrogen and progesterone
Oestrogen and progesterone are at high level during the
luteal phase as they prepare the endometrium to secrete
nutrients if a fertilised egg is implant in the uterus

 If the egg is fertilised, a small amount of human

chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) is released
HCG keeps the corpus luteum viable, so it can continue
to secrete oestrogen and progesterone, keeping the
endometrial lining intact
At 6-8 weeks gestation, the newly formed takes over the
secretion of progesterone

 If implantation or conception do not occur, the pituitary

gland will reduce LH and FSH production
Without LH, corpus luteum deteriorates, causing the
decrease in oestrogen and progesterone level

 The drop in the oestrogen and progesterone triggers the

shedding of the endometrium, causing menstruation to
begin and the cycle starts all over again
With no oestrogen suppressing it, FSH levels start to rise
again

Birth Control
Several methods to do so
Preventing the fertilisation (contraception)
Condom

Prevent the implantation of embryo (anti-implantation methods)

Morning after pill, intro-uterine devices (IUDs)

Birth control pill

Mostly steroid hormones that suppress ovulation
Usually synthetic does not break down so rapidly in the body
act longer

Some contain progesterone and some contain both

progesterone and oestrogen
combined oral contraceptives
Many different types: different in ratio

Involve taking pills 21 days and stop 7 days during

menstruation

Morning After Pill

Reduces chances of sperm reaching and fertilising an
egg
Usually synthetic progesterone-like hormone

Most cases stopping implantation of embryo in uterus

Work up to 72 hours afterwards, not just the morning

Infertility
50% female, 35% male, 15% unexplained
There are many causes that contribute to infertility
Eg. Ovulatory disorders:
Result of abnormal menstrual cycle in which some hormones are
not secreted in sufficient amount
Treatment: artificial hormones to induce ovulation

Infertility in Female
Damaged fallopian tubes, eg. oviduct blockage
Oviduct blocked as result of bacterial infection which causes their
walls to stick to each other
Treatment: surgery or IVF

Poor egg quality

Damaged egg or having chromosomal abnormalities, usually
age-related
Egg quality declines in the late 30s and early 40s

 Endometriosis
Endometrial tissue grows outside the uterus
Eg. in the oviducts, thus causing blockage

Major cause of infertility in women

Treatment: surgery to remove abnormal tissue and use of
hormones to prevent recurrence

Ovulation problem
Treatment: ovulation-stimulating drugs, eg FSH, HCG,
clomiphene

 Polycystic ovary syndrome

Small cysts present hormone imbalance and affect ovulation
Treatment: ovulation-stimulating drugs

Antisperm antibodies
Develop an immune response against their partners sperm
Sperms are recognised as foreign particles, thus destroyed
Treatment: IVF or artificial insemination

Infertility in Male
Sperm problem
Low sperm count, poor sperm motility, abnormal shape of sperm
cells
Treatment: fertility drugs, artificial insemination

Sperm allergy
Some women develop immune response to produce antibodies
that kill sperm cells
Treatment: IVF

 20-35% of all fertility problems

Unexplained infertility
Combination of a few factors

In Vitro Fertilisation
In-vitro: in glass (test tube)
Oocytes and sperms mixed in a dish for fertilisation to take place

1. Ovulation stimulated by using hormones

For several follicles to develop simultaneously

Oocytes collected using a tube, inserted through the vagina
and cervix into the oviduct, using ultrasound as guidance

2. Same day, semen collected, washed, placed into a

liquid containing nutrients and substances that help
them to become active
3. Four hours later, each oocyte placed in one dish

100,000 motile sperms added to the dish

Alternatively DNA of sperm may be injected into an oocyte

4. After 3 days, oocytes collected and examined

Two fertilised oocytes are chosen and inserted into the uterus

This is to ensure greater likelihood that at least one will implant,

while avoiding risk of having triplets or more babies

Frozen Embryo Replacement

Spare embryo following IVF can be stored by freezing
them in liquid nitrogen
Can be stored for many years

Can be thawed and transferred to the mothers uterus

when needed
May be used when a woman has to undergo treatment
that may damage her ovaries radiotherapy /
chemotherapy

From left to right in this image:

A nickel,
2 straws that we freeze embryos
in,
a cane that holds straws in the
storage tank

 In this picture, the

cane with frozen
embryos is being
"plunged" into the
storage tank
The tank contains
liquid nitrogen at -196
degrees Centigrade
(minus 320 degrees F)

Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

Sperm injected into an egg (not to fertilise the egg by
themselves)

Used when abnormal sperm cannot penetrate, swim,

not active
Problem risk of abnormalities usually only fit sperm
will manage to fertilise egg

Sperm Banks
Samples of sperm that can be used in many infertility
treatments

Cryopreservation storing frozen cell

First successful use of frozen human sperm 1953
If donors sperm health check, background check,
genetic testing
Build up a donor profile

References:
Jones, M. 2007, AS/A Level Biology (Cambridge
International Examinations), 2nd edn, Cambridge
University Press.
Jones, M. 2010. Cambridge International A/AS-Level
Biology: Revision Guide, Trans-Atlantic Publications.

74

Key terms:
Term

Definition

Electrophoresis

Separating components in a mixture of chemicals,

for example lengths of DNA, by means of an
electric field

Genetic
profiling
(fingerprinting)

Sequencing of a length of DNA from an organism,

to compare with the sequence of the same DNA
from other organisms

Genetic
screening

Testing an embryo, fetus or adult to find out

whether a particular allele is present