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The word topography itself is derived from the Greek "topo," meaning
place, and "graphia," meaning to write, or to record.
The term "topography" is principally applied in the study of Earth's
surface, whether it is man-made structure or natural. But the proper
definition of topography is the study of structures, shapes, sizes and
dimensions.
types is the use of contour lines to portray the shape and elevation of the
land. Topographic maps render the three-dimensional ups and downs of
the terrain on a two-dimensional surface.
Topographic maps usually portray both natural and manmade features.
They show and name works of nature including mountains, valleys,
plains, lakes, rivers, and vegetation. They also identify the principal
works of man, such as roads, boundaries, transmission lines, and major
buildings.
Modern-day topography is generally concerned with the measurement
and recording of elevation contours, producing a three-dimensional
representation of the Earth's surface. A series of points are chosen and
measured in terms of their horizontal coordinates, such as latitude and
longitude, and their vertical position, in terms of altitude. When recorded
in a series, these points produce contour lines which show gradual
changes in the terrain.
Irrespective of the fields of use, topography is applied for determining
the exact position of any geographical or biological feature and its parts
in respect to a reference point or simply in space. The units used for this
determination are the horizontal coordinate system (longitude and
latitude) and altitude. To make things clearer, different naming
conventions are used in different fields that are also a part of
topography.
Spot Height
Spot heights are the small black numbers on the map that indicate
altitude in meters. Each number will usually include a small black dot
(and sometimes a black circle). The dot is the position of the spot height.
Spot heights can be used to indicate which way to go or not to go.
In the simplest form of spot height navigation you will be presented with
a list of numbers. This will mean you must select, usually, the shortest
route that joins them together. Never be tempted to pass through other
spot heights that are not in the list, the navigational rules often state that
if a specific feature for navigation is used - in this case, spot heights then all others should be ignored.
Hachure
Hachures are short, broken lines used to show relief. They are multiple
crossing lines that create a shaded definition on either maps or drawings.
In topography, they are used to define surface relief. They are also
known as "tick marks". They do not represent exact elevations, but are
mainly used to show large, rocky outcrop areas. Hachures are used
extensively on small-scale maps to show mountain ranges, plateaus, and
mountain peaks.
Form Lines
Form lines are not measured from any datum plane. Form lines have no
standard elevation and give only a general idea of relief. Form lines are
Contour Lines
Contour lines are the most common method of showing relief and
elevation on a standard topographic map. A contour line represents an
imaginary line on the ground, above or below sea level. All points on the
contour line are at the same elevation. The elevation represented by
contour lines is the vertical distance above or below sea level.
Shading
Relief shading indicates relief by a shadow effect achieved by tone and
colors that result in the darkening of one side of terrain features, such as
hills and ridges. The darker the shading, the steeper the slope. Shaded
relief is sometimes used in conjunction with contour lines to emphasize
these features.
4) A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and equally spaced.
5) A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a hill, if the
higher values are inside.
7) Contour line cross ridge or valley line at right angles. If the higher
values are inside the bend or loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge.
Consequently, if the higher values are outside the bend, it represents a
Valley.
Properties of Contours
1) Each contour line must close upon itself on or off the
map. A contour line cannot dead end.
Uses of Contours
Contour maps are very useful since they provide valuable information
about the terrain. Some of the uses are as follows:
1) The nature of the ground and its slope can be estimated
2) Earth work can be estimated for civil engineering projects like road
works, railway, canals, dams etc.
3) It is possible to identify suitable site for any project from the contour
map of the region.
Types of Contours
Index
Starting at zero elevation or mean sea level, every fifth contour line is a
heavier line. These are known as index contour lines. Normally, each
index contour line is numbered at some point. This number is the
elevation of that line.
Intermediate
The contour lines falling between the index contour lines are called
intermediate contour lines. These lines are finer and do not have their
elevations given. There are normally four intermediate contour lines
between index contour lines.
Supplementary
Depressions
Craters and sinkholes are examples of closed depressions. They are
shown by using roughly circular contour lines that have Hachure marks
inside that run perpendicular to the downhill side of the depression.
Approximate or Interval
The contour interval measurement given in the marginal information is
the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines.
sometimes hand level and Abney levels are also used. This method is
slow, tedious but accurate. It is suitable for small areas.
Indirect
In this method, levels are taken at some selected points and their levels
are reduced. Thus in this method horizontal control is established first
and then the levels of those points found. After locating the points on the
plan, reduced levels are marked and contour lines are interpolated
between the selected points.
Coordinate
In this method area is divided into a number of squares and all grid
points are marked. Commonly used size of square varies from 5 m x 5 m
to 20 m x 20 m. Levels of all grid points are established by leveling.
Then grid square is plotted on the drawing sheet. Reduced levels of grid
points marked and contour lines are drawn by interpolation.