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KENNETHJOHN
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 KennethJohn Conant

CAROLINGIAN AND ROMANESQL E

A R C H I T E C T L R E 8 O OT O 1 2 O O

Yale UniaersityPress' New Haaen and London

First published 1959by PenguinBooksLtd To my two namesakes
Fourth edition r978. New impressionrgg3 by Yale University Press Ken and Kenny
z o r g 1 8 r y 1 6 t 5 1 4 1 31 2 r r r o g 8 7 6 5

Copyright @ Kenneth John Conant, ry59, 1966,ry74, ry78

Set in Monophoto Ehrhardt, and printed in Hong Kong through World Print Ltd

Designedby Gerald Cinamonand Inge Dyson

All rights reserved.This book may not be reproducedin whole or in part, in any form
(beyondthat copying permitted by Sectionsro7 and ro8 of the U.S. Copyright Law and
exceptby reviewersfor the public press),without written permissionfrom the publishers.

ISBN o-3oo-o5zg8-7

Library of Congresscatalogcard number 78-r4g8or

 CONTENTS

This new edtion, in addition to routine minor Note on the Second Intesrated Edition 6
rectifications, contains text changes suggested Foreword rr
by increasing knowledge of the development of
Maps:
the Romanesque style, and figures have been
introduced which tend to make this develop- Carolingian Divisions in and near France c. 8oo 814 14
ment clearer. The text has new material on
France and Contiguous Areas about rooo r5
Montecassino, Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire, Saintes,
Cluny, Florence, and Saint-Denis. It presents Medieval Ecclesiastical Metropolitanates (France) and Provinces (Germany) 16-ry
the great church at Cluny as embodying the T h e S t y l i s t i c B o u n d a r i e so f R o m a n e s q u e F r a n c e r8-rg
classic moment of the Romanesque, with
The Pilgrimage Routes to Santiago de Compostela 20
Saint-Denis and Sens Cathedral as the first
Gothic churches provided with flying but- Spain and Portugal 2r
tresses of systematic design Germany, Neighbouring Lands, and Hungary 22-23
The original drawings were made or adapted
Italy and Yugoslavia 24
by Donald Bell-Scott, further drawings were
done for this edition by Ian Stewart, and the British Isles 25
maDS were drawn bv Sheila Waters. Scandinavia 26

The Holy Land 27

Part One: The Pre-Romanesqueand Proto-Romanesque Styles

r . The Preparation for Medieval Architecture 3r

The Institutional Background 3r
Primitive and Local Architectural Trends 34
The Persistence of Roman Architectural Ideas and Practice 36
The Transition from Roman to Early Medieval Architecture 37
z. The Carolingian Romanesque 43
Northern Architecture in the Reign of Charlemagne,TTr 8rq 43
Church Architecture in the Northern Part of the Empire under the Later Carolingians 55
3. Pre-Romanesque Architecture in the North, outside the Empire 69

Ireland 69

Ninth- and Tenth-Century Architecture in Saxon England 72

Scandinavia 77
 8 coNrnNrs

Architecturein SouthernEurope 87
4. Proto-Romanesque Abbot Hugh of Semur 187

The Asturian StYle 87 Abbot Pons, or Pontius, de Melgueil zo8

The MozarabicStyle in Northern Spain 93 Abbot Peter the Venerable 213

The Lombard Kingdom roo r r. The Cistercians and their Architecture 227

The ByzantineExarchate ro2

Part Four: The Mature Rornanesqueof Midd,k and Southern France

Part Tpo: TheEarlier Romanesque

Styles rz. General Considerations in regard to the Regional Schools 49

The 'First Romanesque'ro7 r3. The Kingdom of Arles, and Burgundy 243
5.
Lombardy ro7 Ducal Burgundy 243
Dalmatia r r I Provence 2So
Cataloniaand Andorra r r I Aquitania,with BorderingAreason the Loire and the Mediterranean 263
The Kingdom of Arles r r9 The West of France 26+
Germany r rg The SchoolofAuvergne 293
Romanesque Architecture in Germany The SchoolofLanguedoc 297
under the Saxon and Franconian Emperors (936 r rz5) r2r
Part Fiz:e: The,44ature RomanesqueArchitecture of Spain, Portugal, and the Holl Land
The Ottonians; the Ottonian Romanesque 12r
r7. Styles dependdnt on the Moors and on Lombardy 3o3
The Salian or Franconian Emperors r3I
Mud6far Romanesque Architecture in Brick 303
France: goo ro5o r3g
The Mature Catalan Romanesque Style 306
The Ambulatory r3g
18. Styles dependent on France 3r I
BurgundianDevelopments r4r
Preliminary Considerations 3rr
The Spacious Wooden-Roofed Basilicas I53
Aragon and Navarre 3r2
Part Three: The Mature Romanesqueas Inter-Regional and International Architecture L e o n , C a s t i l e .a n d G a l i c i a J I 5

8. The Great Churches of the Pilgrimage Roads r57 Portugal 329

The Preparation: General Considerations r57 The Templars and the Hospitallers 333
St Martin at Tours t6z The Holy Land 336
Saint-Martial at Limoges t6z E x c h a n g eo f I n f l u e n c e s : T h e P r o b l e m o f A r m e n i a 34I
Sainte-Foi at Conques r63
Part Six: .I4ature RomanesqueArchitecture
Saint-Serninat Toulouseand PilgrimageSculpture r65
in the Land.sAsstttiated pithin the Holy Roman Empire
Santiagode Compostela,Goal of the Pilgrimage 167
Introduction to Chapters rg zz 343
Reflexfrom the Pilgrimage ry7
rg. The Two Sicilies 345
The Role of Cluny in the History of RomanesqueArchitecture r85
Apulia 345
The Early Abbots;the'EcoleClunisienne' r85
The Basilicata 352
 IO CONTENTS

Sicil-v 3Sz
Campania and Neighbouring Regions 362
FOREWORD
zo. Central ltalY 367
Rome and the Papal State 367
Tuscany 372 The present volume is devoted to the genesis, Dr Joan Evans was engaged on her com-
zr. Northern Italy 38-5 development, and transformation of Romanes- prehensive publications in England, and M.
que architecture and is concerned with the prin- Charles Oursel on his learned works concerning;
Venice 385
cipal artistic effort of four centuries, but the Cluniac and Cistercian art in Burgundy. Nt.
Lombardy 386 chronological limits are not as strict as this state- Marcel Aubert. to whom the author is much
Neighbouring Regions showing Components of Mature Lombard Style ,+o3 ment would imply. To understand Romanesque beholden for many kindnesses, was at the same
architecture well, it is necessary to understand time preparing his encyclopaedic work on
zz. Germany, with the Netherlands and Flanders 4I r
the monasticism and the incipient medievalism Cistercian architecture in France.
South Germany 4r-1 of Late Classical times, before the creative spirit With all these materials now available, it is
Saxony and Neighbouring Regions 4I5 ofthe Carolingian Age gave them a special direc- possible to present - as such - the monastic
tion. Following the epoch of mature Romanes- accomplishment in church architecture. The
The Lower Rhine Main District 121
que achievement, the after-life of the Romanes- reader will find here, following an account of
The Netherlands +27 que extended into the thirteenth and fourteenth the renewal in Charlemagne's time, a record of
centuries in regions where the style offered a the architectural advances by which the highly
Part Sez;en:Mature RomanesqueArchitectarc in Scandina.^ia, Britnin, and Northern France suffrcient answer to local needs. and exoressed organized conventual establishment and the
zq. Scandinavia 43I the local temper well. beauti(ully articulated great monastic church
General works on Romanesque architecture were achieved. This record, during Rornan-
Denmark 43r are not numerous. In view ofthe enduring value esque times, brings forward a synthesis of
Sweden $+ of Paul Frankl's Fr il hmit tela h erlic he und r omani- traditional forms culminating at Cluny and
Norway' scheBauhunst, rather encyclopaedic in charac- Citeaux. Its foil, in our exposition, is the flower-
436
ter, a freer pattern has been adopted for this ing o{' the many and varied regional styles,
24. Northern France and Norman England +Jg treatise, which is somewhat more personal, cast some of them carried forth by missionaries or
F r e n c h R o m a n e s q u co f t h e S c h o o l o f t h e E a s t , o r R h i n e l a n d F r a n c e -+39 when possible in the form of a narrative. The colonists as the Romanesque area expanded
theme of the book is carried by' church archi- into Spain, the Holy Land, middle Europe,
The Royal Domain (ile-de-France) and Champagne 4j9
tecture,but that is natural in the work ofan au- and Scandinavia.
Normandy 442 thor who is academically the heir of Herbert In the Holy Roman Empire there was a
England: l'he Saxo-Norman Overlap ,+54 Langford Warren and his teachers Henry Hob- particularly wide panorama of interesting re-
son Richardson and Charles Eliot Norton, the gional styles: older architectural forms were
Norman England 4-5.+
latter an intimate f riend ofJohn Ruskin. perfected and embellished, and the noble monu-
The greatest direct indebtedness ofthe author ments which resulted in such great numbers
Notes $j
is, however, to his mentor, colleague, and liiend, have been admired ever since the Romanesque
Bibliography 49.1 Arthur Kingsley Porter, whose wide-ranging centuries. But they do not show the drive for
List of Illustrations 50I re-study ofRomanesque art and chronology re- logical synthesis in structure which charac-
sulted in considerable activity on the part ofart terized the North-western region. Therefore at
Index 5og
historians. His interest in Cluny, shown in the end of our work we ref'er to Romanesque
important work of his own, was responsible for Normandy, England, and the ile-de-France in
several significant studies in the Cluniac am- contrast with the Empire; the result of their
bient by Americans during the period when effbrt in architecture was the creation ofa new
12 FOREWORD
structural unit which had elements drawn from
all of the older types of vaulting, but surpassed
them all. Fully developed, this unit the typical
ribbed groin-vaulted bay with its spur or flying
buttress - was universally applicable, and be-
came the mainspring of Gothic architecture. It
was further remarkable in that designers, by its
use, could reinterpret and carry on all of the
effects achieved in local varieties of the parent
Romanesque. By making clear these facts the
author hopes to enrich the reader's appreciation
both of Romanesque and of Gothic archi-
tecture.
The author wishes to express his gratitude
to the medievalists who have been mentioned
for the benefits which have come from their
scholarly work and their counsel. He is grateful
for the generosity of the Hon. John Nicholas
Brown, who made excavations at Cluny pos-
sible through the Mediaeval Academy of
America; he also owes thanks to Miss Helen
Maps
Kleinschmidt, to Dr Harry H. Hilberry, to
Dr ElizabethReadSunderland,and to Dr Alice
Sunderland Wethey for their work in fitting
parts of the Cluniac puzzle together; to Dr
Isabel Pope Conant for thoughtful criticism;
and to Mrs Hart Chapman and to Mrs Judy
Nairn for experthandling of the manuscript.
Special thanks are due to Dr Turpin C.
Bannisterfor a searchingreviewand discussion
of the text while it wasin proof. And thanksare
most particularly due to the Editor, Professor
Sir Nikolaus Pevsner,who is deeply versedin
the subiectmatter of the volume; his work on
the manuscriptwasthat of a wisecolleagueand
friend, far exceeding the merely editorial
function.
KENNETH JOHN CONANT
.28June r954
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PART ONE
THE PRE-ROMANESQUE
A N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
CHAPl.ER I
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL
T H E I N S T I T L I T I O N AB
LACKGROTJND
The Leaders
The 1'ear 8oo came to a Western rvorld readv
for a great revival of'man1' things which Anti-
quity held dear. The barbarian torment and
the civil strife which had overturned the f'alter-
ing late Empire were far from ended, but the
lorces of order were decisivelv rallied, and
great men like Charlemagne and his com-
panions were hnding, in the pattern of classic
life and thought, the wa].s in which the half
Roman. half German medieval rvorld could be
organized. The consular dignity'conferred in
5 o 8 u p o n C l o v i s , w h o r v a sa l r e a d y K i n g o f t h e
Franks in 476, when Romulus Augustulus was
deposed, had implications which began to be
realized as the Frankish settlers showed their
sturdy worth and their power to build an endur-
ing state. The implic'.rtions \\ere further real-
ized when Charlemagne's grandfather, Charles
N{artel, repulsed the Saracenic advance near
Poitiers in 732; when his irather, Pepin, aided
i n e s t a b l i s h i n gt h e p a p a l P a t r i m o n l ' ; a n d m o s t
o f a l l w h e n C h a r l e m a g n eh i m s e l f c r e a t e d a p a n -
Germanic state with an orderlv political system,
and enlarged the boundaries of Christendom
by his conquests.
ARCHIf'ECTURE
It is fiair to sa]' that the great triangle formed
b y t h e R h i n e , t h e L o i r e , a n d t h e s e a ,q u i e s c e n t
before, now put forward almost all the grand
conceptions on which the new medier,al world
of gor,ernment, philosophl', and art was to be
based. Charlemagne extended the area to in-
Germans, pro-
clude all the mid-continental
moted the Christianization of this vast dom-
i n i o n , a n d b o u n d i t b y s t r o n g e c c l e s i a s t i c aal n d
political links to Rome. Bv his care fbr the
Roman Church he gave new impetus to that
institution, which was perhaps the greatest
s i n g l ei n h e r i t a n c ef r o m A n t i q u i t v , a n d b 1 ' a c t i v e
favours to learning he made a beacon of his
court.
-Ihus,
by the year 8oo, learning and legal
svstem rvere being advanced again, and the mon-
asteries,by addressing themselvesto Rome's old
task of administrative and economic develop-
ment, \1erefbrming the groundwork on rvhich
an1'' lasting renaissance perforce would rest.
'l'his
socien, rvhich had been confused and
periphcral, found its direction and its unil-ving
p r i n c i p l e ; i t m a d e a s v n t h e s i so f G e r m a n i c c u l -
ture with traditional late Roman lbrms and per-
sistent influences from B1'zantine and Oriental
l a n d s , u n d e r t h e c o n f i d e n ta n d e n e r g e t i cC . h a r l e -
magne, whose coronation as Roman Emperor

?2 P R E - R O M A N E S Q U E A N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
at Christmastide,8oo, happily marks a symbolic
new beginning.
Artistic initiative stirred, and new aesthetic
lbrms were created which e\'!ntuall)' became
'I'he
symbols of the age. creation of Carolingian
art, with its reflexes of oriental, northern, and
Mediterranean origin, is a very complex pheno-
menon, and only the architecture can concern
us here; suffice it to say that the fecund and
dynamic character so notable in the other arts
is equally found in the architecture. In archi-
t e c t u r e a l s o , d e s i g n e r sh a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
merge what was good in all the old forms within
the ample horizon of vast civic and religious
conceptions, though the architects were rela-
tively more dependent on Mediterranean mo-
dels. The abounding energy and initiative ofthe
Emperor himself, and the great gifts for under-
standing, organization, and synthesis which
were possessed by the gireat masters of rhe
Palace Alcuin and Einhard particularly were
strongly I'elt in architecture. The brilliant ideas
developed by the church architects of Charle-
magne's day were of enduring importance. J'hev
have been interpreted in successive styles
throughout the centuries, up to modern times.
The leading Carolingian architects antici-
pated certain Romanesque characteristics, but
scholars hesitate to sav that Romanesque archi-
tecture properly so called began in the Caro-
'f
lingian Ren:rissance. hel prefbr to reserve the
term fbr the better integrated art which flou-
rished from the time of Otto the Great (936-73)
in western Europe, and receded before Gothic
art lrom about rr3o onward. This is perhaps
becauseCarolingian painting, manuscripts, and
sculpture differ more sharply than architecture
lrom acknowledged Romanesque works. Be-
c a u s el h c R o m a n c o m p o n e n ti s \ e r \ i m p o r t a n t .
the name C:rrolingian Romanesque is suitable
for the architecture. For the discerning historian
can see that the general programme of earll'
medieval architecture was already understood
at the court of CharlemaEne and that charac-
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
3J
teristic Romanesque I'eatures or elements were under construction even when favoured by ex- liturgy fbr its magnificence. Priories on identical
created and used, though not on the scale nor c e p t i o n a l r e s o u r c e sa n d o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . lines were soon founded. Louis the Pious, who
The impulse fbr novel alchitectural develop- succeeded Charlemagne in 8r,1, built the Cor-
with the great assuranceof later times. f'he
ment came chiefly lrom the monasteries. A nelimiinster on the Inden, near Aachen, for
C a r o l i n g i a n R o m a n e s q u ew a s i n r e n t i r e I i t w a s
m o n a s t e r yo f i m p o r t a n c e o f t e n s e r v e dn e a r l y a l l Benedict, and instructed him to regularize
also experimental Romanesque in the test-
the needs of a thousand persons or more, and monastic life in the Emperor's dominions.s
tube rather than a well-knit. fullv articulated
thus presented architectural problems on the The groups of men who withdrew fiom the
style.
scale of a whole town. Yet its design would be ordinary pursuits of the world to live together
more monumental, and integrated in a more under the rule ofan abbot, taking vows ofpov-
The Arc hitectural Ambit sophisticated manner than that of a town, with erty, chastity, obedience, and stability, lbund
the consequence that novel problems would rich rewards in the spiritual pattern of the
It is important to realize in this connexion that
arise spontaneously'. monastic liturgies. Such conmunities became
the Carolingian Romanesque was an architec-
oases of Christian life in the midst of wild
ture intended for relatively small groups of
people, and not a great urban architecture suclt countr) or social chaos; sound and strong, the
.Monasticistn
monastic institute was able to accept manifbld
as classic architecture had been. The popula-
Monasticism itself came to Carolingian times opportunities to preserve piety and learning, to
tion of the entire Roman Empire in Hadrian's
with the strong Roman imprinr giren to an aid communications by turnishing hospitality
time is believed to have been about 55,ooo,ooo.
originally Egvptian and cenobitical institution to wayfbrers ofer,ery degree, and to enlarge the
There were several cities approaching r,ooo,ooo 'l'here
by St Benedict of'Nursia (r. 48o 5.13). is borders of Christianitv bv missionary endea-
in population, but all were in the south and east.
indeed something of Roman grandeur and dura- YOUr.
The cities in the north and west had always
bility in the Rule which he compiled for his own .{lthough the monks were individualll'' vowed
been small, and the countrvside rather sparsely
monastery of Montccassino about 5zg. This to poverty, the communities received great gifts
peopled. In the late classical period the popula-
Rule made its rvavthroughout Western C.hris- of land and endou'ment; and in general thel
tion of the Empire declined, particularly in the
tendom on its os'n mcrits, and acted as an inter- managed their quite considerable resources
cities, Rome being an e\treme example with a
national constitution in the early Middle Ages well. f'he monks patiently developed and im-
decline from nearly r,ooo,ooo to its nadir of
when temporal government had broken down, proved their properties, which were often large-
about ro,ooo. Constantinople, which main-
and the monastic commonwealth remained as lv uncultir,ated or dcsolate when g;iven, and bv
tained a population of nearly r,ooo,ooo in the
the only stable community 2 this process a ty'pical monastery would become
\{iddle Ages, seemed labulous to visitors from
The way of Roman churchmanship in Gaul the garner and the agricultural capital for a
the West. Medieval London had only about
was smoothed by Pepin III, who introduced considerable surrounding area ; becauseof large
z5,ooo people,and all England only 5,ooo,ooo,
the Roman, and prohibitcd the Gallican, liturgv land holdings it would have certain adminis-
while the German urban centres had from
tn the Frankish kingdom, j54 68.Charlemagne trative and judicial lunctions too, in addition to
5ooo to ro,ooo people; l'rance was relativelv reinforced the tcndencv by imposing on all being the spiritual capital. Much invective
more settled and prosperous. It seems clear
monks a rule of Bencdictine character. Roman a g a i n s t u s u r p i n g a n d u n s u c c e s s f u la d m i n i s t r a -
that most of the building operations were tradi-
in spirit (78g). tors has come down to us in the texts, and this
tional, and were done, even in late medieval
Benedictinism itself. then in relativc decline f'act tends to obscure the excellent general re-
times, on the modest scale which we associate
because of uphcavals. was enormously bene- cord ofthe monasteries as orderly and peacclul
with villages.l The conditions of society were
fited by Charlemagne and his successorsfrom islands within a society ruhich was struggling
such that the solutions developed in Roman
779 onward, when a refbrm was inaugurated out ofdeep confusion.'l'heir industry laid the
and barbarian times for the various problems ol'
under St Benedict of Aniane (died 8zz). A lbundations of economic recoverl in Europe
ordinary architecture were still sufficient, so
splendid nt:w monrster]' was built at Aniane, after the Dark Ap;es. The larger monasteries
that there was little occrsion for the exercise of
which lies nerr Saint-Guilhem-le-D6scrt or presented intricatc administrative problems,
new ingenuity in such work. Ambitious pro-
Gellone in Languedoc, between Arles and Nar- and were the accepted schools for men of busi-
jects involving new problems were few in num-
b o n n e . I t d r e w o n a l l t h e r c s o u r c e so f ' a r t a n d ness and government. In addition they were the
ber, and with rare exceptions they were long
L
34
pRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
training places for talent in the arts, and the
refuge of intellectual activity.
Thus the monasteries did yeoman service in
creating all four ofthe baseson which medieval
civilization was to rest: (r) economic revival,
(z) the fusion of the Latin and the Teutonic
peoples, in which the conversion of the in-
vaders, the unified world view presented by
Christianity, and its common mode of thought
were fundamental, (3) the afterlife of Roman
law in the monastic Rule, the canon law of the
Church, and the Holy Roman Empire, (4) the
feudal system, which set up new hierarchies of
power, and enabled the monastic orders to ex-
tend their influence and their benefits generally.
The great monasteries, thus developing as
imposing hnancial, educational, and territorial
corporations, were lar larger, more complex,
and more influential than they had ever been in
Antiquity. Since many of their architectural
problems were new, their architecture became
the living and growing architecture of the time.
r. Lojsta, palace(restored).Original ofr. rooo
P R I M I T I V EA N D L O C A L
A R C H I T E C T U R ATLR E N D S
With the creation of' a central power in the
north of Europe, it would be natural to expect
Northern influences in architecture lrom the
year 8oo onwards. The situation is well ex-
pressed in Charles Rufus Morey's reference to
'the
naive effort of the barbarian races them-
selves to revive the Rome which their fathers
had ruined', and his definition of Romanesque
art as that'which reflects the gradual sinking of
Latin culture below the Celtic and Teutonic
surf'ace'. The architecture of these migrant and
primitive peoples could hardly have the superb
beauty, the 'coiling vitalitv' of their works of
minor art, but as their compositions sought out
the eccentric effects of nature itself, so their
architecture alwavs was both functional and
organic.a
In the North-east, where primeval timber
was abundant, the adze was the builder's prin-
>-
THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
cipal tool, and a traditional log-wall construc-
tion developed which came to its culmination
in the Russian medieval spire churches.
In the West, more sophisticated tools were
used. and several schemes of more efficient,
lighter construction were worked out. In the
palace halls there was evidently foinery ofa high
order adorned with intricate carving, of which
the wagons and sledges found with the Norse
grave-ships probably offer us specimens. At
Lojsta on the Isle of Gotland a palace ruin as-
cribed to the period about a.o. rooo has been
restored, and here one may see how handsome
the primitive wooden forms can be, even with-
out the lavish carving and colour which the
original work doubtless possessedIr, 36.t]. Ac-
cumulating evidence shows that halls of the
Lojsta type were used all over northern Europe
for many centuries in noble, domestic, farm, and
(later) church construction [4e]. They may even
'bay
be responsible for the introduction of the
system' in stone-built Romanesque.
z. Greenstead,woodenSaxonchurch (part), ror3,
brick basemodern
35
Palisade wall construction was used by the
Saxons, and a solitary example of their work,
dated ror3, still existsin the church at Green-
stead, Essex [zl. Wooden frames with vertical
sheathing and braced mast construcfion were
used by the Norse. The clinker construction
of the Scandinavian ships is essentially like
weather-boarded construction in building. It
may go back as f'ar as the third century a.o.
'Half-timber'
construction among the bar-
barians may also be lairlv ancient, as Strzygow-
ski believed.
Excar,ations in the Gallo-Roman area have
shown that Roman work in outlying regions
must often har,e adjoined that of the bar-
barian settlers; indeed it seems likely that the
barbarian builders near the borders ofthe Em-
pire learned something also from the Romans.5
The prosperous household among the Ger-
mans would have a hall like that at Loista. or a
more sophisticated building of similar char-
acter. Subsidiarl' buildings of' the same sort
would gather, arranged about courtvards, and
the number of such courts would be the measure
of'the household's importance. It is probable
t h a t t h e ' p r o l i f ' e r a t i n g q u a d r a n g l e s 'o 1 ' t h e g r e a t
monasteries carry on something of this mode of
agglomeration.b
'r,ernacular'or
Such folk architecturewas of
course f-ar from adequate lbr the nccds of an
imperial building programme, but being rooted
and native in the north, it would be bound to
have some efl'ect on an-vimported st1,le.Speci-
ficallv, the mode of design where liamed wooden
compartments make up a building is quitc
different from that of classic architecture in
brick, stone, or concrete. L,r'cn in the first at-
tempts at strict imitation, the local habits and
conditions would inevitably make themselles
f'elt. Northern builders preler austere shapes,
lbr their climate is severe on involved e\terior
fbrms. Northern rooI.s arc stecp, in order to
evacuate rain more quickll' and diminish the
hazard of snow and icc. The exterior materials
36 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
which resist the weather well are nearly all
either red or gre)', so that the colour range is
limited.
Yet in the Carolingian period the north-
'vernacular' architecture was obviousll' so
ern
simple that almost any really monumental new
development would be largely dependent on
Roman sources. l'he elements. the items, the
f'eaturesof great buildings would be Roman, but
the manner of their employ would be affected by
northern artistic discipline and taste. During
the Carolingian period both Roman and native
elements were used increasingly, with admir'
able inventiyeness. in church architecture.
T H E P E R S I S T E N COEF R O M A N
A R C H I T E C T U R AILD E A SA N D P R A C T I C E
The Romanesque which came after the Carolin-
gian period profited by these erperiments, and
b1' the dreadful experience of the Viking and
Hungarian invasions. These incursions, with
t h e i r b u r n i n g s o f t o w n s a n d c h u r c h e s ,o c c a s i o n -
ed a considerable ellbrt to build fireproofchur-
ches in the ensuing period of revival, after the
middle of the tenth century. Perforce the de-
signers drew on the constructional experience
of imperial Roman vaulted architecture. The
nidespread and sucttss.fuluse of Roman types of
vaulting as a clntrollins Jeature in design marks
a distinction between the newer, Romanesque,
architecture, irnd the older Carolingian.
Examples of the ancient Roman stvle were
built throughout noarly the entire area in which
the Romanesque later flourished. The Roman
manner of building, although it degenerated in
the Dark Ages, remained as an ideal, and was
never quite lost in practice. A Roman architect
and a Roman engineer would easilv have under-
s t o o d t h e u o r k o f t h e i r R o m a n e s q u ec o n t i n u -
ators.
Yet there are obvious differences. Apart from
commemoratiVe works and garden architecture,
onlv the Roman temples had a character which
we should now call fully monumental. All other
tvpes of building, even the most ambitious, ten-
ded to have plain or uninteresting exteriors, and
the layout of the cities gave little opportunit]',
apart from the fora, for individual structures to
present imposing effects, or to become dynamic
elements in the city picture and the landscape.
Such effects are achieved almost as a matter of
course 6rst in medieval, then in Renaissance,
Baroque, and neo-classical planning. On the
contrarv, Roman civic works were often masked
fiom the street or forum b1'enclosing porticoes,
so that the compositions were inward-looking;
typically they had the classicalhorizontality and
self-contained unitv.
In contrast the Romanesque, through bold
imagination, came to be characterized by free,
active, and arresting combinations of architect-
ural forms. The Romanesque contributed great-
lv to the development ofhighly articulated, ex-
pressive exterior and interior design. It laid the
tbundation ofGothic successesin that field, and
t h u s i t u n d e r l i e s s t i l l f u r t h e r a c h i e v e m e n t so f
R e n a i s s a n c ea n d m o d e r n d a t e : a n o t a b l e d i f f e r -
entiation, surell'', from the Roman.
Romanesque variety developed out of Roman
unity. For, from the first years of our era, the
architecture of the city of Rome was the model
throughout the whole area of the Western Em-
pire. Provincial approximations, often imper-
f'ect because of different materials and other
conditions, nevertheless departed little in essen-
tial structure, and not at all in ideals,lrom the
augustexemplars in the imperialcity. The grow-
ing centralization ofthe state, the constantly in-
creasing property holdings of the Emperor
(amounting, it is said, to about a quarter of the
area of the Empire in Diocletian's time), and the
consequent spread ofuniform control in the de-
s i g n i n g o f b u i l d i n g s , e n c o u r a g e dq u i t e g e n e r a l
con(brmitv in practice to the architecture and
e n g i n e e r i n go f ' t h e c a p i t a l .
Although Rome's primacy in architecture de-
partcd during the fifth cenlur), its imposing
>-
THE PREPARATIONFOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
Early Christian churches remained as an active
inspiration while new ideals were developing for
the Romanesque. Other tvpes of building made
static rather than d1'namic contributions, but
retained prestige as classic works. Even the
wretched estate of medieval Rome shrunken
to a fraction ofits ancient size, and scourged by
malaria, private warfare, and disturbers from
abroad did not prevent high-minded popes
from maintaining the dignity ofthe ancient trad-
itions of the Church, and with that dignity some-
thing ofthe lofty ideals ofancient architecture.
Ancient Rome created no ne\rymonumental
types after the Christian Roman basilica. Later
designers, struggling on new problems without
Rome's leadership, worked on a regional basis.
Departing from the common and Roman theme,
though conscious ofits significance, the provin-
cial architects and engineers capitalized on the
special variations in materials, skills, climate,
and predisposition which fbrmer conditions,
under the Romans, had tended to minimize.
They even gained from such self-imposed limit-
ations. Buildings with such local savour could
be constructed more cheaply and would com-
mand the affection of folk in the locality from
the very fact of being 'their own'. The result
was, in the many regional schools of Romanes-
que architecture, a rich varietv unexampled in
the parent imperial st1.le.
T H E T R A N S I T I O NF R O M R O M A N
T O E A R L YM E D I E V A LA R C H I T E C T U R E
Rome was indeed not built in a dav; but bv the
beginning ofthe fourth centur]'ofour era it had
been built, and the grandiose civic and religious
organs of the Empire were becomingly housed.
Coming in a time of decal', this meant that the
wonderful system of working co-ordination
which had produced these buildings would
wither away through disuse. The tradition of
masonrv vaulting on a grand scale was lost in
this manner. Ordinarl., every-day,'r,ernacular'
37
architecture continued to be built. Indeed it
continued to be built fbr centuries. often with
l i t t l e c h a n g e b e c a u s ei t w a s w e l l a d a p t e d t o c u r -
r e n t n e e d s .J u s t a s t h e w o o d e n a r c h i t e c t u r e o f
the north was the 'background architecture'
'vernacular'
there. so the architecture of the old
Roman districts was the background architec-
ture of the south. Almost the onlv demand fbr
large new buildings came from the Church, and
in consequence ecclesiastical architecture be-
came the premier architecture from the time of
C o n s t a n t i n eo n w a r d .
The imperial architects achieved brilliant re-
sults in the new Earlv Christian architecture.
- { f t e r t h e P e a c eo f t h e C h u r c h ( 3 r 3 ) , t h e l ' p u t
the imprint of'unmistakable Roman grandeur
on the Constantinian basilicas of Old St Peter's
in the Vatican [3] and St Paul's outside the
\Ualls. The churches which had been destroved
throuehout the Empire during the persecution
of Diocletian (:o: +) were pJenerallyreplaced
r v i t h n e w b u i l d i n g s o l t h i s s a m e b a s i l i c a nc h a r -
a c t e r - t y - p i c a l l y ' w i t ha g a t e w a ] ' o 1 ' a p p r o a c ha, n
a t r i u m , a w o o d e n - r o o l e d n a v e a n d a i s l e s ,a n d
an apse, often with a transept and perhaps sac-
r i s t i e sa d j o i n i n g i t .
Eastern Christendom was able to continue
t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f R o m a n v a u l t e d a r c h i t e c t u r ea s
a living stvle, and applv them successfullv to the
problems of church building, thoup5h under
strong oriental influence. When the architects
began to build masonrv domes in churches, the
Byzantine style was constituted, in the time of
Justinian (specifically, with the design of St
S o p h i a i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ,5 - 1 2 ) .
Carolingian designers usually had to be satis-
fied with cheaper buildings basilicas roof'ed in
rvood. It is characteristic that thev sought mod-
els in the new East Christian sil'le when thel-
a t t e m p t e da m b i t i o u s l a u l t e d b u i l d i n g s , b u t t h e l
d i d n o t p o s s e s st h e s o p h i s t i c a t e dt e c h n i q u e s b y
which Byzantine works were achieved. Such
Carolingian works acquired a local salour be-
cause the builders had to do rvhat thev could on
38 P R E - R O M , \ N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y I - F - S
the basis of their Roman commonplace archi-
tecture and the wooden architecture of the
North.
Yet a traditional feature of church polity
maintained the need fbr church buildings on a
grand Roman scale. Originally, each citf in
F-arlv Christendom had had only a single church,
and the whole communin'expected to meet for
services at one building. Increase of numbers
meant that this would be a large building. Rome
was exceptional in possessing three churches
which, when they were built, could accommo-
d a t e s u c h i n c l u s i v es e r ri c e s n a m e l y , t h e c a t h e -
dral of'the Saviour (324, rebuilt as St John
L a t e r a n ) a n d t h e p i l g r i m a g e c h u r c h e so f O l d S t
Peter's (323 6; the nave and atrium hnished
a b o u t 4 o o , e p i s c o p i al a t e r ) a n d S t P a u l ' s o u t s i d e
-I'hese
the Walls (386-423). were built for a
community' which numbered about 5o,ooo at
the time. As a matter of course the congregations
stood at the services, chairs being provided for
dignitaries only. Later, when the chief metro-
politan centres became entirelv Christian, such
inclusive assemblieswere no longer possible,but
the medieval cities of the West, being smaller,
were able to maintain the old Roman practice.
No doubt there was a compelling appeal fbr
the bishops and architects of the West alike, in
this situation. Fullv r5,ooo peoplecould crowd
into the Ottonian cathedral of N{ainz (987
'I'he
ro36).; phenomenon obviousll' points to
an ideal of church br.rilding whereby the whole
population could be accommodated on both the
communitJ' and the parochial levels.8
With the disintegration of the Roman state in
the West, the bishops gained in importance as
l e a d e r s ;c i r , i c s p i r i t w a s m o u l d e d b y t h e s e m e n ,
who above all others were desirousof building
noblv fbr the Christian communities, and could
c o m m a n d t h e n e c e s s a r vr e s o u r c e s b e c a u s e o f
t h c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e sw h i c h t h e y i n h e r i t e d f r o m
thc Roman liovernment. Thus, in an odd way,
Roman architectural thought is responsible for
the huee bulk of the churches which inefface-
ably mark the silhouette of medieval towns. The
vigour ofthe utterly un-Roman sky-line ofthese
tolvns is the measure of the local initiatir,e, im-
a g i n a t i o n , a n d a e s t h e t i cp o u e r w h i c h w a s g e n e -
rated in Carolingian, Romanesque, and Gothic
times.
The powerful monasteries, when their turn
crme in the Carolingian period and later, built
churches on a comparable scale to house the
manl altars, to satisfy the extensive require-
ments for choir space,and to provide an impres- ,i-t ": P'iiI1, ',;
; d, r.:r
sile setting for processionrl liturgies. Like the
cathedral of a metropolitan centre, the church
of a monasterv invariablv dominated its en- f,
ffi Lt^i ,-':--.
semble, even when the conventual buildings
themselves were veritable cities. The orderly
;:t'
t h o u g h t w h i c h p r o d u c e d t h e s ec o m p o s i t i o n sr e -
calls the planning which created the Roman
colonial cities. The groupings are picturesque.
3. Rome, Old St l'eter's, 323 6, with additions, ro i. 5oo (the approach, the episcopia, rhe arrrum,
b u t i t i s a n o r d e r e d p i c t u r e s q u e n e s s ,b a s e d o n the Imperial mausolet). Restoration study. Thc columns flanking the main portals were moved from
an organic distribution of functional elements. recessedlateral porticos, filled in when the episcopia wrre built. The Triclinium is omitted (K.J.C.)
From the beginning even in Constantine's
cognizable as Christian; for the pagan crucilbrm 'I'his
time the result was strong articulation in plan, way. precedent was probably fbllowed in
buildings were small, and not for congrega- the f'agadesof the Syrian Early Christian chur-
a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y ' b o l ds h a p e si n t h e m a s so f t h e
tional uses. By contrast, this special purpose of ches, but their pylons or dwarftowers, flanking
church buildings.
'l'o the church was most obvious: the light con- a porch, were attached to the west fronts, and at
review this process, for better under-
struction and thin walls. so different from the once gave an unclassical look to the designs.')
standing, we may recall that the first of the new
voluminous imperial vaulted works, admitted of Towers for Fortification were a sign ofthe new
elements to appear was the transept, which
no disguise for the functional interior shapes 'I'hey
provided additional capaciq'to one side and an- times. were occasionally built beside
arising from practical needs. S1'rian churches during the Late Roman period.
o t h e r o f t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d c h o i r p l a t f o r m s . T h e
Pylons and towers were also established by In the West the coming of the barbarians and
asceticaE l arly Christiansknown as monai0nt(s,
the sixth centur]' as important but ancillary ele- perdistent local war made them importanr;
devoted confraternities.and singers appear to
ments. Their advent marks the beginning of a for the church building was usually the mosr
have had a claim on this desirable interior space.
verticality which became increasingly charac- capacious and substantial building in the com-
In Old St Peter's (323 6) [3] its separatecharac-
teristic as Early Christian and Carolingian de- munity, and consequently the refuge.
ter was indicated by its narrow entrances from
sign gave way to later Romanesque, and that in 'Lantern'
the aisles, constricted as the]'were by columnar towers, with windows admitting
turn to Gothic, where almost every structural light above the space in front of the altar, were
screens.Such a T-shaped plan resulted in an ele-
and decorative line f-eelsthe vertical imoulse. also brought into church architecture on a prac-
vation of bold form which could easily be distin-
The pylons ol thc exrerior proprlrea ol the tical and f unctional basis.l'rIn the East, masonry
g u i s h e d f t o m t h e c i v i c w o r k s o f t h e a g e .B y t h e
(never finished) late classical temple ofBaalbek domes were replacing such towers by a.o. -5oo,
filih century the Greek as well as the Latin cross
were inherited bv a basilican church erected in and Byzantine architecture was the result; the
plan (the former with arms of equal length, the
Its main courtyard by Theodosius. Thus, acci- Early Christian lantern towers live on, to the
latter with a west arm longer than the others)
dentally, Theodosius's basilica was one of the present day, in the central domes ofByzantine,
were also accepted, the latter perhaps suggested
very first to have a truly monumental entrance Armenian, and Russian churches.
by svmbolism. All such buildiqgs were easily re-
L
r'.O PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQT]ESTYLES THE PREPARATION FOR MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE
4I

In the West, mere constructional expediency
might have caused low towers to be built at the
crossing of the nave and transept in basilican
churches, where intersecting trusswork is awk-
ward to construct and ugly to behold. A low
tower is easily built at the crossing, with the nave
and transept roofs stopping against its walls.
Windows are easily introduced into such a tower
without much extra weight or risk, and thus by
the fifth century such lantern towers were much
used in the West, even in churches without
transepts.
The use of church bells provided another
practical element which distinguished the new
Christian style. Small bells were used in Late
Roman times to call the faithful to prayer. The
monks used them in their liturgies, and for a
long time the bell-ringer stood in the space be-
t w e e n t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d t h e m o n k s ' c h o i r , w i t h
the bell mounted on a roof turret overhead.
often above a lantern.ll
Becauseall three of'the tower types previously
mentioned fortification, lantern, and belfry
towers appeared in the design ofthe influential
monastic (later collegiate) church of St Martin
at f'ours, this building was clearly, from our
point of view, proto-medieval [4]. The vertical
elements had transformed radically and for good
the basic Roman basilican theme.12 Aestheti-
spite the lact that the original church was re-
placedin the sixth century, showedits vitality
in later works of considerablehistorical and
artisticimportance.Among thesewerethe mon-
asticchurchesofCentulaor Saint-Riquier(79o-
8oo) [5], Gernrode(96r-twelfthcentury)[75,
76], and Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire(c. ro8o,
twelfth century) [zor, zo3]; alsothe cathedrals
of Ely (ro83, 1323).374land Avignon (twelfth
century) [r94]. St Louis IX, King of France,
wasbaptizedin sucha building,of Early Gothic
style,at Poissl'-sur-Seine.
The destrovedGothic
cathedralof Cambrai exemplified the theme
4. Tours, St \{artin, as in 47o, restoration studl
The elements are certain,
but all details are hvpothetical (K J C.)
O 5M.
o 15FT.
handsomely. The flamboyant church at Saint-
Riquier is, like the church of Saint-Quentin, an
example of such a Gothic building being carried
fbrward and finished in Renaissance times.
French colonists brought the new theme to the
New World, as is shown by the old church of
Saint-Jean-Port-Joli near Quebec (r779). In
view ofwhat the Franks and the French achieved
with this idea in the development of medieval
architecture, there is a happy historic sym-
bolism in the fact that Clovis, their first great
king, received the Roman consular insignia in
the old church of St Martin at Tours.

cally and symbolically, this is a matter of great

importance. The composition of St Martin was
not horizontal, self-contained, and inward-
looking, as classical compositions are; rather it
was made up of aspiring and intersecting forms.
In St Martin, with its two axial towers, the new
dvnamic mode is unmistakable. Once estab-
lished. this new mode of composition was in-
stinctively accepted in the Roman area leavened
by Frankish immigration and versed in non-
classicalartistic modes. Once it was well assimi-
lated in Charlemagne's dominion, the Caro- 4e. Early South German constructions
Brenz, St Gallen. Rcstoration based on excavations
lingian Romanesque style was fully constituted.
by Boda Cichy (K.J.C.). Wooden church,
The scheme of the church of St Martin, r. 65o, on stones and chassis; successor church,
archaic though it was in medieval terms, and de- r. 73o, in stone (destroyed)

>-
 CHAPTER 2
THE CAROLINGIANROMANESqUE
N O R T H E R NA R C H I T E C T U RIEN
T H E R E I G \ O F C H A R L L M . { G \ E 7. ? r - 8 r - t
The character of Carolingian Romanesque mav
easily be seen in the buildings raised under
Charlemagne's own patronage. The themes are
in general Roman, and the labric continues
Roman traditions, but there are evident ex-
amples of Bvzantine and oriental influence.
More important still, there is an originality
which achieves often captivating effects both
'I'he
in architecture and decoration. buildings
made up an orderly programme, like the politi-
cal acts of Charlemagne.
Earliest among the churches was a new build-
ing at Saint-Denis (later roy'al pantheon). The
old church (built about 475 by-St Genevidve and
dedicated, according to legend, bv Christ him-
self, 636?) was replaced, beginning about 75.1,
by a new work dedicatedin 775. According to
careful studies based on partial excavarion,' this
was a wooden-rool-ed columnar basilica with a
spacious transept extending slightll. beyond the
aisle walls, a lantern tower, and a west end
of experimental form. Charlemag;ne's f'ather,
Pepin, was buried at the entrance. To augment
the dignity of this part of the church an apse
was projected, which would have made the
building a 'double-ender' like many notable
later Carolingian churches, but t$ o small towers
and a porch were ultimatell. built, linking the
church with the more usual type of Roman-
esque church f'acade. This earlv church was
b a s e do n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l R o m a n b a s i l i c , r :s e er h e
plan, illustration j78.
Next among the important churches built b1.
Charlemagne was rhai which uas .onr,rr.r.d
E-
in 78.2 fbr the monasterv of Aniane. Ret'erence
has already been made to its great reforming
abbot, Benedict of Aniane. Nothing remains of
the church, reportedlv a magnificent building
'westwork'
with a erected on the advice of'
Charlemagne. The edi{ice may be ultimatelv
responsible for the earlv medier,al flowering of
church arts in the region. It offered a sump-
tuous beauty to the sen iceofthe liturgv.r Bene-
dict's project was indeed lbrward-looking, and
it came to full fruition in the North at a later
date.
Following this, during the decade after 7go.
came the most characteristically- Northern and
energetic ofthe church designs, the reconstruc-
tion of the important monastery of Centula or
Saint-Riquier, near Abbeville [5]. T'he work
was on a very considerable scale, and it was
carried out when Angilbert was abbot, the
'Homer'
of the Palatine Court and one of its
l i v e l i e s t p e r s o n a l i t i e s .H e l e a v e st h e i m p r e s s i o n
that he was an e\trovert and a rathel show!'
m a n ; a n d p e r h a p s t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i ch a s s o m e -
thing to do with the remarkably novel and
monumental character of his buildings.s LIe
was linked to Charlemagne b1'mutual afl-ection,
and the building had much direct aid fiom
C h a r l e m a g n e i n t h e f b r m o f g e n e r o u sf u n d s a n c l
the lurnishing of craftsmen to work in stone,
m a l b l e , g l a s s ,s t u c c o , a n d w o o d ; m o r e o v e r , t h e
great patron ordered bases, columns, and
mouldings to be specially transported from
Rome.
T h e n e r v c h u r c h l v a sd e d i c a t e dt o t h e S a v i o u r
and All Saints, but the chicf altar, in the apse,
$ a s r c l a t e dt o t h e t o m b o l S t R i u u i e r , a n i r s c c t i c
who died in 645.
 THE CAROT-INGIAN RO[,lANESQUE. 45
PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
44

soZiil
'!,,f.-iir,(l ., ,. 'u l i ^ r'.6, , .. i c l i 3 - r q r n ' P : o c a o r c E
i t(
5 r a n i l n . S r i n t - R i q u i e r . H i r r i u l i m a n u s c r . i p td r a w i n g o f
antl skctch restoration as in 3oo (K J C ; rrylr). F,xcarations show that the tower
o1'tlrc chapcl ofthe virgin and the Apostles (b\ttom tl'5t) was bascd on a srmbolic dodecagon
uith aislcs. not radirting chapcls, and thrt thc clclister {f,s I ler} large tri:tnglc
The scheme wls basilic:rn, uith two arial
'I'ours,
rowers,as at St \{artin in but so imagin-
atilell' elaborated and so d-vnamic:tllvcomposed
as to eridencc Illl maturitv in the Carolingian
Romanesque st1le. The church rvas about 2-5o
{'eet long, and rvith its atrium mcasured about
'I'hc
qo feet morc. c r o s s i n ga n d t h e m a i n f h g a d e ,
each crowned bv an elaborate tower, reached a
h e i g h t o f ' a b o u t I 8 0 f e e t . +J ' h e a t r i u m h a d a r i a l
a n d l a t e r a l e n t r a n c e - $ ' a v s ,e a c h w i t h a t o w e r ;
t h e p o r t i c o e so f t h e a t r i u m s u p p o r t e d a n u p p e r
passagc giving acccss to a chapel installed in
each to\ler the earliest example we know of
this interestingarrangement.
'. x
ru:'lv'AN D'(
L(e^'-r'r"r;
-
"1-
il
qlt
'-
1...-';-
1rl"
,,: '.tir,
I o l l 8 , c n g r a r c d i n t 6 t z ( l e . l i) ,
Grander in sc:rle and more imaginative still
'westwork', or entrance element, of the
was thc
m a i n c h u r c h , w h i c h w a s t h e e a r l i e s tr e a l l ) ' i m -
posing and boldll- articulated fagade in church
architecture a historical landmark. At the base
there was a vaulted outer vestibule which con-
t a i n ed t h e t o m b o f A n g i l b e r t a n d a r e m a l k a b l e
painted stucco relief of the Nativitl' on a gold
mosaic ground, surelv the forerunner of the
sculptures which gathered about the portals of
Romanesque and Gothic churches. Be1'ond this
there was an inner vestibule which served as
narther or antechurch - in effect a low, sha-
dowed western transept rvith its vault carried
on a forest of piers and columns. It contained a
font and an altar.
The vaults ofthis whole section of the church
served as a platfbrm for a chapel ofthe Saliour
in the fbrm ofa tall spire-like central altar space,
cut off from the main nave b]' an arched screen
and surrounded on the other three sides by-
:
aisles and salleries. The placing and bold firrm
ofthe chapel were clearh didactic in intent: to
emphasize the cult of the Saviour in a rather
superstitious period when it tended to be ob-
scured bv devotions to local saints and wonder-
workers. The growth of medieval feeling since
St N{artin in Tours was built is well shorvn by
the fact that at Saint-Riquier the entrance ele-
ment was an entire vertical church, with vesti-
bule, subsidiarv altar and lbnt below, and a
chiefaltar, dedicated to the Saviour, at the plat-
form level.
The galleries of the westwork were assigned
t o a b o y s ' c h o i r d u r i n g s e r r , i c e s ;t h e b o v s s a n g
with great effect as an angel choir in thc solenn
. _ q
. * _ . -
' . 9
liturgies, when one or two choirs of men sang in
,-
,a1i1,ilil:,, ,.,,.;.tc,
the main church. Two slender round stair tur-
rets of stone flanking the outer vestibule fur-
nished access to the upper parts of the west-
work, and composed beautilulll' with a tall
rounded staged tower set over the central space
asthe Chronicle of Hariull'shows.5
New studies conducted bv the :ruthor indi-
c a t e t h a t t h e m a s o n r J ' c o n s t r u c t i o no l t h e w e s t -
work extended upward onll' as f'ar as the base
of the round drum, and th:rt this drum, likc the
spire above [5], was of wood. l'rvo engraved
copies of Hariulf's manuscript show the drum
opening up into the spire, :rnd suggest a criss-
c r o s so f ' b e a m s a t t h e b a s eo f t h e s o i r e . W e h c a r
o f a c h u r c h o l ' 7 3 5 - 8 7 a t S r i n t - \ \ ' a n d r i l l c .n e a r
Saint-Riquier, in which rhe spire was built
about a mast, with the supports of the r,arious
stages arranged like horizontal wheels on the
mast.t' Possibly the criss-cross ol beams at the
b a s eo f t h e S a i n t - R i q u i e r s p i r e s u p p o r t e d s u c h
'l'his
a mast. scheme ol'framing lbr wooden
spires has continued in use down to the present
t i m e ; i t l v a s d o r . r b t l e sa
sn original developrnent
in medier,alcarpentrv. Il'the drum and spire
lverc open, as the engravings show, an observer
on the pavement at Saint-Riquier would seea
most intriguing telescopic efl-ectlrom below.
Beyond the westwork lav the nave of the
m a i n c h u r c h , b a s i l i c a n ,w i t h a i s l e s ,a n d a w o o d -
en roof-. In the middle of the nar,e stood the altar
of'the Cross. as is usual in monastic churches.
Space to the west was left open lbr congrega-
tional use and processions, while the area
farther erst was kcpt pri\ate, the main part of
it being marked off by a chancel paraper or
screcnas the rcgular choir of the monks. Tlvo
minor altarswere near the scrcen in front ol'it
o r b e s i d ei t ( p e r h a p s i n t h e a i s l e s ) .
f'he monks'choir probably extcndedinto the
crossing ol the tlansept, and the transept as
usual had minor altars (fbur at Saint-Riquier).
Here, as wls customary, the monks enteredthe
church by the transept lvhen conring lbr ser-
vices; typicallr. the altar ncar the cloister door-
wav was more important than the orher minor
altars beciruscrelics placcd there were venerated
bl each monk as he cntercd. 1'he bell-ringer
s t o o d b e t l v e e nt h e c h o i r a n d t h e m a i n s a n c t u a r y
of the church, under the belfry. Stucco reliefi
(e.r gipsr) of the Passion,Rcsurrection, and
. { s c e n s i o nd c c o r a t e d t h i s p a r t o 1 ' t h e b u i l d i n g .
. { t S a i n t - R i q u i e rl h e c r o s s i n gr o u e r w a s l r v i n
( a t 4 u a l i s lt o t h e d r u m a n d s p i r e o f t h e c h a p e l o f '
the Saviour, and, like its mate, was flanked by
two tall round stair toners. The main sanctuilrv
extended castward bct*een ancl bevond thc
stair towers, composing handsomell. in an ar-
rangement which became tradition:rl.
I m m e d i a t c l v e a s t o f t h e c r o s s i n g t h e r e r v a sa
sanctuarr bay which contained an altar dedi-
catedto St Peter, and bchind that thc tombs of'
St Riquicr and his two companions. 1'he ba1'
seems to have scrved as choir spirce lbr thc

L-.

a6 A N D P R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U sEr Y L E s
pne-nouANESQUE
'-fhrone ol' St Riquier', a semicircular apse
paved at a level higher than the nave, and con-
taining the altar of St Riquier with a baldacchino
or,er it. This apse was marked offby a screen of
six marble columns brought from Rome, and
thirteen small reliquaries were placed on the
beam. Monrstelies usuallv have, in the sanc-
tuary area, an altar for the chief'ceremonies, in-
cluding the capitular mass of the day, and a
l e s s e ra l t a r w h e r e t h e m o r r o w m a s s i s s a i d . I n
this, as in so many other wa)'s, Saint-Riquier
,"o5 6.1,pical.;
The wonderf ul design fbr Angilbert's church,
dedicated in 7gg, evidentll made a sensation,
and echoes of it are perceptible in ecclesiastical
architecture fbr centuries.
The west*ork theme, that is the theme of a
tower-like lvcst block with an entrance and
\,estibule and a chapel above this, underwent
a l o n g d e v e l o p m e n t .F 6 c a m p i n N o r m a n d y ' h a d
an early'west\\.ork, fiom which, perhaps, the
m o t i f p a \ s e d t o E n g l a n d . R e i n r s ,a g r e a t a r l i s t i c
centre in the ninth centurv, as the Utrecht
Psalter demonstrates, built a cathedral in the
grcat da!'s of Archbishops Ebbo (8r6 4I) and
Hincmar (8+-s8z). This building wasdedicated
in 86.:, antl it sccms rvithout question to have
becn reprcsented on Hincmar's sarcophagus,
where the \lestern torver, the nave, the lantern
t o w e r a t t h c c r o s s i n g ,a n d t h c a p s e w e r e s h o w n
i n s o m c d e t a i l . I r r o m S a i n t - R i c l u i e r ,R e i m s , a n d
a l s o C - o r b i ct h e m o t i l ' r v e n t t o G e r m a n l .
The westuork of Reims uas the inspiration
of that of thc cathedral of Hildesheim (dedi-
cated in 872. sincc rebuilt), and the westrvork
o f ' C o r b i c i n P i c a r d y 'i n s p i r e d t h a t , d e d i c a t e di n
8 8 . 5 ,a t C i o r v e r o n t h c \ \ ' e s e r l z z , z 3 l . I n f l c t ,
the design of Saint-Riquicr had an enduring
succcssin Germanl', where its influencc can be
traced from gcneration to generation, through
'l'he
centuries. cathedral of \[ainz comes to known of' Charlemagne's buildings, the Pala-
mind: the building ot 978 and its successive tine f.hapel or llinster at -{achen (AixJa-
transfbrmirtions through 85o 1-.earsare mcrelv C h a p c l l e ) " ' [ 6 - r o ] . I t t e a c h e si n t e r c s t i n g l e s s o n s
v a r i a t i o n so n t h e C e n r u l a t h e m e ' [ 7 8 , j i 3 ] .
-FF
T H E C A R O L T N G T ARNO M A N E S Q U.E; 1 7
There were nine towers in all on Angilbert's influences in the north. It was designed bv Odo It is easy to divine the general lavout of the
m a i n c h u r c h . I t i s t h e 6 r s t k n o w n e x a m p l eo f s o of Metz and begun in 792. The building has group as it was in Charlemagne's time. T'he
l a r g e a g r o u p o f t o w e r s s y s t e m a t i c a l l va r r a n g e d alwal'shad cathedrtl rank; it was dedicated in p a l a c eh a s r e t a i n e d i t s o l d a r i s , n o r t h a n d s o u t h .
on one church building. honour of the Virgin bl Pope Leo III in 8o5, and its arrangement about an oblong courtvard.
There can be no doubt that similar groups of and by good fortune has come down to us almost The Sala Regalis, with an apse added bv Charle-
later date are in debt to the astonishing original. entire, though it underwent rcstoration in g81 magne fbr the throne, was at the north, on one
Examples are Saint-B6nigne at Diion Iro8l of and r88r. and has consequential Gothic and o l ' t h e s h o r t s i d e s ,w h i l e t h e l o n g s i d e sh a d o t h e r
roor-r? nine towers, Santiago Irz3]
with Renaissance additions- The area of the palace a p a r t m e n t s a n d g a l l e r i e s ,f u n c t i o n a l l v d i s p o s e d .
'I'here
planned with nine, Cluny Ir.19] with seven, and courtyard also survives, surrounded bv later were quarters lbr officials, clerics, and
so on to the Early Gothic cathedrals such as buildings which incorporate some vesriges of servitors, for the School, and for the assemblv.
'I'he
Tournai [339] planned with nine, Laon with old work l6e and nl. imperial aparrmenrs were dienified and
seven, and Chartres with six at least. All these
buildings as planned p;avemuch llller expres-
sion to the vertical impulse than the executed
work. All were intended to be much more like
Saint-Riquier in external effect.
Befbre quitting Saint-Riquier we should take
note o1'the two chapels in the cloister. Of the
c o n v e n t u a l b u i l d i n g s i t i s n o t p o s s i b l et o s p e a k ;
thel'', like the atrium, have been omitted from
the miniature, and have been entirelv replaced
'I'he
on a different plan. arrangement of the old
'trianptular',
cloister itself, reported as offers
dilficulties, but the chapels appear to be drawn
with knorvledge and care.e The chapel dedi-
6e and n. -{achen, thc palacc. and thc palatine Chaoel.
cated to the Ever-Virgin Mother of God and
l a r g e l v 7 q u t ( o . s .p l a n , a n d m o d c l u f r , 1 f , ; h r l , . n F i r r g u t
t h e H o l r ' - { p o s t l e sw a s o r i g i n a l l y a s p i r e - c h u r c h .
dodecagonal with an ambulator.v. It v'as a realll'
cxciting northern version o1'San \''itlle in Ra-
venna. The other chapel (of St Benedict and
the Holl' Abbots) was a barn church of the
'r'ernacular'
primitir e or t 1 ' p e ,d o u b t l e s sn o r t h -
ern, rvhich lve hare alreadl' considcred. This :.:;,f,
chapel, the lean-to roofs or,er the transept and
lateral parts of'the chapel of the Saviour in the
m a i n c h r . r r c h ,t h e c r e s t i n g o f t h e c h u r c h n a v e ,
a n d t h c t h r e e r c m a r k a b l c s p i r e s ,a l l c o n f i r m t h e ,trr
northern imprint on the architecturc of'Saint-
Riquier.
\Ve pass now to a considerationof the bcst
rcgarding Roman antl B1'zantine architectural
E-
48 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
ample; they included a bath and an audience
chanrber. f'here is no doubt that the group \r'as
intended to be reminiscent ol'the Lateran Palace
in Rome, which gave its name to a part of'the
establishment, and suggested the placing of a
bronze statue brought from ltaly. Reminis-
cences of Rar,enna also a Roman capital are
m o s t c l e a r l y 's e e n i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e C h a p e l ,
which fbrmed the south end of the ensemble.
R e b u i l d i n g a n d a d d i t i o n s h a v e d e s t r o v e dt h e
unity of the Minster gioup, which, in the begin-
ning, had a noble and easill' understood monu-
mentality. The church building was the climar
ol- a vast centralized s)'mmetrical composition
m e a s u r i n g a b o u t 3 o o f - e e to n t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d
transverse axes. The whole design wrs more
elaboratethan that of San Vitale in Ravenna.
which obviouslv inspired it. There wasa monu-
m e n t a l e n t r a n c e w a \ a t t h e r , r c s l e r ne r r r e m i t l
of the main axis, lbllowed by an atrium with
g a l l e r i e so n t w o l e v e l s r v h i c h w a s d o m i n a t c d b y
the tall westu'ork i'acade of the church. l'he
courtvard could be crowded if need be with Palatine Chapel, 792 8o5, Iigade, lateral view, and interior
7 to g. Aachen,
about Tooo people. The Emperor could make
official appcarances at the tribune in the wcst-
work o1'the church. which rvith its niche recalls
the laqade of the Palace ot the Exarchs in
Ravenna. Flanking spiral stairwa-vsin cylindri-
cal turrets Eiaveaccessto the throne room in the
tribune of the Minster, and continued upward
to a chapel rvhich containcd Clrarlemagne's
remarkable collection of relicsrr [(r,t and al.
f'he \Iinster itsclf was a compler composi-
tion arranged about a tall vaulted octagonal
'I'he
central space. westwork connected the
Nlinster at the tribune level with the court and
the palace. The throne was in the tribune,
directlv over the main portll of the church.
F rom each side of the thronc area the tribune
continued as an annular gallerl-, divided from
thc octagonal central spaceby columnar screens,
to a sanctu:lrv of its own opposite the tribune.
At the ground level a decp porch led to the
interior [gJ. Therc the visitor finds an annular
..4
_.,rii
>E;
I 50
pRE-RoMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
aisle, vaulted and rather dark, which, like the
gallery, embraces the octagonal central space.
This annular aisle led to a sanctuary'opposite
the entrance and below the upper sanctuarv,
where the great Gothic axial chapel norv stands,
and also provided accessto twin chapels ofaisled
basilican type, now destroved, lvhich were sym-
metrically' placed on a cross axis, one to the
north and one to the south ofthe main building.
Unlike the galleries, the annular aisle opens
on the central space through undivided, big,
plain arches, well proportioned with respect to
the arches and screensof'the gallery above. The
exterior wall on both levels is ingeniously ar-
ranged with sixteen sides. In the aislesthe cardi-
nal and diagonal sides join the eight arches of
the octagon in supporting groin vaults, and
clever triangular penetrations fill out the vault
'lhese
on the remaining sides. same sides have
ramping triangular vaults above the gallery,
I the Minster at Aachen is the interesting Palatine
Io. Aachen, Palatine Chapel as represcntcd on the Krrlsschrcin
carried on generous diaphragm arches. The tri- The net effect produced by the building is
anglesthus formed leave the cardinal and dia-
not Roman, yet there is an assurance and ur-
gonal ba1''sof the gallery with a square shape,
banity which make it a worthy successor to the
and here, on the diaphrxgm arches, eight ramp- works of Antiquitl'. In spite of its resemblance
ing tunnel vaults are raised. These come into
to San Vitale in Ravenna, it is more Roman than
the octagon above the screened arches and pro- Byztntine. Rich fittings, including a mosaic on
vide an unyielding support for the clerestory t h e c e n t r a l v a u l t ( r e s t o r e di n I 8 8 I ) , m a r b l e c o l -
w a l l a n d t h e h i g h v a u l t . S m a l l p i l a s t e rb u t t r e s s e s umns and bronze parapets brought fiom Italv,
stiffen the exterior corners of'the clerestorv an organ ofByzantine type (8rz or 856, now
eli-ectively. lost), a splendid pulpit (gift of Emperor Henrl'
The tall octagonal central sprce has a very II, about ror4), and a huge light crown (given
special character. We must think if it as en- by Frederick Barbarossa in r r68) contributed a
riched rvith several altars and their liturgical superficial Byzantinism, to be sure. (n fact,
furniture, but even so its tallness and the per- however, the theme of San Vitale was radically
sistent senseof compartmentation make it seem simplified. Brick and the Bvzantine technique
'I'his
verv different fi'om an ordinarv church. of light terracotta rault construction uere not
lends colour to the idea that Odo of Nletz con- available; the warped and domed Byzantine
ceir,ed it basically' as a tomb house, but the forms were replaced by tunnel and groin vaults,
similar and slightl5' earlier dodecagon at Saint- and on the highest level by an octagonal domical
Riquier was nevertheless a chapel. (or cloister) vault, all of Roman inspilation. The
fact that Roman ruins had to be demolished to
obtain the necessary stone, and that rich mate-
rials were scavenged elsewhere, shows what a
special effort the Minster was.
Linked by date(8o6)and by programme with
group at Germignr,-des-Pr6s Ir r-r j], near
S a i n t - B e n o i t - s u r - L o i r e , r 2b u i l t f b r T h e o d u l p h ,
bishop of Orl6ans, a Goth from Septimania
(Provincia Narbonensis), and member of the
Imperial court circle. 'I'here are slisht remains
o f t h e p a i n r e dh a l l sa n d t h e r m a eo f r h e p a l a c e i,rs
o r a t o r y o f ( i o d t h e C r e a t o r a n d P r e s e r v e ro f A l l
Things existed, with little change, unril the
nineteenth century.'r Heretofbre we have seen
how Carolingian architects used Roman, Earlv
Christian, Byzanrine, and Germanic lbrms. .\t
Germigny-des-Pr6s the tincture is Bvzantine
and oriental.I Moreorcr. the other eramples
are grand in scale Germignv_des_pr6s is minus_
;
cute - a charming architectural plavthing. 'I'here
ts a tower-like square central t r and I:. Gcrntignv-dcs-l)rds, C)ratorr', flo(r
s p a c e .t h e m i d d l e
rcbuilt ;867 76, plan antl
one of a set of nine vaulted
comDartments sus- r icw h'om thc eirst (the mlin apsc orig-inallr
tained on four piers in rhe
middic of rhe build- had fl:rnking absidiolcs)
L-_
<2 P R E - R O ] \ T A N E S Q U E A N DP R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y L E S THE CAROLINGIA\ ROM.1),IESQUE 5

But the type is one which we owe to the regrettably becausethe rich fittings ofthe chapel
Roman world, and its effective development - the furniture in white and coloured marble,
took place in Armenia and the Byzantine hnds. the metalwork, and the fabrics have all been
The general arrangement is anticipated in the lost.'
Roman praetorium at Phaena (Mousmieh, near Connected with Germigny-des-Prds by its
D a m a s c u s ) , r 5b e f o r e a . o . r 6 9 , a n d i t a p p e a r si n horseshoearches and their stucco decoration is
t h e c a t h e d r a lo f E t c h m i a d z i n a s r e b u i l t i n 6 2 8 . r 0 the little church of San Benedetto at llals or
By the tenth centurv it was established in the Malles, near Trent. It is dated about the year
Eastern Empire as the typical 'lbur-column 8oo. The horseshoe arches, three in number,
church', which is the most important of all the look in upon an open, box-like central space,
later Bvzantine church types. which is the nave. There are traces of fresco
The chapel at Germigny-des-Pr6s antedates decoration. Near-by Mtinster in Graubiinden
an-v knorvn Bvzantine example, but the strong (Grisons), in Switzerland, is a contemporarv
oriental flavour makes it clear that the type was add more monumental example of the same
not originated in Neustria. Yet something must arrangement, thoup;h without the horseshoe
be conceded to the Carolingian architect. He arches.
'double-ender'like Another building, in old Neustria, with finer
laid the church out as a cer-
t a i n o f ' t h e g r e a t C a r o l i n g i a n b a s i l i c a s ,t h o u g h , wall-work than those which we have considered,
u n l i k e t h e m . i t h a d r h e m a i n e n t r a n c ec u t t i n g brings up the question of the Gallic masons.
through the western apse. He verv ingeniously It is doubtful that Notre-Dame-de-la-Basse-
(Euvre at Beauvais actually dates fiom the life-
and picturesquely placed Carolingian arcaded
'flving time of Charlemagne, but after being accepted
screens' under the tower walls, where the
light plays very pretfily on them. The rather as Carolingian, it is now assigned to the period
barn-like nave is a much later addition. of 987 98.le It is a fragment of the compound

The central space was lbrmerly about tlvelve early medieval cathedral establishment of Beau-
vais. The entire tenth-century church of
l'eet higher than it is at present, and formed a
Saint-Pierre, and all the easterlv parts of
tall lantern and bellry. Exactll'how this was ar-
Notre-Dame made way tbr the celebrated (Euvre,
r.3.Gcrnrigni-des-l)r6s,Oratorr',tlo6, ranged in Theodulph's time is lar from certain, r4. Bcauvais,Notre-Dame-de-la-Basse
rcbuilt r867 76, interior Gothic building It+]. Notre-Dame-de-la- eighthcenturl( i) or 987-98
fbr the oldest drawings seem to show a Roman-
Basse-(Euvre was a handsomely proportioned
esquecentral tower; but we may perhaps sup-
basilica with a plain interior and a sreep roof
pose that this was a reconstruction resulting
which gives much characler ro the finc gable, sionally used, but such masonry was ordinarilv
i n g . O n t h e m a i n a n d t r a n s v e r s ea x e s t h e r e a r e f i o m a h r e i n t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . I n a n v c a s et h e
adorned by a great cross, on the l'aqade. The confined to quoining or alternale coursing. as
t u n n e l r , a u l t sa t a n i n t e r m e d i a t el e v e l , w i t h a p s e s tall lantern and belfry is a Germanic scheme,
just bevond, and the corner compartments \\ ere wall-work is regular and excellent, with pattern- seen in the tenth-century works for the monks
and the oriental elements were) so to speak,
work in the masonry over the windows. Other of Saint-Philibert at Grandlieu and at Tournus,
vaulted with little domes on squinches at a arrangedaround and below it.rt
tragments of such construction, datable 'Gallic
lorver level. The corner compartments at the A brutal and ignorant restoration of r867- to the where masons' were obvious[v emoloved
tenth and early eler.enth
eirst opened on lateral apses flanking the main 76, carried out over the protests of the Soci6t6 centuries. point ro a [24, g9).
w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e ds c h o o l f'he more usual Gallic wall-work of good
a p s e .T h e o r i e n t a l f l a v o u r o f t h e b u i l d i n g i s d u e fi'angaised'Arch6ologie, has left us rvith an in- i n r h e n o r t h a n d , n e s to l '
France.
t o h o r s e s h o ea r c h e si n p l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n . ' f h e s e a c c u r a t e m o d e r n c o u n t e r fe i t o f t h i s i m p o r t a n t character was composed of much smaller mate-
The 'Gallic masons' of rhe resion rials - a rough core ofrubble enclosed by neatll'
were certainly inspired by Visigothic art, and Carolingian monument. Some fragments of the had an
established reputation,
t h e p l a n a n d e l e v a t i o no f ' t h e b u i l d i n g m a r a l s o original were incorporated in the reconsttuc- which was well de- cut facing-blocks of stubbv rectangular lbrm,
served. Texts speak
have been inspired b1' old Christian work in tion. Interesting remains of its fine decoration of heavv work in larse cut set with wide mortar ioints. Pattern-work facing
stone blocks more
Spain. in stucco lvere destrol'ed or denatured, the more antiquorun which *"r-oaar- often recalls the barbarian r/oisazzy'stvle.'where

b-_
 p R E - R O N I A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y L E S
54
everything becomes decoration'. but it was de-
rived from the classicRoman 0Pern(reticulatum,
sl)icatum,mittum). Occasionally there are whole
walls of pattern-work, interspersed sometimes
with degenerate gable and panel decoration in
relief. The work of the Gallic builders may be
traced to England: Benedict Biscop called for
G a l l i c m a s o n sa b o u t 6 8 5 , t o b u i l d J a r r o w " ' I r 5 ] .
L duced at Fulda; furthermore, the length of'the
r5. Jarrow, wall-work,r. 685
'l'he
accomplishments ofearll' masons prepared
the wal' fbr immense Early Romanesque con-
structions at Poitiers. at Chartres, and elsewhere
in the Loire country.
'l'he
famous three-arched gate\!a!.at Lorsch
seems to be connected somehou (perhaps
t h r o u g h V e r d u n a n d N 1 e t z )w i t h t h e i r r v o r k , b e -
cause of the excellence ol the pattern-work
masonr\'. This f-eatureand the remarkable com-
posite capitals, and other sophisticated details,
point to it as an interesting Carolingian example
ofclassicalrevivalism anacademicdesignsuch
as might be expected to issue lrom the court of
Charlemagne Ir6]. In front of'the important
eighth-centurl' church o1'the monastery (at transformed into a chapel, sometimes rvrongll'
Lorsch) there was a large open court, and the identified rc the tcclesia xaria, achapel of'about
gateway stood free near the entrance to it, like 86o attached to the church. Nor is this trans-
a Roman triumphal arch in its forum;21 how- formation at Lorsch out of line, fbr the pro-
ever, the Lorsch gatewa-vwas built as a three- pylaeum of Old St Peter's had an altar of St
arched open hall, like a propl'laeum illogically Mary and could be usedasa church upon occa-
standing unattached.Abbot Richbod is known sion , as, for example, when the emperor \\as
to have replacedthe wooden monastery build- received at the \iatican Basilic:r.
Another curious combination of Carolingian
medievalism and classical revivalism involving
Old St Peter's occurrcd at Fulda. The first
church there was founded by St Bonil'acc (W.vn-
frith, the great English missionarl') in 742; the
monastery,one of the great lights ol'northern
Europe, was founded in 744. A small church of
75 r was rebuilt after 7go in the lbrm of a basili-
can nave with its apse flanked bv tlvo round
towers, as at Saint-Riquier. The relics of
St Boniface, who was martvred in 754, were
brought to the monastery. To gir,c them a pro-
p e r s e t t i n g , a t r a n s e p t a n d a p s ew e r e b u i l t w e s t
ofthe new nave,on the model ofOld St Peter's
in Rome, where, in fact, the transept was at the
w e s t .T h e e n d c o m p a r t m e n t s o f O l d S t P c t e r ' s ,
and even their bulls-eye windows, were repro-
western transept, z5o f-eet,is close to that ofthe
r6. Lorsch, monaster!',gatewa-v,
.. 8oo
great original. Behind the ncw apse a large
courtyard was arranged, as at the cathedral of
R o m e ( S t J o h n L a t e r a n ) . - l - h en e r a ' w o r ka t F u l d a
ings in stone,and the gateway may have lliled
was proiected in 8oz, dedicated in 8 r g, and pro-
to be speciall.vrecorded on this account, for such
vided with its uestern cloister in 8zz.
propvlaea were used in the ceremonial monastic
A comprehensive recent studv convincingly
liturgies as processional stations, iust like other
brings out the importance of Old St Perer's in
parts of'the conventual establishment. I'he di-
the Carolingian revi'r,al.2:Old St Peter's stood
rect original of the Lorsch gatewa]. was ob-
for the last glorious moments of the ancient
l i o u s l l ' t h e p r o p l ' l a e u m o f ' s i m i l a r d e s i g na t O l d
capital,in Constantine's golden age ol'Roman
St Peter's in Rome [r]. where great visiting
tmperial Christianity. The Carolingian archi-
dignitaries were received. Lorsch repeats the
tects turned aside lrom buildings of inter-
g e n e r a ls h a p e ,t h e a r c h e s ,t h e c o l u m n s , a n d t h e
mediate date which had resulted from the rise
windows of the propy'laeum of Old St Peter's.
ofByzantine power, the influx oforiental monks,
A corresponding three-arched gateway was
a n d t h e s u c c e s s i o no f G r e e k
built at Cluny also. The latter became part of and Syrian popcs.
Santa Anastasia (about
t h e a b b o t ' s o a l a c e .w h i l e t h e o n e a t L o r s c h w a s 8oo), Santo Stefano
L-.
THE CAROLINGIAN ROMANF:SQUE 5q
degli Abessini (befbre8r5), and Santa Prassede
( a b o u t 8 r 7 ) a r e r i g h t l y a d d u c e d a s e x a m p l e so f
basilicas in Rome which, by their imitation of
I'eaturesof Old St Peter's, show the tendency to
look into Rome's own past for inspiration, at a
time when Charlemagne himself was lamiliarly
called Flavius Anicius Caelusbv '\lcuin.
Thus, in the sum, we find in Charlemagne's
time an architcctural revival lvhich was archaiz-
i.rg but it was f'ar more than that. The new
idcas set forth in the major buildings have a basic
importance for the wholc historv of Roman-
esque architecture. The Basse-(Euvre at Beau-
r,aisstands fbr the fine tradition of Gallic mason
work. Lorsch, Fulda, and the Roman churches
stand fbr the will to make Rome live again in a
classicalrerival. Saint-Riquier stands lbr the
northern vigour and bravura which transform-
ed Roman architecture. Aachen with its relative
simplicitv stands asa northern interpretation ofa
Bvzantine theme, representinB the old Roman
i d e a o l s u b s t a n t i a l s t r u c t u r e w h i c h s u r v i r , e si n
the hear'1'Romanesque of medieval Germany.
Finalll', Germigny-des-Prds t1'pifiesGaul'ssus-
ceptibilitl' to Byzantine and oriental influences,
and its greater receptiveness to sophistications
than Germany'; thus it is a fbrerunner of the ac-
c o m p l i s h e d . s u b t l e R o m a n e s q u eo f F r a n c e .
C H L I R C HA R C H I T E C T U R E
I N ' f I I E N O R T H E R NP A R TO F T H E E M P I R E
U \ D E R 1 ' I I FL, A T E R C A R O L I N G I A N S
Germany
The fhmous manuscript plan ol'r. ,t.o.8zo in the
monastic librarv ol'St Gallzr lr7] was doubtless
preparcd in the ambit of Benedict of'Aniane, or
'Beseleel,
of Einhard himself , that the man filled
with the spirit of God, in wisdom and in under-
s l a n d i n ga n d i n k n o w l e d g ea n d i n a l l m a n n e r o f
workmanship', lirst commissioner of works and
director ol the imperial workshops. Einhard,
.56 P R E - R O N { A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O I \ t A N E S Q U E S T Y I , T , S

**-

' ''i'^" o
who came from the monasterv of Fulda shortly across assigned to the hostel for poor wayf'arers ]
after 7go to be a pupil of Alcuin in the Palace and the quarters for servitors, horses, and larm
School of Aachen, was intellectually a classicist. a n i m a l s ( i n c l u d i n g a p i g g e r - r ) ,w e m u s t r e m e m - !

He became the personal lriend and adviser of ber that the existence of the monks lbr whom

I
Charlemagne and Louis the Pious.2a the group was built was a retired existence, in- 4 t L

Hence the plan of St Gall presents an autho- terior to the monastery and centred on the clois-
rized conception ofa large, well-organized mon- ter ancl the altar. The ancillary'buildings fbrmed
as.terl',which might have been built in any pros- a s o r t o f r i n d a b o u t t h e e s s e n t i a kl e r n e l o f c h u r c h
perous part of the Carolingian realm. It is now and cloister. From the monks' point of view all
clear that the layout was drawn up after a coun- the ancillarv buildings were in the background
cil of 8 r 6 at Inden, near Aachen, and this some- n o t i n t h e f b r e g r o u n d . a s t h e v a p p e a rt o t h e a p -
'I'he
what imperf-ect copv sent with alternative di- proaching visitor. terrain to the east of'a
m e n s i o n sb - vA b b o t H e i t o o f R e i c h e n a u( 8 o 6 - 2 3 ) monastic group tends to be someuhat private;
to Abbot Gozbert of'St Gall (8r6-37), who had g u e s t sa r e l i k c l y t o b e p l a c e dt o t h e n o r t h , m e n i a l
not attended the council. activities to the south. and service courts to the
CALEFACTARf
f'he method of drawinp; and the fact that the west in the tradition:rl monastic lavout; this is
DC^MIiJ\YI BCr'E
plan was not closely folloq'ed after the oldest true at St Gall.
parts of the church rvere built (at the east, 83o- Only one longitudinal axis luns entireh .1
5) have given the impression that it was merely a across the St Gall plan. On it an ample walled ol F] [:-t r o l -]t-
rrFR

I
l
diagrammatic lay'out, which is f'ar from being avenue ertcnds for r6o f'cet from the westerlv --1
I .lI 1
the case. It could easily be translated into mo-
'l'he
outskirts of the monastery to the entrancc svs-
",I frt t IJ
f - - -T- i '
l

F,___ill'i,l
dern form and built with little change. la1'- tem of thc main estahlishment. The importance rA
(: l:i

out was in fact modular (4o-foot squales, z1- of'this ke1-point of crrculation is signalized b1
lbot sub-module) as Walter Horn has shown. the presence of two cylindrical towers, each r!
'l'hus Fli iT
we see that the Roman tradition of modu-
lar construction was present in Carolingian
with a chapel at the summit.'Ihe
the ctlindrical towers came ultimatelv from
suggestion for
I oil
rvork, and it was without doubt transmitted to the stair towers of the narthex <rf'Srrn Vitale -l-
L - - ti']rT
later times.
1'he group was intended to be constructed on
I'airly ler,el ground; fbr the whole scheme is in-
in Ravenna, perhaps; but pairs ol'towers had
been built at Fulda, Aachen, and Saint-Riquier
before the plan of St Gall was made.r5 Earl'r'
t:-fl IAL^loNRYl
7 l,/RN E R.f ,
CAOPER'
i:
:i
:1
tl<fi-l
I oa
lrRyrN6l
hourE
I

cluded within a rectangle,slightly diminished

at the south-lvest becauseof'a wane in the parch-
monasteries ofien showed lights in such towers.
'I'hc
arrangement fbr St Gall, as shorvn on
KIT'hEN
B^EW er
tl I I

JERf;ra?t
ment. Various small elementslike beds, which
indicate scale, show that the great rectangle was
the plan, difl'ers Irom all of the others, for thc
towers 1rere attached outside a semicircular por-
BAKEHOUST
W;:,ti1
I
F0^ !irrNRy
]
q/qEJ
IAEif
I !r1 rLJ

to measure about .16o b1 64o 3o,1-millimetre tico, *'hich looked across a little garden strip to-
'I'he

E E:i [;I
Carolingian f'eet. church nave with its lpses wards the western apse, and gave entrance on
was to be about joo feet long, and with its aisles e a c h s i c l eo l t h e a p s e t o a n a i s l e o ( ' t h e c h u r c h .
about go l-eetwide; the transept was to be about i
rzo feet across, and the cloister about roo feet
HOSTEI (?)
square. r 7 . P l a nl b r a m o n a s t c r t c, . 8 z o .

EE
2
In imagination we shall visit this group asit is Basedon a diagramin the ChapterLibrrrr_r,St Gall.
Some*hat rcsularized. small satcllite
known from rhe plan. When as tisitors we are ts
b u i l d i n g so m i t t e d .G r i d o f ' . 1 o - f(tr z r b - r ' n e t r c )
a
surprised to 6nd the western or approach side squarcsin the church, somcwhatmore [;;]
occupied by an area 45o i'eet wide and r4o f'eet looscll appliedelsewherc,basedon the church axis

E-.
 q8 p R g - n o n A N E S Q U EA N D P R o r o - R o r , t A N E s Q U Es r Y L E s
Adjoining the cornersofthe church there were
t r v o v e s t i b u l e sa c c e s s i b l ef i o m t h e p o r t i c o . T h a t
to the lefi led to a whole range of residential,
s c h o o l , a n d h o s p i t a l b u i l d i n g s . T h e v e s t i b u l et o
t h c r i g h t g a v ea c c e s st o t h e H o s p i c e , t h e C l o i s t e r ,
and (be-lond a wall) to the menial parts of the
'l'he
establishment. c h u r c h . w h i c h c o n t i n u e st h e
main axis, was bv f'ar the most important indi-
vidual element. The old plan shows it with a
s i n g l e t r a n s e p t , a n d , l i k c F u l c i a ,n e w l v c n l a r g e d
i n 8 o z r g , w i t h a n a p s e i r t e a c he n d .
For the western apse,dedicated to St Peter,
the lirst designer sacriliced the imposing axial
rista which entering risitors erpect in great
'lhe
churches. s m a l l l a t c r a l e n t r a n c e si n d i c a t e
that the lunction of the building is diferent.
'Opus
The monks' Dci' is perlbrmed quite with-
out regard to public attendance, which can
nevcr be more than incidental. T'he spccial
c h a r a c t e ro f t h e m o n a s t i c r e g i m e a l s o s h o u s i n
the interior arrangement. Although thc church
l w a s b a s i l i c a n ,w i t h n a v e a n d a i s l e sl i k e t h e r a s t
ancient churches designed fbr public assembh',
the pavement area, instead of being openr was
c u t u p b r p a r a p c t s c r e e n si n t o a s e r i e so l ' c o m -
partments, each with an altar, and accessiblebv
r1
11 paths, somewhat liko corridors. These wals
w e r e a l s ou s e d a s p r o c e s s i o np a t h s .
Thus we find the nar e divided, lrom west to
east, into the western choir, the Chapel of St
John Baptist (with a fbnt), the chapel o1'the cru-
cifix (with a larse crucifir, t_v-picall-v''
placed at
the rltar), and the space in liont of the eastern
( s i n g e r s ' )c h o i r . E a c h o l ' t h e a i s l e sh a d f b u r c h a -
p e l s , m a k i n g t r v e l v ec o m p a r t m e n t s i n a l l w i t h i n
t h e n a r e a r e a . { n d t h e c o m f a r t m e n t a t i o nc o n -
tinued in the transcpt, rvhich had a chapel and
an Apostles' altar in each arm, and the monks'
choir between.
T h e s a n c t u a r va t S t G a l l h a d a s p c c i : r lh i s t o r i -
cal interest. Here were sung at lcstival-time thc
o l d e s t o l - e x t a n t t r o p e s , c o m p o s e d b 1 -t h e m o n k
Notker the starting-point fbr the historl. of
mcdieval drama and lvric. The sanctuary bav
THE CAROI-IN(;IAN ROMANESQUE qq
was square, and contained the high altar, dedi- 'vernacular'
tle work and thatch. On looking at the plan ofst architccture of the North in the
cated to St Gall, set over a crrpt. l'he altar in
Gall one is strucli with the number of subsidi- Middle Ages a fact of great intercst and sis_
the adioining eastern apse (pendant to that of St
ary buildings which have a central hall with nar- nificance.
Peter) was dedicated to St Paul. At the left of
row apartments at the side, and which must, One would expect that this vert. important
the sanctuarl' was the scribes'room, lvith thc
therefore, have looked somewhat like basilican e s t a b l i s h m e n ta t S t G a l l w o u l d b e s u r r o u n d e d
librarl.above not a large room, fbr the medi-
churches. Such buildings might be constructed bv a stockade, if not an actual girdle wall, em-
e v a l l i b r a r i e s r v e r en u m b e r e d i n s c o r e so r a t n o s t
with either framed or masonry rvalls. In some p h a s i z i n gt h e f a c t t h a t i t w a s a w o r l d i n i t s e l f . S t
a f'ew hundred codices. in rrddition to the neces-
casesthe outer chambers were carried entirelv Gall was, however, insufficiently protected
sarv service books. At the right ofthe sanctuarv
around the central space, as in the Almonrv and when the Hungarians attacked it earlv in the
was the sircristv, lvith the restrl- above, and an
the School, while in other cases the Almonrl. tenth centur]. Of course, e\-en rhough it was
annexe where sacramental hosts and chrism
kitchen is an example - the smaller rooms occur self-centred, a great monastcr-v did look out-
were prepared. The passageslbr cilculation in
along one side onlr'. It is worth noting that such w a r d . I t h a d i t s v a r i o u s p o s s e s s i o n sl l . o m u , h i c h
the nave u'erc prolonged across the transcpt, one-sided buildings are lrequently represented it received supplies, its various ecclesiastical
gir,ing accessto the dir,isions there, and to thc
in Carolingian miniatures; they abound, lbr in- dependencies, its associarionswith other nron-
c r v p t , w h i c h d o u b t l e s s h a t l a n a l t a r a l s o ,r a i s i n g stance,in the Utrecht Psalter (about 83.u). Thel' a s t e r i e sa, n d i t s c o n n e x i o n sw i t h R o m e .
the number of altars within the church to have been considered fanciful; the truth seems
Once a monastery was well established, the
sevcnteen. to be that thev were a familiar part of thc archi-
'l'he m o n L s d e v o le d t h e m s e l l e st o m a n a e i n g i t s o p e r -
monks' entrance fi'om the cloister u as b1' tectural scene in Carolingian times. The sub- ations, rather than to labouring with their own
wa1'of the south transept; once arrived at the sidiary buildings as represented on the plan give hands. The number of serr.itors.and artisans
crossing, he tbund the main sanctuarl to his us a lively idea of the lost traditional wooden w o u l d b e a t l e a s te q u a l t o t h e n u m b c r o f e c c l e s i -
right and the minor altars stretching off to the
-I'he 'doublc-
leli towards the western apse.
e n c l e r ' a r r a n g e m e n t i n c r e a s e d t h e s e n s eo f e n - t 8 . I n g e l h e i mp, a l a c er,. 8 r o
c l o s u r e ,a n d t h u s w a s d e s i r a b l ea n d n a t u r a l i n a
m o n a s t i c c h u r c h . B e c a u s eo f i t s p r e s t i g ci n n l o n -
astic architecture, the arrangement came to bc
u s e d i n c a t h e d r a l st o o , w h e r e i t w : r s m u c h l e s s
appropriatc.
The great axis of St Gall continued from the
church to a small curved courtlard, and so intcr
the monastic quarters. These cannot be des-
cribecl here: thc reader mrrst be reI'erred to tl-re
diagram Ir7], or fbllow the itinerarl-, with a de-
tailcd commentarv on the monasterl"s life, in
Note 26.
What is known of the tvpe of lbbric in all of
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s? T h e c h u r c h c e r t a i n l y ' ,a n d a s
much of the remainder ls possible,hacl well-
'l'he
built walls of stone. rooling was o1'timber.
the wide spansbeing trussed and coveretlwith
tin or shingles. NIan1. of the lesser buildings
were o1'timber or half-timber and roofed with 00 00 00 o000ga00g
shingles, while modest structures like stablcs, 000
p e n s , a n d h e r d s m e n ' s s h e l t e r sm i g h t b e o f w a t -
L-
6o p n n - n o t r A N E S Q U EA N D P R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U Es r Y L E s
astical persons, and might be more. The re-
formed orders, whose members performed
more manual work, usually had less to offer the
reviving medieval world than the illustrious
institutes which stror,e to be intellectual and
artistic capitals for their respective regions,
granted that to serve as agricultural and indust-
rial capital of a region was indeed a great work
fbr a monasterv to perform.
Another ensemble of considerable impor-
tance which claims attention here is the palace
g r o u p a t I n g e l h e i m , n e a r M a i n z I r 8 ] . ' Z iW o r k s
were begun under Charlemagne and finished
under Louis the Pious. Excavationsshow that
t h e p a l a c e w a s l a i d o u t i n t h e c l a s s i c a lm a n n e r
and built of masonr\'. Rangesof various rooms
occupied three sides of a vast court, of which
the fourth side was bounded by a special axial
composition. There the great hall, set broad-
wise at the fbot of an atrium, communicated by
gallerieswith the palace church, which lay at
t h e e a s t .O n e i s s t r u c k b v t h e n u m b e l o f c h a m -
b e r s a u g m e n t e d w i t h a p s e s ,a s i f ' t h e y w e r e c h a -
pels; in fbct, however, these recesseswere com-
Chapelol St Jrnuariusabove
6. Kitchen
7. Cloistergarth
ll. Chapelof St Pirminius
r g. N{ittelzell trlinster, Reichenau,
s k e t c h r e s t o r a t i o na s i n r . r o 5 o ( G r u b c r )
monly used to give monumental character to
important rooms of several kinds. They were so
used in the Sacred Palace in Constantinople as
rvell as in the Lateran Palace at Rome during
this period. The second court at Ingelheim was
semicircular; the festival hall, which lay be-
tween the two courts, was a trefoil. Church
forms predominated in this palace.
We are fortunate in having a description o1'
the paintings at Ingelheim in an account br
Ermoldus Nigellus. In the church were scenes
of the Old Testament and, opposite, corres-
ponding scenes from the New. Such monu-
mental and lucidlv arranged cycles underlie the
didactic schemes developed later b1' Suger at
Saint-Denis,and others.
The great hall had paintings from secular his-
torv, deeds of ancient kings and heroes, Ninus,
Cyrus, Phalaris, Remus, Hannibal, and Alex-
ander the Great, and, opposite, scenes of a
more contemporarv history the ibundation ,7{
of Constantinople, and events of the reigns
of Theodoric, Charles Martel, Pepin, and 0
Charlemaene.r"
^ft(
a
T
$',
."i r
i:ir$:,x
zo Mittelzell
Minster, Reichenau,ilrg, ro,1l3;belfiv later
E--
6z P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S T Y t , E S
Belbre the break-up of the empire of Louis
the Pious an ephemeral prosperity made pos-
sible the construction of many churches. Basili-
can churches are regularll'triapsidal with tran-
sept, otien with passagesand cr1''pt, regularll'
aisled, and pror,ided with towers and a narthex
or at least a narthex only at the west. Among
these are St Justin at Hiichst, near Frankfurt-
on-N{ain (after 8oo, or c. 825), and Einhard's
own church at Steinbach (8zr).:'r Einhard's
church largely survives, and its original form is
easily traceable. It had a p1''lon-like entry with
a lateral compartment to each side. The nave
terminlted in a sanctuar]-separated by a screen
and provided with an apse; lateral chapels with
apses fbrmed a sort of dwarf transept which
c o m m u n i c a t e d o n l y w i t h t h e c h a n c e l .E a c h a i s l e
gave rccess to a crucilbrm crvpt under the cor-
responding transept, and a more elaborate cru-
ciform crypt lay on the axis between.
zr. Oberzell,Rcichcnlu, St George,836 and later
Ref'erence should be made to the area, im-
portant in early Carolingian history, which lies
to the north of ltaly. Venerable for age among
its bishoprics are Chur (fbunded about 45o),
Constance (578), Augsburg (about 6oo), St Gall
(6r4), Strassburg (r.675), and Regensburg
(739). The great early shrine ofthe region is St
Emmeram at Regensburg, where there was al-
readf in the eighth century (Z+o-8o) an impor-
tant basilican church of pilgrimage. Burned in
r o2o, restored under Henry II, it has interesting
sculpture of c. ro65 in a lateral porch, but has
lost character through further rebuilding.
Sentimentally and historically great is Reiche-
'Insula
nau, the enchanting monastic Felix' of
Lake Constance.:roIt was a frequent stopping-
place on imperial iournevs, and a powerful
centre fbr missionarl' effort. Like a gentler,
more accessible Athos, it has had a profound
reliEious influence. Its church architecture is
L-
c o n s e r l ' a t i Y e a, l m o s t c l a s s i c a l .T h e r e a r e t h r e e
-
sites St Peter at Niederzell dating from 7g9;
at Mittelzell, founded in 724, en-
the Minsfer
l a r g e d a n d d e d i c a t e d i n l l r g ( w h i c h r v a sl i r t h e r
enlarged in the tenth centur]'i and provided
with a western apse and tower, dedicated in
ro48) [rg, zol, and st George, oberzell, 836
(containing later construction also, including a
crypt of 985) [zr]. The churches are basilican,
set in serene and opulent countrl'side, with the
aura of the monastic centuries still hanging
about the scene. The School of Reichenau is
famous fbr its paintings, both miniature and
architectural. St George, Oberzell, has a parti-
cularly impressive ensemble of old paintings.
The churches have survived with forgivable
changes down to the present, and there are in-
deed f-ew places where one ma\. enjoy so satis-
factory an impression of a Carolingian painted
church.
z:. Con'e),ontlre \fcser. u,cstu'ork,873 E5, looLingu.cst
TlrE cARoLINGtAN RoMANlsqur. (r3
Corle,t,ontheWeserIzz,z3lalsohelpsgreat-
ly to visualize the developments of its period.
corr,ev is
'the
New corbie', founded in gzz bv
a colonv of monks from Corbie in picar.lr, nor
fbr from Saint-Riquier. -{rchitectural influence
came from Saint-Riquier by way of Corbie to
corvev, where a westwork was built between
87j and t18,5.Though this design, being Ger-
m a n , i s h e a . r , i e ra n d l e s s s o p h i s t i c a t e d , a n d
though, about r146, the middle of' its fagade
was carried higher between the old pair ofstair
towers, this rvestwork is the best existing repre-
s e n t a r i v eo 1 ' t h e S a i n t - R i q u i e r f r o n t i s p i e c e . A t
Corvev the galleried spire church was not car_
ried up to a rounded pinnacle, but rather to a
square tower of the tvpe which the Germans
strikingly, cill a Halmhaus..l
From the point of view of future develop_
ments, this westwork at Corvev was less im-
portant than the original east end. -I.he two

64
i'
it 'sil:il
t I
til
I D'OD
o$d:n
2-iA rnd B. Corrcl on thc \\'cscr, sketch restorirtion shoring
sanctuarv aisleseach had a chapel at the end,
a n d t h e s e c h a p e l sc o m m u n i c a t e d b v a n a n n u l a r
corridor, curving betwcen thern outside the
Lll great apse, with a cruciform chapel beyond the
apse and on the main axis. Here indubitably
w e h a v e t h e g e r m o f t h e s c h e m eo f a p s e , a m b u -
I l a t o r r ' , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l sw h i c h i s o n e o f ' t h e
l
finest contributions of the Middle Ages to reli-
gious architecture. The German churches lbr
generations kept to simpler schemes fbr these
c h a p e l s .T h e i d e a w a s d e v e l o p e d a n d s y s t e m a -
tized chiefly in the area which we norv call
France.
Frantt
The great architectural achievement of France
in the period of Louis the Pious and Charles
the Bald is the basic solution of thc dillicult
p r o b l e n r o f t h c a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g
chapels. In large measure the solution was
worked out in the basilican school of western
France, to which we have already referred.
'l'his
problem assumed importance with the
greatly increased interest in pilgJrimagesand the
T H E C A R O L I N G I A NR O M A N E S Q L I Eb 5
At Corvey, and at Saint-Riquier in the
later of a press of pilgrims was difficult. Nevertheless
L---,
*-1.,EJq crypr, t h e reliquarr chapels lay belond the
There is good antique precedent
this arrangement marked an advance, and there
are two influential examples of it still in exis-
church apse.
and where it occurs' no tence, which were built in France during the
f91 this arrangement,
.-*) ETI' very difficult
p r e c
problems
e d e n t t
arise. But the most con-
h at ofOld St Peter's in
period which we have under consideration.
The venerable monastery on the Isle of Noir-
t^<ri spicuous
t R o m e( a b o u t 6 o e )
p l a c e dt h e m a i n a l t a r d i r e c t - moutier, off the west coast of France near
ly above the Apostle's first tomb. In some cases Nantes,built a priory church in 8r4 rg at D6as,
the church sanctuarv was elevlted because the near the Lake of Grandlieuir [24-6]. This
sacred spot was at or near the level of the nave church had a nave with aisles, a crossing with
s0 Davement; this was the case at Old St Peter's. stubby transepts, and the usual three apses.
-I'he
fi but in other casesthe tombs were below ground, island was so situated as to receive the full
f and crypts rvith special srstems of access had brunt of' the Norse raids which began at this
I il:ilTT- to be built.
From the time of thc construction in Rome
period and continued through a dreadful cen-
tury. The monks had to abandon Noirmoutier,
of St Paul's outside the Walls, sanctuaries and but the1. took the relics of'their sainted patron
chapels were customarilv oriented. If correctly P h i l i b e r t w i t h t h e m t o D 6 a s ,w h i c h t h u s b e c a m e
lvestlvork ot E7.1 8-5, uith plan ofcheret
oriented chapels were attached to the access Saint-Philibert-de-Grandlieu.A pilgrimagede-
corridors about the tomb chapel, an awkward veloped, and in 836 g the monks adapted the
cult of relics. Until the eler.enth century the angular corridor resulted, and the circulation priorv church ver.v cleverly fbr this cult. The
b o d i e so f s a i n t s l a i d a w a t i n t o m b s o r s a r c o p h a g i
werc, if' possible, lefi undisturbed. Beginning 24. Saint-Philibert-cle-Grirndlieu,8r4 r. ii47, navc lookins east k' srnctuar,\;nnc picrs.. tooo, roof modern
probably' with a reconstruction (r. 6oo) of thc
s a n c t u a r yo f O l d S t P e t e r ' s i n R o m e , t h e a p s e s
of'churches with such relics were often arrangcd
rvith narrolv access corridors under the par,c-
ment.rr Such corridors followed the interior
curve of the apse, and connected axially with
the tomb chamber, or crypt, under the high
'I'he
altar. ever-increasing numbers of pilgrims
d e s i r o u so f v i s i t i n g t h e s e t o m b s p u t i n t o l e r a b l c
pressure on the narrorv corridors and exiguous
crypts. At the same time, there was an increasc
in the number of ordained priests among thc
monastic and canonical clergy, which in turn
augmented the need fbr altars and chapels. Ad-
ditional altars could be used for the exhibitiorr
o f r e l i q u a r i e s ( t h u s i n c r e a s i n gt h e i n t e r e s t o f t h c
p i l g r i m a g e ) i l ' s u i t a b l e a c c e s sc o u l d b e a r r a n g e d .
Partitioning oft'the nave,as at St Gall, was im-
possible in a church where great crowds ol
pilgrims gathered fbr festival liturgies. The solu-
tion lay in a corridor round the apse, with
c h a p e l sr a d i a t i n g o u t w a r d t r o m i t .
L-_
bo P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S THE cARoLINGIAN Ro]vTANESQL)E 6?

(or a little later) it was included within a little

25. Saint-Philibert-de-Grandlicu, ambulatorv and chambers under sanctuary, looking west, r. 847
original apse was demolished, and a square sanc-
tuary bay was built with a new apse beyond it.
Narrow exterior corridors led to a chamber
u n d e r t h i s a p s e , w h e r e t h e s a r c o p h a g u so l ' S t
Philibert was installed b1'839 and still remains.
T h e s a r c o p h a g u sc h a m b e r a n d t h e n a r r o w l a t e -
ral passageswere at ground level; consequently
The new chapels were placed 'step-wise' or
'ladder-wise'
in plan (t:n ichelon in French)
f z6a cl, whence the nrme of utrseiche lon for this
lc:rture. which runs through a whole series()l
i m p o r t a n t c h u r c h e s d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r - vo 1
Romancsque ancl Gothic architecture. The apsc
!chelon of Saint-Philibcrt-de-Grandlieu
vaulted crypt church possessing a corridor
around the tomb chamber. In 85o g an apse
!chelon with an angular processional path was
ingeniously built around the little crypt church,
and extended to join a rotunda at the head ofthe
main axis Iz6o]. This arrangement of apse 6che-
lon and rotunda also had an important future
in Romanesque and Gothic architecture. It
was becomingly inaugurated, for the Emperor
C h a r l e st h e B a l d h i m s e l l ' c a u s e dt h e r e l i c s o f S t 2 6 . I ) e v e l o p m e n t o f ' t h e c h e r e t : t c ( a h o t a) .
Germain to be installed in the crvpt (859). It r . 8 r , 1 . 1 7 ,S a i n t - l ) h i l i b c r t - d c - G r a n d l i e u ( G r e c n ) ;
o (ltclop). r.8-5o 9, Slint-Germain, Auxcrre.
was then decorated with fine paintings, which
crlpt (skctch rcstoration b1 K.J.C.)
are among the oldest murals now existing in
France.3a
In 872 the relics of St Martin were brought
to this crypt from Tours, because of further
Norse forays. The clergy of St Martin's then o o
had first-hand experience of this remarkable
+
c r y p t ; w e s h a l l p r e s e n t l v s e et h e r e s u h .
At Chartres Cathedral, because of the re- It
\i'as nowned pilgrima!ie, the church was rebuilt af ter lr

the floor of the church apse was raised above built befbre 847, but served the monks onll a fire of858 with a curved corridor
arouncl the at
the level ofthe nave pavement. until 858, when, the region being overwhelmeci a p s ei n t h e c r y p t
l96l a great impro\emenr.
In order to provide additional altars and a turthermore, the rounded
b . vt h e N o r s e , t h e c o m m u n i t y m o v e d t o C u n a u l t apse wall was pier-
better approach to the tomb under the apse, the ced, giving a good view
in Anjou. of the apse liom the
'I'he a m b u l a t o r ya n d r i c e
narrow corridors were soon replaced by a series o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a p s e6 c h c l o no f t h e n i n t h \ e r s a . , , p i e r c e d a p s e sg o
b a c kt o R o m a n
o f c h a p e l s . T h e s e w e r e s o a r r a n g e dt h a t a r a t h e r ccnlur.\is in the crvpt of thc abbel church ol r i m c s , b u t t h e p r e r c e da p s e w i t h
an ambulatory
awkward processionrl path (somewhat like that Saint-Germain at Aurcrre. Here were venc- was novel. It produced interest-
rng.aesthetic lr ) i I
of Corvey) was provided at the ground level. ratcd the relics of that great fifih-centurl effects by uniting the apse lnd the
ambulatorysparialt].
running entirely around the apse. The path gave churchman. who prepared St Patrick lbr hi. Felicitous useof rhis idea
wts made in L-.I
access to the sarcophagus chamber from the Irish mission ol 432-6r. St Germain's tomb t h e R o m a n e s q u es r y l e a t
a b b e y( r o 3 7 Jumidges tr
east, so that pilgrims could visit it without dis- was below the church pa\ement lerel, anJ 6 8 ) l J 5 7l , . n j i n t h . C o r h i c s t r l c t l

ar 1\otre-Dame rl
t u r b i n g s e r v i c e si n t h e m a i n p a r t o f t h e c h u r c h . u n d e r t h e m a i n a p s e . I n a r e c o n s t r u c t i o no f 8 - 1 t i n p a r i s ( r r6 3 ) .

L--
68 p n E ' - n o v A N E s Q U E A N DP R o r o - R o M A N E S Q U Es r Y L E s
However, the Carolingian architects went
farther than this, cleverly uniting the lessons of
Saint-Germain at Auxerre (859) with those of
Chartres Cathedral (after 858), in a new church
of St Nlartin at Tours, built in go3 r8 after a
d i s a s t r o u sh r e l z 6 , 9 5 , 9 5 A 1 .
Here the aisles and the larger part ofthe nave
were open to the pilgrims who thronged the
church. The remainder of the nave contained
the canons' choir, which continued eastward to
ioin the sanctuarv and apse, with St Martin's
tornb at the head, close to the middle of the apse
wall. The aisles were continued at approxi-
mately the same level into an ambulatory which
c u r v e d r o u n d t h e o u t e r s i d e o f t h e a p s ea n d a l -
'St Martin's Rest',
lowed the faithful to reach
viewing it liom the back through openings in
the apse wall. Quite as important, the minor
chapels which we have seen obstructing the
naves or making awkward corners in the apse
6chelons of older churches were here built as
round absidioles, like those of the cr.vpt of Saint-
Germain, Auxerre, but radiating from the outer
wall of the ambulator-v as a whole. This design
rvasa perf-ecttunctional solution, and a genuine
integration of the difficult elements of a pil-
grimage sanctuarY in a monastic church.3n
'l'he
creation of such a remarkable feature as
t h e a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l si s a
z(rl. Skellig \Iiehael. monastic clustcr, ,. ft2-l I
Thc usual girdlc lvall is replaced in large part
b1'the cliffancl the precipicc
cliff
s
)\\,
1 1 1:'
sign of maturity in the experimental French
Carolingian Romanesque. This
marks a stage in our exposition; it is a landmark
on the road to the mature Romanesque sty'le.
I t i s l o g i c a l , t h e r e f o r e ,t o i n t e r r u p t o u r s t u d r
of French architecture at this point in order to
consider developments of Carolingian date and
marked national character in Ireland, England,
Scandinavia, Spain, and Italy. Localism and
practical experiments resulted in successful
buildings which, being admired, really al1'ected
the mature Romanesque and Gothic stylcs
which later came to these areas from abroad.
Yet the study ofthese early regional works is
not really a digression. Mature Romanesquc
architecture resr-rltedwhen one ofthese success-
'I'he
lul local stvles coalesced with two others.
'First
Romanesque' style of north Italv carried
forward the tradition of Roman vaulting. Its
contact with Carolingian architecture in thc
Rhine Valley produced the splendid Rhenish
R o m a n e s q u e .I t s s y n t h e s i si n t h e R h 6 n e V a l l c l
with the Carolingian Romanesque basilican
st1'le of the west of France (the style of the
Basse-(Euvre at Beauvais, Saint-Riquier, St
Martin of Tours, and sirnilar works) resulted in
t h e m a t u r e p h a s eo f F r e n c h R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i -
tecture - the dJ'namic group of stvles rvhich
underlies Gothic architecture.
o 15M
o 50 Fl
Preclplce
C H A P T E R3
achievement
p R E - R O I , I A N E S q U EA R C H I f ' E C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H ,
O U T S I D ET H E E M P I R E
Northern design as developed in contact with L6rins and the Egyptian desert, Ireland quite
Roman traditions within the Empire showed naturally had an unassuming church architec-
great vigour and originality. Outside the area of' ture. Many of the early structures were un-
strong contact with Roman architecture the re- doubtedly of wattle work or palisading, with
sourcesavailable for building were smaller, the steep root-sas required bv thatch, and no such
problems simpler, and the results less specta- sophistication as rounded apses. It is known
cular. Yet these more remote buildinp;s often that the royal hall atTart was basilican.
have interest in their own right becauseofinde- Buildings of any pretensionat all were built
pendent local conceptions, and the skilful use of with timber framing, m7re Scottorum as the
local materials and methods Celtic in lreland, Venerable Bede say's (73r) of a Lindislarne
Germanic in England and Scrndinavia. Com- c h u r c h o f r . 6 5 5 . I t i s p o s s i b l et h a r s u c h s t r u c -
positional types here in the North, as well as tures affected Scandinavian building; for the
in pre-Romanesque Spain and Portugal, tend to raiders (795 ff.) became settlers afrer 834 with-
be additive, or compartmental. Where pre- out losing contact with the mother country.
Romanesque buildings have been preserved 'Cogitosus',
about 8oo, tells of St Brigid's
they are now seen to hare a precious sarour, church at Kildare, which'occupied a wide area,
though in the glorious days of the full Roman- and was raised to a towering height'. Common-
esque development rhey must have seemed place buildings, many churches among them,
s m a l l , c r u d e , ' h o m e - m a d e , a n d o l d - f ' a s h i o n e d . had the shape of simple cottages with
steep
For this reason they have been replaced at all
r o o l ' s . I n t h e m o n a s t e r i e sa n d a t s e c u l a r s i t e s
of the important sites, and we are left with these were often multiplied into 'church clus-
casual representatives no one of which excited ters' instead of being replaced by larger struc-
special wonderment in the
ase in which it was tures; the con!iregations would gather within
built. These examples shoiv,
hower.er. hou and around such church buildings. At monas-
tne tnvading Romanesque
i n h e r i t e d s o m e t h i n g teries the various conventual structures would
from the earlier styles,
and thus developed local b e a r r a n g e dr a t h e r c a s u a l l y ,w i t h i n a g i r d l e w a l l .
varieties.
ir< A number of buildings in permanent material
h a v es u r v i v e d f r o m C a r o l i n g i a n t i m e s , b u t s i n c e
IRELAND their analysis more properly belongs in the
volume of the Pelican Histor.y oJ' Art which is
Ireland was
the first of' the pre-Romanesque d e v o t e d t o t h e a r t o f t h e B r i t i s h I s l e s , ro n l y b r i e f
areasto become
creative. Its intellectual impor_ mention is made of them here.
tance and 'I'hc
ecclesiasticalinfluence, international
island of Skellig Nlichael [26.r] providcs
..o-p. from abour
ll 5so, are r.r.ellknor+.n. Re_ : r s p e c t a c u l a rs i t e f b r a g r o u p o f s m a l l s t o n e - b u i l t
ttoT Imperialcentres
lt'^o_t_. and led b1 an ascetic m o n a s t i cb u i l d i n g s , ' c l o c h a i n s ' ,o l ' d r y - w a l l c o n -
stergy whose
spirirual roors reached back to struction with flat corbelled beehive domes.
L-
 -

P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H , O U T S I D E T H E E M P I R L
70 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES ?]

28. Glendalough,St Kevin's Kitchen

22. GallarusOrator]', ncar Dingle,
and round towct, r. rooo
seventhcenturYor later

'St by stands the relatively large ruined cathedral gan in 795. The tall tower identified the church
more oriental in character (as we should expect its scriptorium, has Columba's House', a
-fhe of St N{ary, formerly roofed in wood. It is stylis- site liom a distance; it marked the cemetery,
in monastic work) than is usual in Ireland. shrine-house dating fiom 8o4, or perhaps afier
gr8.r The church is rectangular in plan, and tically classified as Primitixe becauseofits great a n d s e r r , e da s a b e l l r y a n d l a n t e r n o f t h e d e a d .
simple church and the austere cells are irregu-
simplicity. Associated with it there is a charac- Yet it was constructed as a practical refuge; the
larly placed on a shelf I 8o feet long and roo f'eet elegantly tall in proportion. In section the roof
teristic round tower, classified,as Transitional door was set well above the ground and reached
wide, ofold reached by 67o steps along the lace is rather like an A. The outer part is of corbelled
(to Romanesque) in stvle, ro3 feet in height, by a ladder, and, moreover, a port made it pos-
of the rock, which forms a precipice 7oo f'eet construction in stone, with a small pointed
r6 feet in diameter at the base. sible to overturn the ladder ofan attacker. Spiral
high. The group has had its present character chamber at the apex. The space below this (rep-
The round torver tall, delicately tapering, stairs and floors of wood occupied the interior,
since 823, or rather, perhaps,since 86o when it resented bv the area under the cross-bar of the
smartly capped by a conical stone roof is the a n d l o o p h o l e sm a d e i t p o s s i b l et o t h r o w m i s s i l e s
was re-established after Vikine raids.'I'he A) is the tunnel vault over the main walls of the
'St most poetic of the Celtic architectural creations. from every side. Of one hundred and eighteen
monks lefi it for the mainland at some chulch. Kevin's Kitchen' at Glendalough,
No towers are more graceful than these upward- such towers which are reported, thirteen still
aftcr ro6-1[u6.r]. realll'an oratory, is a similar building, of ninth-
pointing stone fingers of lreland. There is
'I'he no exist in fairly perfect condition - the tallest,
GallarusOratory near Dingle lzTl ts an century style [28]. It became a nave-and-chan- better example of the bravura of basically rzo feet high, on Scattery Island.
eleganttranslationinto corbelledstone of'the cel church through the addition of a shed-like Northern design. It is likely that the beginnings Note should be taken also of the Irish high
cruck house('all roof, no wall'). It has been sanctuary, now destroyed. A sacristy at the east
8o back to Carolingian date. Watch-towers ancl c r o s s e so, f w h i c h n e a r l y t h r e e h u n d r e d m e d i e v a l
variouslydatedfrom the seventhcenturyto the and a small finger-shaped tower on the ridge refuges were needed when
the Norse raids be- examples have been traced, and of very remark-
eleventh.Kells, a well-known site, famousfor w e r e o t h e r e a r l y a d d i t i o n s ( a b o u t I o o o ) . N e a r

L.
 STYLF'S
72 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO'ROMANT]SQUE
able cult oblectsin metal' It was through such
worksthat the simplelittle churcheswerewarm-
ed and embellished:in Prior and Gardner's
'the crafi ofdecorationin Byzantineand
phrase,
Carolingianbuildings was the setting of pre-
cious objects against a backgroundof struc-
ture'.r The old Irish churches are indeed
widowed now without their furnishings.
Norman influencesplay upon this architec-
ture in the twelfth century (asat CormacMac-
Carthy'sChapelon the Rock ofCashel, c. rr21-
34 L2gl,which is in the tradition of St Kevin's
at Glendalough)but the Cistercianinfluence,
beginningat MellifontAbbeyin I I.+2,wasmore
effective.Although suchchurch buildingswere
more imposing, they were severe,and earlier
Irish austerityof designlives on in them.
11
zq. Cashelofthe Kings. Buildings now roofless
except round towcr and
CormacMcCarthl''s Chapel,of t. ttz4-11
NINTH- AND TENTH-CENTURY
A R C H I T E C T U RIEN S A X O NE N G L A N D
Here again, because ofextended analysis in the
volume deloted to medieval architecture in
Britain,a only limited mention is given to the
architectural works in question. It was a much-
divided country'rvhich struggled towards unity
through the labours of Egbert of Wessex (829
39, the first to bear the title of King of England),
Alfred the Great (87 r 9oo), Athelstan (924-4o),
Edgar (9-59-75),and the great Danish sovereign
Cnut (ror6 45), who wrought well as an
English king.
In the church architecture ofthe period there
are many reminiscences of older forms. The
nave-and-chancel plan was widely used both in
wood and in stone. The compartmented plan,
clearly that of Wil(rid's cathedral at York (767
8o), which had thirty altars, survived in smaller
buildings. Such a plan existed, Ibr example, at
the fabulous pilgrimage shrine of Glastonburv'
Excavations show that the letusta Ecclesia,5
L-_
PRE-ROMANESQU
ARE C H I T E C T U RrEN T H E N O R T H . O U T S T D T
originally of late antique date, was augmented
by a series of small elements built of stone, with
wooden roofing: a nave and plrticus about 7oo,
and a narthex, chancel, and lateral porticus be-
fore goo. Further, about g5o St Dunstan added
twolaterrl porticus and a tower at the east ofthe
church, as well as a free-standing tower-chapel
xt the west. This brought the length of the
group to about 25o feet. The plan was thus
cloisonni, and it exemplified the old scheme of
two axial towers, which became popular in Eng-
lish pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, and Gothic
architecture.
Continental relations were strong in the time
of King Edgar (959 75), under whom, with St
Dunstan, the refbrm of'the Benedictines made
salutary progress in England. St Dunstan, who
had been abbot o1' Glastonbury, became Pri-
mate (96o), and his companion monk, Ethel-
wold, Bishop of Winchester (963). Both men
were artists and loved the arts, and both were
well placed to further the cause ofthe fine arts
by precept and example. Winchester Cathedral
jo. Pembridge,bclfi r' torrcr, lburtccnth ccnturr
(traditionallbrm)
EH E E M P T R E 7 3
[ 3 3 4 ] w a s r e b u i l t b y E t h e l w o l d , a b o u t g i 3 o ,w i t h
a lireat five-stage wooden tower. The organ at
Winchester has its place in the history of music
and the Winchester school of illumination is
iustiy renowned in the historl of manuscripts.
We knorv from terts that there was in this
period a considerable amount ofcathedral build-
ing, including Canterbury, which was rebuilt
'double-ender'
as a with two lateral plrticus.
These monuments, on a llirly grand scale, have
all been destroved. Hence we must fbrm our
ideas on the basis of secondarl' monuments, of
which about two hundred survive in whole or
part. From the viewpoint of this volume the
following ought to be mentioned: Elmham
Cathedral," Deerhurst,t Wing,n Worth," Brea-
more,1'' Barton-on-Humber,rl Earls Bartcln
(originallv an excellent example of the Saxon
'tower-nave'
church),1r and Bradford-on-
Avon.r3 Parenthetically,Pembridge should be
mentioned for its fourteenth-century belfry-
tower, rvhich closelv approximates r Carolin-
gian rtrrritus aqes [3o).
,.#',]
" "'"
Wfrffi"
yw&

PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYL ES
.lr. Worth, church, tenth cenfur\(?), looking east
qz. I3rcamore, chrrrch, tenth
v-
Elmham- a ruin, has a slcnder T-plan, plus an
a p s ea n d t h e t t , v o c o m p a r t m e n t s w h i c h f l a n k t h e
to\\'er
nave just 'ries t of the transept. Dcerhurst is
interesting fb I its staunch western tower, its
lateral compartments (three on each side, with
the usual rnarrow doors of access), its charac-
teristic narrorv chancel arch, and its exceptional 33. Earls Barton, church, tower, tcnth centurv( ?)
(destrol'ed) s.=vcn-sided apse. Worth has a
?%
round apse, aL so erceptional [3r]. Breamore is L,h..nru.. Tth roth N 98o 99.t /////////t
i n t e r e s t i n g f b r i t s s t a g e dc r o s s i n gt o r , ' e r[ 3 2 ] a n d
the remains , tf' a Saxon carved rood panel.
Barton-on-Ht-mbcr has its substantial towcr,
ample, squarc, and tall, with bluff cut-stone
quoining and strips of cut stone in the wall-
work, which give a dccorative suggestion of'
fiaming. This tower lbrmed the middle part of
the Saxon ctsrurch; it was augmentcd bv a
smaller cornp;-rtment on thc cast, and a similar
one on the rvsst. The paired lvindorvs, archcd
or mitred, arc charactcristicalll' divided b1.iolly
'mid-rvall s haf'ts' with rings. Earls Barton tower
', and is indeed a lavourite Saxon
i s g r a n d e r 13 3 33A. Winchestcr, Saxon cathedral, gg.l rogr
m o n u m e n t . I r r a l l o f t h e s et h e m a s o n r f i s r a t h e r lexcavations and studi bv Nlartin Biddle)
L-
 p R E - R O M A N E S Q U E A N D p R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U ES T y L E S
70
'liee-hand', 'I'he
rough and but artractive. ordi-
n a r l ' w a l l s a r e a b o u t z l l e e t t h i c k ; s p e c i a lw a l l s
ma1'be much thickcr.
Among the eristing church buildings, St
Lalrre'nce at Bradlbrd-on-Aron is perhaps the
most satisfactorv. It is a nave-and-chancel
b u i l d i n g , $ e l l c o n s t r u c t e do f c u t s t o n e . I t h a s a
charactcristically' narrow chancel arch with in-
teresting rcliels ofangcls (pcrhaps tiom a rood)
set in the wrrll above it [34]. There are narrow
doorwal's on thc other three sidcs of its minus-
cule nale (25 (eet long, rj feet 8 inches wide,
and verv high - just over 25 leer).The windows
a r e , a s u s u a l , f ew , s m a l l , a n d p l a c e d h i g h i n t h e
'I'he
wall. lateral doors opened inlo plrticus, of
which thc southern onc has been destroyed.
Apart fiom this the exterior is verl perfect; it
is beautifulll proportioned and decorated with
elegant shallorv arcading IrSl. Recentlv it has
.1.1and 35. Bradlbrd-on--{r'on,
S t L a w r e n c er,. 9 7 5 ( ? )
been shown that the lower part of the church
probabll'dates back to Aldhelm (c. 7oo); it was
reworked lvhen the parts above the belt course
s e r e a d d e d . F o r t h i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,o n a c c o u n t
ol' its accomplished character, we prefer thc
date of'973, in St Dunstan's time.l+
Sir Altied Clapham, in summing up this art,
rightlv savs that it 'was a direct offshoot ofthe
Carolingian stem, guarding the salient charac-
teristics of its parent stock' but with a sort of
bumbling localism. In the mid eleventh cen-
turv it was much in need of the vigorous ne*
impulse which camefrom Normandy to Edward
the Conf'essor's Westminster Abbey.
Enigmatic still is the relationship of the Saxon
carvings to the sculptural art of Germanl. and
France. The influence of the Winchester illumi-
nations on French sculpture is admitted, but
we do not have sufficient links to connect the
L-_
ARCH ITECTURE IN TIIE NORTH, OUTSIDE TIIE EIlTPIRE
PRE-RON/tANESQUE
Saxon relieli some of considerable interest
w i t h e a r l y R o m a n e s q u e w o r k i nL a n g u e d o c , B u r -
gundy, and Fleury (Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire).15
I A VI A
S C A N DN
T h e f o r a y so f e a r l l ' m e d i e v a l S c a n d i n a v i l n t i ' e e -
booters are well known, and several of the
beautiful ships rvhich were their instrument
so lithe in form, so beautilul in decoration
have been given back to us bt' archaeological
excavationand stud]'. What is not so llidelv
k n o w n i s t h e h i s t o r ] ' o f t h e w i d e s p r e a dc o l o n i z a -
tion and trade which follorved the piratical raicls.
In the ninth and tenth centuries S*edish dy-
nasts organized the oriental trade bv rva\. ofthe
Russian rivers and built the state which became
C h r i s t i a n R u s s i a i n 9 8 9 . 1 6I n t h e W e s t t h e i r
colonization of Iceland (847) and Greenland
( 9 8r ) w a s e n d u r i n g , b u t t h e i r c o n t a c t w i t h m a i n -
land America (q86 ti.) pror,ed ephemeral, likc
their hold on considerable territories in the
British Isles. -{ll Scandinavian architectural
work of this earliest period is lost, and is to be
deduced only from foundations, fragmentan.
remains of superstructure, and the trad;tional
leatures of conservarive later buildings.
Swedenand Gotland provide remains u'hich
indicate the character of the earlv palaces xnd
d w e l l i n g s ; a t L o i s t a o n G o t l a n d a p a l a c eo f s o m e
s i z eh a s b e e n r e b u i l r o n i t s o r i E i n a l f b u n d a r i o n s .
I t t a k e st h e l b r m o l a l o n g r e c t a n g u l a r h a l l $ i r h
dwarf walls of earth and stones i the entrance is
at one end, and the hearth is near the middle.
At intervals there are pairs of posts resting on
stonesin the earthen lloor, dir,iding the intcrior
l n t o a n a v e a n d t r v o a i s l e s .E a c h p a i r o t p o s t s
supports a trans\erse liame lbr the roof' of'
thatch, which sweeps in an unbroken slope on
each side from the dwarf wall to the ridge. A
smoke-hole opens over the hearth. The timbcrs
are,rough in the reconstruction. rather than
c a r v e da n d p a i n t c d
a s r h e v d o u b t l c s sw e r e i n t h e
o r t g i n a l ,b u t
t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a ll i n e s i r r ef i n e . a n d
77
the interior is strikinglv handsome Ir, 36,11.
Halls of this sort had been built lbr hundreds of
1'earsbelbre the latest date about rooo which
can be assigned to Lojsta. At Onbacken in
Sweden there are remains of a double-aisled
'guild
h a l l ' . L i k e I - o j s t at h i s b u i l d i n g h a d f r a m e s
' r t i n t e r v a l s t o s u p p o r t t h e r o o f s t l ' u c t u r e .H o w -
ever, the posts were lbur in numbcr in each
fiame. Instead of' drvarf'walls Onbacken had
wooden palisaded walls, r'ertical or slightlv in-
clined, at some distance outsidc the lrames
[ 3 6 n 1 .S i m p l c r s t r u c t u r e s , s i m i l a r i n p r i n c i p l e ,
were grouped in the farm establishments.
'l'he
remains of p:rgan temples in the earlv
periocl inclicate structures ol-square plan. At
G a m l a U p p s a l a , w h i c h r v a sp r o b a b l l ' t h e g r e a t -
est pagan cult ccntre of'the region, the mcdieval
church was built largely'on the site ofthe chief
temple. Excirvation has yielded a part of' the
stones which supported its timber-work, and the
pattern of its plan [3{rc, 348]. In this case there
was a square central compartrnent, with corncr
timbers or cr z f'eetin diameter and a smaller post
between on each side. Whether the central com-
partment was free-standing in a peribolos meas-
uring about 75 by 85 feet, or surrounded by'
aisles reaching to the enclosing wall, is a mattcr
fbr debatc. In anl'case the outcr wirll was sup-
ported bv light posts,and relativelv low, while
the large corner timbers indicate a tower-like
proportion lbr the ccntral square. \\'c postulate
aisles, r'ith a gabled entrance. T'hus the tcmplc
was distinguishcd fiom the residcntial and guild
halls prer,iouslv referred to by its r all construc-
t i o n a n d i t s c e n t r a l i z e dp l a n ; i t w a s , h o u e v e r , a
relatively late building, not long anterior to its
descliption by Adam of'Bremen (about roTo).
H e c a l l si t a t r i c l i n i u m , a n d n o t e st h a t i t c o n t a i n -
e d s t a t u e so f ' T h o r , O d i n , a n d l i r e y a . ' ;
At the datc mentioned, Christian building
w a s a l r e a d yu e l l a d v a n c e di n S c a n d i n a v i a .F r o m
ncighbouring Germanv some influences mar
b e t r a c e d o r s u s p e c t e d ,b u t t h e N o r s e c h u r c h
r v a ss e t r , r pl r o m B r i t a i n , a n d i t s a r c h i t e c t u r l l h i s -
 P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N T I I E N O R T H , O U T S I D ET H E E M P I R E 79

c tory probably begins there. By the year goo the tory. In Iceland and Greenland there are repre-
5sxldinavian population was probablv Chris- sentatives of pioneer and archaic forms. The old
o' Srrpporrs Jorposts a Icelandic sees of Skdlholt and H6lar have lost
tian in the British areas controlled by the Norse
(H"l,potheticaL) , the Earldom ofthe Orkneys, including parts ol' t h e i r e a r l y b u i l d i n g s , b u t r u s t i c s i t e ss t i l l p o s s e s s
,!
WoLLs ---------- Scotland; the Kingdoms of the Hebrides, of houses with banked lateral walls and interior
'fhe
Roof Hips ----- Dublin, of Northunlbria, and ofEast Anglia;to- framing, like a simplified Lojsta. faqades
o --
" Ritlges gether with the Five Boroughs. Christianization a r e o 1 ' w o o d ,a n d t h e r o o f c o v e r i n g i s s o d r a t h e r
a
ofthe North rvas tardier, but it was well begun than thatch. Churches werc built in this rvav,
Shoft of Tower ---
by g5o, and it was established by law fbr Nor- even recentlv (Fhigumyri, about 1875, and
-Ihe
way, Iceland, and Greenland in the vear rooo. \i 6imyri, r 8zz [371. St6ri-Nripur church in
t Inevitably one is led to suppose that many early Arnessysla [38], with aisles,recalls the palace at

O
ffi\
lBr-1!t,
o
!r-!
l_
l
5
l_
15 .l\{
r
Christian buildings on the Scandinavian penin-
sula were simpie wooden versions of the nave-
and-chancel type ofchurch which was common
Loista even more strongly. Groups of old barns
and houses olten seem but little changed in
general appearance lrom the prehistoric lirm
oro 5() r'T
D
in England and Ireland at the time, or three-
navedhalls of'the Lojsta or Brenz tvpe Ir,4aj.
n i"'j Thfodhild's tiny church (r. roor), crcavrted

tl
F
'i
I Minor at Lund, dated afier rooo (b,-vro5oi)
.i6. Plans o[ errll Scandinavinn buildings
A. Loista, palace, r. rooo
e. Onbacken,'Guild Hall'
c. Gamla Uppsala, temple fbundations
o. Brattahlid,'l'hjodhild's church, r. root
s. Lund, St N'larr N,linor, r. tooo .5o
F:1
tl
tt
l--
H
"J
at Brattahlid near Gardar [36o and 3gB], re-
sembled Lojsta, except that it had a squarish
plan, like a temple, and a woodcn fagade. Thc
banks and roofinp; were ofsod.
Excavation has revealed the plan of a more
ambitious church in Sweden. This is St Mary
[36E]. Its rvall-work was like that of Greenstead
church in Esser [z] - built, that is, ofvertical logs
f l a t t e n e do n r h r e e s i d e s a n d i o i n e d b 1 ' s p l i n e s .
The chancel, z5 feet square, was offset from the
r,. Holtilcn, church, eleventhcenturv
c . U r n e s ,c h u r c h ,r . r r z 5 nave, which was about 33 feet wide lrom wall to
u. l,omen, church, r. i tllo wall. Aisles were marked offin the nave by posts
t . N o r c , c h u r c h .r . r r g o which (two by'two) carried the transverse fram-
J ( belur) . Garrisonhall, Danish reconstructiDn i n g o f t h e r o o f s t r u c t u r e . T h e s a n c t u a r y ,o p e n - .i7. Vibimyri, Skagafjdrbur,vicw ol'church, rlizz
ing from the nave, had a similar roof construc-
38. St6ri-Nipur, Arnessysla,model of'framing, r876
tion, except that the posts were carried around at
the eastend to form a sort ofnarrow ambulatorv.
T . h u sS t I l a r y M i n o r , t h o u g h r e s e m b l i n g a b a -
stllca,was a curious conllation ofthe basilica, the
nave-and-chancel church, and the pagan hall.
Unfortunately it is
not possible to follow the sub_
sequent historv
ofthe tlmber church in Swcden.
Although about
zoo were built, not one is
extanti only fragments
in museums remain.
On the other hand, Norway
,. and Insular Scan-
dinavia have p..r..""d
the elements for this his-

L--
 P R E - R O M{ N E S Q L L , q R C H I T h C T U R E I N T H E N O R T H , O U T S I D E T H E E M P I R E EI

establishmentsof Gotland and elsewhere.Some- Excavations (Trelleborg, Aggersborg, Fyrkat,

what the same story is told in Greenland, which
was evangelized through a mission entrusted
to Leif Ericson, shortly before his journey to
America (roo3). There were ultimately seven-
teen churches serving about two hundred and
eighty households, a monastery, and a nunnery.
The White Church (stuccoed), at Kakortok, a
perfectly simple little stone-walled building,
mentioned in r3o6, still survives, roofless; but
the cathedral of Gardar (Igaliko), founded in
trz4, has been destroyed. Excavations show
that it was a small cruciform stone building with
a wooden f'agade and roof construction [3ge].
Other buildings in the cathedral group, serving
ig\ ( abor'eand hclon,) . Gardar, cathedral group, twelfth centurv
as residences, were built like the traditional
Icelandic houses just mentioned. A related
group, much simpler, has been identified and
ll
N.- excavated at L'Anse aux Meadows, on the tip
of Newfoundland. It represents the eleventh-
century Norse colonization in Vinland.r8
in Denmark) show that the grear Viking mili-
tary camps were very different from these settle-
ments. Within an encompassing earthwork
(circular at Trelleborg [3gcl), impressive garri-
son halls resembling the guild hall at Onbacken
[36n] were arranged in fours, lbrming square
courts, and these courts were reduplicated, with
passages (each in a quadrant at Trelleborg).
The walls were palisaded. Bowed out in plan
and supporting big roofi, they softened the
strict geometrical s)'stem [36JJ.
Churches built entirely oItimber represenred
an advance on ordinary wooden structures. In
r8g3 L. Dietrichson had traced three hundred
and thirtv-two timber churches in all Scan-
dinavia, of which trventy-fbur werc extant, all
in Norway. An important church (Trondheim,
996) is reported in the reign ofOlafTryggvason,
under whom the country became officially
Christian, and archaeological remains go back

*1\
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S/ / r*
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rf i+.&"

.. . :....:li:
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.t-I

W
bank _

39c. Trelleborg, camp,

o 50 rooM
L , i ' ' I ' I I
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39u.Brattahlid.Thjodhild's church, r. r oor (rcstorcd) oJo 3oo FT

L-_
 I'-1
TN THE NORTH' OUTSIDE'THE EMPIRE
P R E . R O M A N E S Q L I EA R C H I T E C T U R E
u2 P R E - R O M A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U D S T Y I , F , S

wasunderconstruction ' On tall masted structure was invented to distin-

to the reign of St Ola{'(roI5 3o), the church in nrtion. but the earlier Norse panels, unlike tht whilesucha church the churches bv emphatic vertical em-
they extendedup into and sup- euish
question being that of Garmo (destrovedr88z; Irish rvorks. contain little except animal fbrrns: lorpf.tion groupsI for the
upperstructure aswellasrheir p h a s i s f r o m t h e p a l a c e si n s u c h
c l e m e n t sa t L i l l e h a m m e r ) l t n a s a n a r e - a n d - it wos later that scrolls of leaf'age,ribbons, antl olrrio tr,.."'ite palaceswould be larger and predominantly hori--
hunran figures were introduced The doors antl Ii"r. the aisle roof'and the bracesrvhich scale of
chancel church in wood, an example of the old- "..i.nra "f to the aisle walls' Despite its oblong zontal. One is struck, too, b1' the small
est, most persistent, and most numerous t]'pe doorwats ot timber churches uere olien prt- '.ilp. the early mast churches; they would look like
,na the Romanesque-looking carvings'
served, on account of their beaut,v, when the - enlarged lersions of
ofchurch.1" is in essence that of the tower-like iewel boxes indeed, like
Holtilen church (r. lo-5o I looi norv in the c h u r c h e s t h e m s e l v e sw e r e d e s t r o y e d , a n d t h i s ,t.".ft.m.
church models (a popular lbrm ol'reliquary)
prgrn t..Plt GamlaUPPsala'
Trondhcim Muscum) [36r] is the oldestertant is the case at Urnes, rvhere the door and f'agaclc ' "t beside the palaces. Only'the later churches are
at Fiedal
c a r v i n g so f t h e n a v e - a n d - c h a n c ecl h u r c h o f r o ( r o Th. r"-. p.riod (aboutr r25)shows
e s a m p l e .I t h a s t h e t r p i c a l s t o u t p o s t sa t t h e s i r chttrch' generous in scale.
rvere built into the north side ofa more elaborate in the Valdres a nave-and-chancel of
sllient angles of the nave-and-chancel plan, is augmentedby an rtpse' Such then is the background ofthe church
church about r rz5 [36c]. o,haratha sanctuar-Y which may be studied in
with rebated sills sustaining an ingenious by an extenor Borgund, the details of
T h i s c h u r c h . U r n e s I I , m a r k s a d e c i s i v es t e l r and the whole is circumscribed A trusses' the
t o n g u e - a n d - g r o o l e p a l i s a d eo l ' s t a v e ' w a l l c o n - porch on the axis' the diagram [421. The ingenious
t o w a r d t h e c l a s s i ct y p e o f f u l l l ' d e v e l o p e d N o r s c ambulatorywith a proiecting
---These
struction. About ro6o a church of similar form t-vpesof bridging, bracing, and gussets
architecturalmotifs, combined with various
timber church. The shallow oblong; sanctuarr the basic
r v a sb u i l t a t U r n e s . S u p e r b e x a m p l e so f N o r s e Urnes Ii' re- are well worth attention' as is also
has two corner posts as usual, and two interior' rhemastedschemeof the naveof Pairs of supporting
carving survive on the wall planks and doorwav Norse tirnber chassis of the building.
p o s t s a l t h e e a s t ,r c c a l l i n g t h e e r r a n g e m c n t a t S I sult in the classiclbrm of the the masts
of this church - wonderful interlaced animal
best represented at Borgund, the oldest beams cross at right angles, (#), and
\lar1' \'Iinor in Lund. The nave at Urnes II. church, rectangle' The ex-
lbrms, exultantly' r'ivacious, subtly modelled in harmo- are raised about the central
somewhat larger than usual, has walls sup- extantexample(about r r5o) [4r]' The powerfully brace the
flat and bolcl relief classic examples of'tameless parts is tended parts of the beams
ported b,v the customarr'lbur posts at the outcr niousefect of the many subtly related the aisles and
r,igour and beaut-v[4o]. Such work must be de- masted structure and support
corners. But $'ithin there are sixteen tall frec- no lessremarkablethan the skilled craftstnan-
pendent ultimately, in part, on Irish illumi- porches. Such a chassis or skid would be sup-
s t e n . l i n g m a s t - l i L es u p p o r t s ' m a r L i n g o l l ' l a t c r r r l
shipby which it is achievedNaveand sanctuary it in con-
above ported on stones; there is nothing like
,1o.L.rncs.carrings on flank ot'church' aisles and a returned aisle at both east and \\'csl leachwith its pinnacle)rise confidentlY construction' At Borgund
tentional basilican
r. ro(ro,re-uscd The masts rest on stones and a chassis; thcl alt
the arcadedexterior porch' their graceful sil- number' with a
main masts are twelve in
houettebreakinginto gables,Iinials and spire- the
bracccl all round at mid-height, whcre tl'reir and an upper h a l f - m a s t ' o n each
lets. The delicatescaleand small memb':ring w i d e i n t e r r a [ ,
nunrber is augmentedbl two on the axis (omit-
(ernphasized by cut shingles- now for saf'ety flank ofthe nave'
tcd belolr to make the intcrior more spaciou:' Grinaker (r. r r6o), Lomen [3(rH]' and other
oftenreplacedby tile) are remarkablyeffective
\ b o r e t h e a r s l c st h e m a s l s c a r r \ a c l e r e s l o l \ s' c h u r c h e si n t h e \ a l d r e s r e g i o n d a t c d
rr8o or
in thenaturalsettingofrough uplandvallel
rvall,and at the top the]'are ioined togcther all masts carrying the upper struc-
Neither Urnes nor Borgund is an irnportant later have four
r o u n d b 1 ' a p l a t e , w h i c h c a r r i e st h e t r u s s e d r o o l is otherwise a nave-and-chancel
ecclesiastical place,and onenaturallylookselse- ture in what
and a helliv pinnacle. There are suegestiotr added These naves are not
where for the genesisof so accomplishedand church rvith an apse
t h a t t h e d c s i g n e r s h a d b : r s i l i c a nc h u r c h e s t ' i very much smaller than those of Urnes
II and
perfecta scheme.One thinks inevitablyof King
stonc in mind. The mitsts, (br instance, hrr' the scale is larger'
SigurdMagnusson'sChurch of the Holy ('ross Borgund, and consequently
Romanesque capitals at mid-height uncler ap- the still ampler scale of the thir-
in Kungahilla which wasbuilt in r r 27,after the forecasting
p l r e n t a r c h e s( u h i eh a r e i n f r c t er r c hm ' l d e u p ' ' tecnth century. Strzvgowski belicved that pu-
King's return from a spectacularpilgrirnage
tlvo adioining lvooden gusset braces) Th! tvpc
t to the Holy Land. It wasaccounteda wo:tder, r a t i t e e a r h ' e r a m p l e s o f t h e f o u r - m a s r e d
b r i d g i n g l b o r e t h u a p p a r e n t a r c h e ss u g g e s t s o f m t r s t c d s t r u c l u r e ' but
but no detaileddescriptionoi it has surrived, g e n e r a t e dt h e t r a d i t i o n
tritbrium. and the small r o u n d r e n t s a b o r ' ' Free-standing four-mastcd
and it wasdestroyedin r I36. Another possible without elidence.
( ' W i n d a u g e n ' ) s u g g e s tc l e r c s t o r vw i n d o w s '
prototlpeis the churchwhich wasconstrllcted structures were developed for the belfries ofthe
H o l r c r e r m u c h t h c c h u r c h r c s e m h l c sa b a : l l - alongwith a palacelbr King Sigurd's brother churches; that of Borgund, with the
masts
i c a , t h e m a s t e d s t r u c t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l l yd i f f - e r e n i Eystenin Bergen,rrr7. The structureof the slanted against the swing ofthe bells, is t1'pical
()l
a s t r u c t u r e o f ' t h e c c n t r a l t - v p e 'l i k e a g r o u p Nore church (r. r rgo) [36 tl presents a square
Palacehallsmust haveresembledthat of simple
circumlerentialll
flag-poles all bound together
churchesin manv respects.Perhapsindeedthe nave with a post at each corner, and the whole
I t m u s t h a v e b e c n q u i t e s t r i k i n g t o s e et h e m ' r s t '

)
b-
tt4 pRE-ROMANESQUE AND pROTO-ROMANESQUE
STyLES

Borgund' r' r I 5o; classic examplc

aJ ar,d 42.
e g i a n ' s t a r e - c h u r c h ' , e x t e t i o t I ttl t f ' ttst t ( I
Jf the Nort
secttsn
s1d analYttcal

L-
86 pnE-nonaANr-seuE
AND pRoro-RoMANEseuE sryLEs
middle part of the construction carried on a
s i n g l e m a s t . S h a l l o w t r : r n s e p t a lr e c e s s e sa n d a
s q u a r e s a n c t u i r r va l l h a v e a p o s t a t e a c h c o r n e r ,
making seventeenfor the whole church. Fli
(r. rzoo) and Nes (i. rz4o) have the nave-and-
chancel plan, plus a rounded apse and a central
mast. The whole structure is arranged and
braced in stagesaround this mast, and therefbre
comes to rcsemble thc central mast of'a Caro-
l i n g i a n c h u r c h s p i r e ) o r t h e w o o d c n s t e e p l eo f
'I'his
an American Colonial church. n'pe flou-
rishes alongside the navc-and-chancel, the
'l'orpu,
q u a s i - b a s i l i c a n( L o n r , ,. r rgo: .\rdal,
r'. rzoo), and the Borgund ty'pe(Fantoft, from
Fortun. r. r r 6o 8o ; Gol, now at B1'gdor-,Oslo,
. . r 2 o o ; H e g g e ,r ' . r z r o ; R i n g e b u , r . r z - i o ; H e d -
dal or Hitterdalen in Telemark, near Hiarrdal.
r. rz5o).
In the interiors which have bestsurvived the
centuries the wood has largely been lefi un-
p a i n t e d . T h e r e s u l t i n g r i c h t o b a c c ob r o w n u i t h
d e e p v e l v e t v s h a d o u s i s t e r r ' f i n e , a n d i t s e t so f f
the glint of metalwork in the lurnishings and
l i t u r g i c a l g e a r .T h e b r i g h t c o l o u r s o f v e s t m e n t s ,
the gal hues and sober black of peasant cos-
tumes appear to great adr,antage in this warm
rtmosphere. The intcrior carvingsof thc chur-
ches are relativell simple, but thel' happill,'
a c c e n t u a t et h e s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e l i n g , a n d g i v e
a certain movenent in the half light. The con-
trast between the sercnity of the Norse church
interiors, and the extraordinary r,err,e of their
ertcriors. is not the least remarkable ol'their
mi-tnvartistic Yirtues.
B e c a u s et h e m a t e r i a l u a s p e r i s h a b l e ,w o o d en
churches began to give wav to stone structures
as early as ro5o. Norman England, u'ith its
characteristic heavy masonrv construction, be-
gan to influence Scandinar,ia er,en in the reign
of'Sigurd Nlagnusson (rro3 3o). At that time
the Anglo-Norman cousins of'the Norse werc 5flAPTER {
alreldv at work on the cathedrals of Norrvich
a n d E l 1 ' ; S t a v a n g e rC a t h e d r a l w a s b e i n g b u i l t . p R O T O - R O \ { A N ES q U E - { RC H I T E C l U R E I N S O U T H E R N t r U R O P E
from about rrz3 onward, in a reflected Ro-
m a n e s q u es t y l e .
T h e S c a n d i n a v i a n sd i d n o t a d o p t t h e I r i s h
idea of church clusters, and therefore, as timc
went on, the mast churches became unsatisfac- It sounds like a plelsantr]- to say that Roman T H E A S T L T R I ASNT Y L E
t o r v n o t o n l v b e c a u s eo f t h e i r m a r e r i a l , b u t a l s o architecture is proto-Romanesque that is to
because ol' their small scale and their limited say, a Romanesque architecture coming befbre Thc \loors came first to Spain in 7r r as a small
interventionist fbrce under Tarik. lor whonr
capacity (eren with the people standing at ser- the authoritative and constituted medieval style.
vices, as rvas usual in the N{iddle Ages). T'hc But there is a kernel of truth in it. The methods Gibraltar is named. The ineffectual Visigothic
kingdom crumbled before them, and they em-
congregations became larger, and the cere- of commonplace Roman building were con-
monies more elaborate, involving !reater num- tinued with little change during the Dark Ages barkcd on a serious work of conquest which
bers of clergt than in earlv times. Recent in the southern and more settled parts of the brought them across the P1'reneesinto France
'-['hey
Empire area, awaiting the time when a grander in 7r 8. w e l e o n l l ' h a l t e d b y C h a r l es
atten)pts to build mast churches on a moder.n
scale, so as to provide space fbr sizable gather- architecture should be possible. \,Iartel in 732 in the fbmous battle fought be-
ings seatedin pews, have been aesthetic f'ailures. We have seen that Carolingian Roman- tween Tours and Poitiers. The new state was
while the cutting away of masts, and other esque architecture intellectuallv marked out not well organized until the middle of the tenth
changes in medier-al buildings, fbr the samt this future development. It is only rr habit of centur!'. and the Nloorish borders receded, but
p u r p o s c ,h l v e b c e nm o s t u n l b r t u n a t e . thought which prevents our calling it simplv the \loslems continued to alllict southern
\t'hen the stone-built Romanesque came ro Romanesque. That tcrnr calls up a group o(' lirance b1' (bra-vs, and b1' their' fierce, long-
styles of somewhat later date, somewhat more continucd piracl, in the \lediterranean.'Iher
Scandinaria, it took on, as in the church ol
mature structural character, more importantly d r o r e o u t t h e m o n k s o f ' X ' l o n t e c a s s i n oi n 8 f i . i
G a m l a U p p s a l a t " 1 3 4 7 , 3 4 8 ] ,s i m p l e a n d a u s t e r e
Northern forms which make their aesthetic characterized by vaulting, and richer in plastic and desolatcd the monastery; they captured
point through the bold and elegant expression embellishment, but not essentially different in r \ ' I a y e u l ,a b b o t o f ' C l u n y , i n 9 7 z , a n d h e l d h i m
of bulk conception. fbr ransom; their devastations are reported from
so much so that modern imitations of
French and Italian Romanesque and Gothic Similarly, the st1'les of' southern Europe Switzerhncl in g4o and from northern Spain in
w h i c h c o m e b e t r v e e nR o m a n a n d R o m a n e s q u e 997 8.
works seem unwelcome and intrusive. f'he
earlier buildings in masonrl' were rather primi-
might simply be called Romanesque il'our habit During the initial period of relative Moorish
tir,e in construction, and thus carry an odtl
ofthought were different. Two ofthem are so w e a k n e s s ,S e p t i m a n i a w a s r c c o n q u e r e d ( 7 6 o 8 )
close to both styles as to merir the name by Pepin III, alter which the Spanish March of
flavour of the First Romanesque which is r,err
ot proto-Romanesque. 'l'he architecture of Charlernagne (Catalonia and Navarre) was lib-
appealing. Ilven the vitalitv ofthe timber church 'l'he
Asturias, Galicia, and neighbouring Portugal in erated (777). a c t i o n a t R o n c e s v a l l e s ,c e l e -
tradition had little effect on buildings designecl
the ninth and tenth cenruries was like a hbora- brated in the Song of'Roland, occurred in 778.
fbr stone, lnd it is indeed pr<lbable that thc
tory experiment in Romanesque, perlbrmed in B i r r c e l o n aw a s c a p t u r e d i n E o r .
architects considered the fbrms of the woodcn
a remote region lnd not absorbed into the main In the north-western corner ofthe peninsula,
b u i l d i n g s a sa n a t u r a l r e s u l t o f t h e i r e n g i n e e r i n g
current of architectural der,elooment. In the where the old mountainous Asturian realm of
t1'pe, and fhus not applicable in stone-buiit
Byzantine Exarchate t h e S u c v i ( o n l y s u b d u e d b 1 - ' t h eV i s i g o t h s a b o u t
work or suitable for an1' kind of superficirl and Lombardl a similar
d e v e l o p m e n tl a i d r h e 'l:irst
imitation. sroundwork tbi rhe 6zo) had not been o\rerrun b1' the Moors, the
Romanesque' ,tr-.I., Spanish Christian state was reconstituted juri-
*ii.h carried on the living
s t r e a mo f R o m a n
lrchitecture, and contributed d i c a l l f i n 7 I 3 b y t h r : l i n t a s t i c b a n d o 1 'c l e r i c a l ,
s o m e t h i n gt o
a l l t h e m a t u r e R o m a n e s q u es t y l e s . m i l i t a r l , a n d l a y r e l u g e e sw h o h a d b e e n d r i v e n
L-

there by the invading Moors. Under Alfonso
the Catholic (Z3q 5Z), the new Kingdom of the
Asturias or of Galicia began to expand south-
ward, and to plant Christian colonies in the
border zone which had been desolated by the
constant raids from both sides. Legend has it
that the Apostle St James the Greater aided the
Galicians in battle, whence he acquired his
name of Nlatamoros, his rank (maintained even
in the twentieth century) of Colonel in the
Spanish army, and his association with cockle
shells. His supposed tomb, identilied as such in
8r3, became a national shrine almost imme-
diately, and led to the foundation of a Bene-
dictine monastery, Antealtares, in the reign of
'fhis
Alfonso the Chaste (7gt-842). king made
Oviedo his capital, from which the kingdom
was ruled until gr4. A metropolitanate was
e s t a b l i s h e dt h e r e i n 8 I r . r
By the end of the eighth century the archi-
tects had constituted a national pre-Roman-
escue stvle of considerable technical interest.
Oviedo,San Julidn de los Prados,r
The oldest remains go back to about 78o, and
there are well-preserved examples covering the
whole span of the ninth and tenth centuries.
Among the chief monuments was the cathedral
of Oviedo, founded in 8oz, which was an inter-
esting group of buildings by a designernamerl
'I'ioda.
A reliquary chapel, the I'amous Cdmara
Santa, still survives [58]. Another maior monr'r-
ment, now destroyed, was the double cathedral
at Santiago de Compostela (8lg-rt6), which has
been excavated in part, and is known to hare
resembled other Galician basilicas (Santullano.
Lourosa l54cl), though the cast end, with thc
shrine of St James, was rather more open and
elaborate. Yet satisfactory represcntatives of the
\sturian st1'le of archirecture. painting, antl
sculpture survive; they are being maintainecl
and cherished.
At somotime between 8rz and 842 (perhaps
about 83o) Tioda built for Alfbnso the Chaste'
adjoining his suburban palace in the fields neat'
Oviedo, the basilican church of'San Juliin dc
L-
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O P E
l o s P r a d o s ,o r ' S a n t u l l a n o ' [ + 1 , + + ] . T h e n o r t h
transept was elidently contiguous to the palace,
for the king's tribune opened into it. The tran-
sept is relatively wide, roofed in wood, and
higher than the rest of the church. The re-
mainder of the building is composed around
the transepr in the lamiliar agglomerative Ger-
manic fashion.'I'here is a plrticus at the south
end of the transept; the sanctuary and chapels
are oblong tunnel-vaulted compartmentsr of
which the central one, only, is brought to the
eaveslevel ofthe transept b1'an upper chamber
(perhaps a refuge). The ample nave, likewise
wooden-roofed, also reaches merely to the tran-
sePteaves. It is providcd
with aisles, a western
Porch' and a wall belfiy' or espadaia. The recent
restoration
has uncol.ered the rather rough, but
Bood and substantial masonrv of the church.
and its astonishins
interior decorations. These
guite unexpectedly
turned out to be a symbolic
cSmposition 'fhirry-
in the pompeian sr1le.
ct8ht baldacchino
motifs are fiqured, in refcr-
d9
ence (it is thought) to the thirty-eight Councils
which had thus lirr been held in the Spanish
Church. These paintings are among the most
interesting of their kind. Yet this court chapel
gives only a hint of the richness ol Alfbnso the
'everything', says
C h a s t e ' sb u i l d i n g s a t O v i e d o :
'the
the Monk of Albelda (883), King adorned
diligentll' with arches and columns of marble,
with gold and silver, and so with the royal
p a l a c e ,w h i c h h e d e c o r a t e dw i t h d i v e r s p i c t u r e s ,
all in the [Visilgothic wa\', as they were at
'I'oledo
in church and palacc alike'. There
were a governmental building and a thermal
establishment in Oviedo also in these great
da1's.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n gA s t u r i a n c h u r c h e s
d a t e s l r o m t h e r e i g n o 1 ' R a m i r o I ( 8 4 3 - 5 o ) .I I e ,
incidentally', contended successlully with the
Norse raiders of whom wc have heard in pre-
vious chapters; they did not get a lbothold in
Spain as they did in England, Ireland, France,
a n d t h e ' I ' r v o S i c i l i e s .R a m i r o ' s c h u r c h a d i o i n e d
9o P R E _ R O N l A N E S Q U EA N D P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E S ' T ' Y I , E S
t h e p a l a c ea n d b a t h s a t N a r a n c o , a p l e a s a n th i l l -
s i d e p l a c c n e a r O v i e d o . I t w a s d e d i c a t e di n 8 4 8
to Santa N{aria, and has come down to us in a
perf-ectstate, except for the loss of a two-storcy
compartment on one of thc long sides; opposite
the entrance, and balancing the entrance porch
l+S, +61. The architectural lbrm of the upper
p a r t s h o w s t h a t i t w a s b u i l t a s a b e h , e d e r e ;v e t
the structure was certainly used fbr sacred cerc-
monial in connexion with the king as fbr
instance when he departed fbr war.
The cxisting old parts ofthe church have no
suitable location fbr an altar. since the ends of
the hall were doorways opening on unglazed
'I'he
cxterior porches. best solution of the difii-
cultf is to suppose that the altar stood in the
destroyed compartment opposite the existing
entrance porch. The altar would then occupl,'
the thronc-place of a layout resembling a Ger-
'l'he
manic palacc hall. long hall itself would be
a sort of'transept lbr magnatcs, and thc pcople,
gathered outside the church, would hcar the
liturgl' through the open end compartments.
SantaMaria de Naranco,consecrated
tl48
45 rnd 46.
Similarll', the populace gathered on the slofc which thins and stiffens the wall, so rhar it is There is no doubt as to the position and shape
ncar thc inrperial palacc hall at Goslar [,.t+,]rS logically designed to take the thrusts of the of the missing two-storey compartment, in the
lbllowed thc proccedingsthrough openings rn tunnel vault above it. The vault again has trans- upper part of which we ma\ supposethe altar
the f'aqadeof the hall. versearches, and an extra arch is placed in the t o h a v e b e e n p l a c e d( i n 8 4 8 ) ,I b r t h e m a r e t o t h i s
In point of development Santa N{aria cle middle over the widest arcade arches (fbr the compartment still exists on the opposite side,
N a r a n c o o c c u p i e st h e p o s i t i o n l b r S p a i n w h i c h size of these is graduated). Under the other with its approach stairwaysand vaulting com-
Germignv-des-Prds has in France, Aachen in transverse arches there is a decorative strap-
plete, applicd, or'apposed', to the main cham-
'St and-medallion inset which srrengthens the
Germanv, and Columba's House' in Ireland. wall. ber in Germanic l'ashion.
The masonrv work is somewhat rough, but ol Though ir was rauntetl u, ,urporring unl-
. In fact, the building was composed, basicalll.,
excellent quality, having ashlar, used with ad- thing in Hispania (Moslem
Spain) therc is in the manner ofthe Saxonchurch ofBradfbrd-
mirable skill, to strcngthcn it in logical place'. n e v e r t h e l e sas h a u n t i n g
s e n s et h a t t h e u h o l e on-Avon [:+, :Sl, exccptthar rhe Asturian work
'l b u i l d i n gi s s o m e h o w 'l'he
he mein block ol rhc building hasa crlpt ,,1 in debr to onental motles is vaulted with admirable soliditl'. cntrance
or construction,
three compartments, the central onc covercLl probablv through \risigothic porch and its mate come in iust where thev are
( o n d u a r l u a l l s ) h r a h e a r r a n d s l r o n gt u n n ( l and Moslem
,..hi,..,u."1 works as much as structurallv needed to abut the main tunnel
e l s e . Y e r t h e G e r m a n r c a s p e c t so t t h e
r a u l t w i t h t r a n s \ e r s ea r c h e s o l a s h l a r . 6 n 1 , , r lnl Li"* vaults lbr such vaults, when ther. ha.r'c anv
t h e f i r s t o f i t s k i n d i n t h e m e d i e r a lc h u r c h a r t h i - must nor be tbrgotten. tts palacehall c o n s i d e r a b l el e n g t h , i n v a r i a b l v t e n d t o p u s h o u t
llttd]nt
tecture of the West. The end compartmcnt\ the effector'making ir into a .rransepr their supports and sink at the crown. In Naranco
:lit lid
(ol'rrhich onc \\as a bath) are ceiledin uor,.l. t o , u r 1p e w h i c h i s o r h e r w i s e k n o u n i n we have an appropriate solution (on a small
;tlufn'
Each of the cr1'pt compartments sustains a conr- A b d i n i n V e s o p o r a m i a ) ,b u t r h c c o m -
Ill.it. scale to be sure) of the problem of vaulted
partment of the superstructure, taller in pr,,- iJ^tittlll] modear Narancois Cermanic;tbr church architccture which pror.ed to be obsti-
portion, lighter and more sophisticated rn isanagglomeratron
oraspiring
and
'll,t-l-t',0j"*
xrtrsecting nateh' difficult throughout the Romanesque
construction. Pairsol atrachcdcolumns car..,l forms. The flanksare divided into period. It is also rvorthl of'note that the spur
'ctt D?YS
in fine barharicsttle carrl an interior arcrt.lc by slender ashlar spur huttresscs.
buttresses are proportioncd like developcd
L-
 w
P R O T O - R O M A N L S Q U EA R C H T T E C T U R Ft_N S O L i T H E R NE t r R O p E
93

(oltposite and belon). Santa Cristina

47 and 48
de Lena, .. 9o5 Io

( risht ) . Santa \{aria de \'Ielquc, r. 9oo

49

vault is abutted b1' chapelJike compartmenrs THE \IOZARAtsIC STYLE IN

Romanesque buttresses and logicalll' disposed.
The embellishment of Santa Maria de Naranco,
while not Romanesque, nevertheless uses de-
g e n e r a t ec l a s s i cm o t i f s , n o r e l c o m b i n a t i o n s ,a n d
even minuscule figure sculpture (in the medal-
lions), and therefore we may say that it too gives
a hint of future Romanesque fbrms.
The church of San \liguel de Linio, near
Naranco, lbunded in 848, is a curious and in-
genious r.aulted building, now incomplete. It
rvaslaid out as a columnar basilica with a tunnel-
v a u l t e d n a r e a n d a n g u l a r s a n c t u a r i e s .T h e f b u r
terminal bavs ofthe aisles had transverse tunnel
vaults at a high ler,el to abut the nave, and large
transennae in these transept-like bays (ofwhich
t r v o s t i l l e x i s t ) g a r , ea g o o d l i g h t t o t h e w h o l e
interior. San Nliguel has remains of paintings
and a brave attempt at architectural sculpture.
There are interesting capitals and medallions.
a s a t N a r a n c o ; t h e c o l u m n b a s e sh a v e c a r v i n g s ,
and an ivorv book cover was reproduced, en-
larged, in flat barbaric str,le on each iamb of thc
main portal. There is an odd suggesrion of Earh
Gothic tracerv, even, in the interesting tran-
sennae or pierced stone lvindow screens of San
\Iiguel.
Entirclv raulted, like Sanra N1ariade Na-
ranco, the charming little church of Sanr,r
(,ristina de Lena
[+2, +8] must be included as
shorving an interestingl development ol'the Nir-
ranco thcme. Santa Cristina has an entrance
compartment with a tribune lrom which onc
looks up a longitudinal tunnel-vaulted nave to ir
platform and sanctuarv compartment, markcd
off b1' a verv interesting and fastidiously carvecl
barbaric chancel parapet and arcade. The main
'apposed'
to the flanks ofthe nave. All the vaults NORTHERN SPAINZ
are tunnel vaults, and all, except that of the tiny
entrance way, have trans\rerse arches. All the Little if anl.thing survives to represent Earlv
walls are stiffened b1' spur buttresses. This Christian basilican architccturc as developed
church was probablv built shortly after go5, b1' the Visigoths except San Juan Bautista at
or at any rate in the reign of Alfonso III, the Baios de Cerrato (66r), rvith its horseshoe
Great (866-9ro). a r c h e s , i t s d e g e n e r a t eR o m a n c a r v i n g s , a n d i t s
There remains to be mentioned the engaging
_ s q u a r e - e n d e c ls a n c t u a r ) ' ( o n e o f t h r e e , w i d e l l '
little tunnel-vaulted
basilican church ol Val de s p a c e d ,w h i c h l b r n e r h , l o o k e d i n t o a w i d e t r a n -
d.dicuted in 893. ft has \loslem-looking
Pios, sept). Vaulted architecture is represented by
h o r s e s h o ea r c h e si n
t h " e, a n c t u a r r a n d t h e c l e r . e - the church of Quintanilla de las \''iias, whcre
s t o r y .a n d t r a n s e n n a e
b u t a l s oa n a d d e d l a t e r a l construction appearsto have been interrupted
porch with
prophetic, Romrrnesque-looking h r r h e C o n q u e s r .s h o r t l r a l i e r '7 r r .
g r o u p e dp i e r s
c a r r l . i n ga t u n n e l r a u l t . d a r c d i n What this Late Roman church st.vle beclme
rne tenth
centur\. On a tinl rcirle, it offers a under strong N{oorish influence we may infer
Eood solution ro tlifficult problems.
and. lil,r: liom the interesting raulted church of'Santa
santa Maria
de Naranco. has endured. Maria de N{elque. dated about 9oo [49]. It is

-lrl
 PRE-ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
9;+
solidly built ofashlar stone on a cruciform plan,
and vaulted, with an efl'ectivc use of horseshoc
a r c h e si n t h c i n t e r i o rd e s i g n .
Simpler lvorks resembling San Juan de Baios
and N{elque were built by-refugeeswho were
drir,en out of the \'Ioslem dominions by a re-
c r u d e s c e n c eo f i n t o l e r a n c e a t t h e e n d o f ' t h e
ninth centur.v. This episode was a catastrophe
for the Visigothic style, which was a citv archi-
tecture; fine churches were destrol.ed in the
\loslem dominions, and the similar buildings
in Christian territories to the north suffered in
the great raids of'Almanzor at the end of the
tenth centur)-. The Christian kingdom, which
was centred at Le6n alier gr4, settled man!' of
the rellgees, who were called \{ozarabs. Moz-
arabic architecture under the circumstances $.as
reallv a local variation on Late Roman archi-
5o. San Nliguel de la Escalada, near Le6n, c. gtz r3
tecture, representing the end ofan old tradition.
It undoubtedlv contributed a certain spice an(
oriental suavitv to Spanish Romanesque. Lobetl
rosettes, prominent eaves-brackets of oriental
character. and horseshoe arches were trans-
mitted to Romanesque by the Mozarabic st1,le.
Its influence is probablv to be traced in beauti-
full1' modelled leafage cut en lltargne or ett
riserxe that is, rounded back from the ashlar'
thce in N{oorish or Saracenic fashion. asainst ir
sunk background.
The church of San Miguel de la Escalada.
near Le6n [5o], is the finest and most accessiblc
of the N{ozarabic works. It was part of a mon-
asterv built for refugee monks from C6rdoba in
gr2-r3. The visitor linds himself in an austere
but surprisinglv sophisticated ensemble. Thc
architectural membering, the proportions, thc
L-
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U E A R C T TI ' I ' L C ' I ' U R [ ,I N S O U l ' I I L R N L U R O P E
95
manaeiement of'space and light are all
scale,the 'I'he
church is basilican and
very lastidious.
wooden-rool'ed except for the apses, which are
plan, three in line rvithin a
fiorseshoe-shapedin
blocky mass of masonrt' at the east end of the
church. Each apsc opens through a horscshoe
a r c h . T h e e a s t b a v o f e a c h a i s l ei s v a u l t e d , a n d a
1:
chancel screen of elegant horscshoe arches
carriesthe line across the nave. Graceful horse-
shoearches divide the nave fiom the aisles, and
the tin-vclerestorl.windorvs have the same prett\'
shape, which was once more used lr'hcn a finc
side porch was added about 9.1o; adioining,
there is a heavv tower, with a chapel, of still
later constructlon. newll constructed. Likc thc Asturian build-
S a n t i a g od e P e n a l b a f 5 r l , f o u n d e d i n g r g , i s ings, it has a somer,hat Romanesquelook, but
'chisel-
a good, but a more rustic building. It is an odd t h e c o r n i c e h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i cN l o o r i s h
c o m p o s i t i o n o 1 - p a i r s a n a v e o 1 - t r v ob a v s , o n e curl' brackets. In the interior of Lebcia therc
5r. Santiagode Pcialba, lbunded grg ; 3 . C b r a r r u b i a s , ' l ' o u eor l l ) o n a L r r i r c a ,r . t 1 - 5 o
ai
-:-'. t
o f t h e m c o r e r e c lb v a l o b c c ld o m e ; a l o b e d v a u l t
over each of the tlro apscs (onc of them of
n o r s e s h o ep l a n , b o t h o f t h e m i n a n g u l a r b l o c k s
of masonrv); a pair of'lateral compartments,
torming a sort of transept. at each sidc ol'thc
domed bar,.
S a n t aM a r i a c l c l . e b e i a , n c a r S a n r a n d e r
1521,
was built in gz4, under Asturian influence; it
resemblesSan
\,Iiguel de Linio, rvhich rvasthen
90 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E r N S O U T I I E R N E U R O P E g?

are square piers with addossed columns which from this time. east) has long been known. The ruins of'the
fluence is traceable in Catalonia
look r,erv Romanesque, and suggest that Penin- Cuxa actually represents the reorientation of main storev, with its polyfbil nucleus, have re-
sular skill may har,e been drawn on in the tenth-
Cttalonta, towards France and Italy, and the cently been uncovered; and it may be that there
century revival of vaulting f'arther north. How- was an upper level as well. The marble cloister
emergenceof a Catalan nationality in the time of'
ever, the bold horseshoe arches give Santa the great Abbot Oliba of Ripoll. It is
quite fiir of Cuxa, dated about ro28, is well known. It
Maria an unmistakably N,Ioorish atmosphere. h a s b e e n p a r t l ) r e b u i l t i n t h e r e c e n t r e s t o r a ri o n ,
to state that a national architectural style was
The tunnel r,aults have a diaphragm in the nave as has the nave ofthe church.
adumbrated ifnot rcalized in the churches built
to permit a clereslorl. Thev are lransrerse in under the auspices of Oliba and his family. Oliba's fbmily was connected with the con-
'I'his
the aisles,and parallel over the sanctuaries. In Oliba's rebuilding at Cuxa (roog 4o), in- struction of San Pere de Roda,6 a castle-
arrangement is r,ery good statically, and it builds fluenceslrom abroad are fused with the abiding monastery which stands up splendidly above
up rather prettily in stages. \'Iiss King said

.L
'the
tellingll of it that Spanish remper, like the
Br.zantine, craved the myster],- of enclosed
t
F-4trdl
s p a c e sw
, h e r e l i g h t f ' a l l s s t i l l 1 . . . a. n d . . . c u r v e d
surlaccs bound the r,ision, and brood'.
5p (npposite)and e. San \{ichel de Cuxa, mPi
955-74and eleventhcentur)',
ru
ru
A rare example of civic architecture of the planand southelevationof church

W
period is the Tower of Doia Urraca at Covar-
r u b i a s , sd a t e d a b o u t 9 5 o [ 5 3 ] . I t i s h e a v i l y b u i l t a
of Nloorish-looking ashlar, with a strongly bat-
tered prolile , and is empty to half-height, where
it is tunnel-r'aulted. The upper part (nolr de-
u iitil
totl cr,.r't'nr
rEl
I
natured through rebuilding) is cntered through
a horseshoe-shaped arch at this ler.el. In Cata-
lonia, the intcresting horseshoc-arched portico
of San Feliri de Guixols has been preserved. O s IO A1

Catalonia entered upon a flourishing epoch O to 30FT

at this time, under the Counts of Barcelona,
who held it staunchll- against the -N{oors, but
were nevertheless in contact, as septimania had
been, with Peninsular cir,ilization and the N,Ios-
lems. -N1uch history centres in the abbe,v of
Ripoll, which became the dynastic pantheon;
in 977 a vaulted church with fir'c apses was
consecrated there. Surviving decorativc ele-
ments 01'this building have unmisrakable Ntloz-
arabic character, though it was not built b1.
r e f u g e e s[ 7 r ] .
Another abbel ofimportance, San Nlichel de
Cura,+ was founded in 878. Its 'fiftv monks,
twentv servants, extensive lands, thirtv-volume
librarl', hle hundred shcep, fifiy- mares, lbrty
pigs, tlro horses, Iire donkevs, twent\ oxen,
and onc hundrcd other large horned animals'
were put under the protection ofNIiron, Count
of Conflent and Cerdagne. Within a centurv ol
these beginnings the abbe]'rvas powerful antl
had built an important church (955 71) [51]
Parts of this structure which still survive shol
that it was sty'listically \'Iozarabic, like contem-
porarv Ripoll. It had a plain, long, stoutly con-
structed wooden-roof'ed nave and two shortc:'
aisles all opening on an extendcd transept. \
pair of absidioles opened through horscshoc
a r c h e si n t o e a c ht r a n s c p t a r m , a n d a d e e p o b l o n g
s a n c t u a r v e x t e n d e d e a s t r v a r do n t h e m a i n a x i s .
In this period Count Oliba (-abrcto made rt
long risit to Itall', with a y-earat Nlontecassino.
Returning, he multiplicd Benedictine mon-
a s t e r i c si n h i s d o m i n i o n s . a n d m u e h c n l a r g t , l
t h e C a t a l a nh o r i z o n . ' iA C l u n i a c a b b o t , G u a r i n .
was installed at Cuxa in 962, and Cluniac in-
Moorish tradition. Investigations at the church
show, for instance, that some of the N{ozarabic
horseshoearches were modified in Oliba's re-
building. Two large rowcrs of Lombardic char-
acter were added. East of the old sanctuarv an
angular ambulatory with three eastern chapels
was built; clearlv there is a relationship to
French examples in the tradition of Saint-
Philiberrde-Grandlieu.
West of the church o1'
Cuxa, where there had been a stairu.al.and plat-
Iormt the quatrefoil
chapel ol rhe Trinitr uas
built on the axis.
l e a r i n e a n a t r i u m r n i r hl a r e r a l
:ntrances (as at Parcnzo, or at an Ottonian sitc)
rn tront of'the 'l'rinitv
main cloors. Thc
v a u l t e dc h u r c h
o l ' r h c c e n r r a lr r p e w i t h I i a n k i n g
of which rhe cireular crlpr (also $irh
l'l:.'
tlanking
a i s l e s ,a n d a r a u l t e d c \ t e n s i o n r o t h e
the coast near Gerona. As at Cuxa, there was
later building strongly influenced from Lom-
bardl--,but the temper of the whole church goes
backto Oliba's time, and, like Cuxa, it hasgrand
scale and marked local feeling. A text ascribes
the interesting chevet to Tassi, who relbrmed
t h c m o n a s t e r yo f S a n P e r e d e R o d a [ 5 5 , 5 6 ] , a n d
obtained ro]'al French and papal diplomas for it
before his death in 958. A consecration is re-
p o r t e d i n r o z z . I t h a s b e c n e s t a b l i s h e db y S e i o r
Gudiol Ricart that the building took its general
character at this time. The oldest work is a crypt
with an ambulatory, above which is an apse
was a with an ambulator]'. The ambulatory has an
upper gallery with windows which light the
apsc,and altars were installed in it; one thinks
of Chartres (858), Charlieu (r. 95o), Abbot

L--
 P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O p E
euarin(962),and Saint-B6nigne, Dijon (roor
lorT). Excellent ashlar stone was used for the
4chitecturalmembering.The appliedcolumns,
the shapeof the voussoirs,and the horseshoe
alchesin an odd way recallGermigny-des-Pr6s,
whichwasbuilt by Theodulph, who camefrom
this region'
SanPerede Roda hasa trapezoidalsanctuary
bay,a transeptwith absidioles,and a capacious
nave with striking T-shaped piers; the latter
haveapplied shaftswith a varietJ'of beautiful
half-Moorishcapitalsrelatedto thoseof Moz-
arabicCuxa. Quadrant vaults with transverse
archescoverthe tall narrow aisles;the naveand
transeptare coveredwith tunnel vaulting,with
an arch spanning betweeneach opposite pair
of piers.This higher and more elaboratenave
is believedto be the result of a changeof plan
in the eleventhcentury. The resulting design
probablyinfluencedthe nave of the eleventh-
century church of Saint-Andr6-de-Sorddein
S 4 t : .L o u r o s a , p a r i s h c h u r c h , g r z a n d l a t e r
,W<--1
1.tr-.
, n
LrY',-,,,,,
;l
.8
;.
55 and 56 ( abue und right ). san Pere de Roda, near Gcrona, consecratcd rozz, finishcd latcr
L-
gg
French Catalonia - an examole noted for its
earlv sculpluls 1156.
\\ihile we have followed the convention in
calling this Catalan work Mozarabic and Lom-
bard, Sefror Gudiol Ricart is nearer the truth
in classifying it as a voung national style, like
the Asturian.T Further study of the monuments
and svstematic presentation would help greatly.
One final Mozarabic monument, in Castile,
mav be introduced. As a kind of swan song of
the style in the eleventh century we have the
extraordinary hermitage of San Baudelio de
Berlanga, near Burgos [57]. The plan is like
that of a Norse single-masted church with an
oblong sanctuary, but the superstructure, all
vaulted, is very different. Its very blockl'and
austere exterior conceals an interior of fantastic
architectonic richness. A central cylindrical pier
rises to sustain a set ofeight radiating horseshoe
diaphragm arches, which carry a domical vault
with a very ingenious little shrine arranged in
57 ( helon).San Baudeliode Berlanga,
. ith tuclfrh-centurp
c l r v e n t he e n t u r \ ' u r aintitrgs
 IOO PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUI
STYLES
the masonrv above the pier. A raised choir,
really an oratory, is sustained prettily on a forest
of slender shafts placed in quadrille (oriental
f'ashion); horseshoe arches carry the platform.
Formerly the interior was decorated by an
extraordinary series of frescoes, dated about
rr5o, which symbolize the reorientation of the
area, toward France, for the style is quite
Romanesque.d
The strong tide of influence lrom the Moorish
South of Spain in the tenth century, which we
have been considering, also prevented the ex-
pansion and further development of the Astu-
rian proto-Romanesque style. When, with the
progress of reconquest, the capital was moved
to Le6n, the kingdom was much more open to
outside influences than distant Asturias and
Galicia had been. As the eleventh century pro-
gressed, irresistible artistic influences came
from France with political reorientation and
the reform of the church which was effected bv
C l u n i a c m o n a s l i c c l e r g _ vf r o m F r a n c e . T h e
twellth-century rebuilding of the Cdmara Santa
in Oviedo [58] shows this clearly.
58. OviedoCathedral,Cirnara Santa,r. goz.
The nalc somcwharrebuilt, and embellishedwith
sculpturein the twellih ccnturt
ilrl
tl
Conversely, however, knowledge of Moorish
$ (oplosite)and 6o. Cividale,SantaMaria in Valle, the "Iempictto', c.762 76(?)
architecture increased greatly, from the year
rooo onward, among lay folk, technicians, ancl
churchmen who had contacts with Spain. Such
knowledge was widespread in areas where
Romanesque architecture was being formed ar
the time. Saracenic elements are, in conse-
quence, a component of the mature Roman_
esquestvle.
,/'
T H E L O M B A R DK I N G D O M
The strange Tempietto of Santa Maria in Vallc
at Cividale'r [59, 6o] is perhaps most easily expli-
cable as a proto-Romanesque work Roman
architecture surviving in a local variation under .O
Saracenic influence, like the Asturian and Moz-
arabic churches. Santa Maria is traditionalh
idenrified with a building built by peltru.la
Q6z 76) atwhich time the Lombards had south
Italian connexions. The building has a groin-
vaulted nave and a sanctuary with three parallel
tunnel vaults carried in an unstructural fashion
upon columns. As is the case with San Baudelio
t I
de Berlanga, the exrerior is very plain and the , l
interior is very rich; possibly Moslem influence
lrom south Italy is responsible for this. There o 5,{
are no horseshoe arches at Cividale. and we ffia!-
L-
IO2 PRE-ROMANESQUEAND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES
should not expect them here at this time; lbr
they spread only after being assimilated into
the Nloorish art of Spain.
There is clearly some outside influence in the
decorative stucco mouldings and bands of the
interior of Santa Maria. Stucco work was prac-
tised with rare art by the Saracens and Byzan-
tines; also more often than we are likely to
remember, by pre-Romanesque and Roman-
esque sculptors in both France and Germany.
What is most remarkable at Cividale is the per-
fect preservation of a frieze ol six beautiful
standing figures in stucco, gracefully posed, and
b o l d l y m o d e l l c d l i k e f i n e R o m a n e s q u ec a r v i n g s .
They were applied as integral plaques to the
wall. Perhaps a refugee from the Byzantine
iconoclastic controversy was the artist; even the
Byzantinism of the near-by Exarchate and
Venice would explain the character of the
sculptures.
The Lombards, aggressorsagainst Rome and
Montecassino, are generally thought of as
destroyers. However, they had a fairly well
organized state, with administrative cadres at
Pavia, their capital. After the conquest (774) the
Franks utilized these cadres, and thev aided in
the task of setting up Charlemagne's empire.
Yet there are two established facts which give
the Lombards a place in the history of proto-
Romanesque architecture. Rotharis, the first of
their kings to issue laws in his own name,
registered the privileges of the builders in 643,
and thus had something to do with the organi-
zation and revival of architecture in the region.
Again, about 7 r 4, King Liutprand issued a dip-
lomr with respect to a price scale for architec-
tural and structural work.lo
Milan, the metropolis of Lombardy, had been
a great centre in classical times, and came to be
so again, especially after the conquest of Lom-
bardy by the Franks under Charlemagne (774\.
One would expect an architectural revival to
begin there, and indeed this occurred in
the ninth century. I{owever, King Rotharis's
P R O T O _ R O M A N E S Q T J EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H t r R N E U R O P E r03
charter of 643 ref'ers to the builders as magistri the Exarchate. This latter iurisdic- aptly so named by Josep Puig i Cadafalch, who
Rome and
commacini or comacini, and on this basis it has was set up by the East-Roman Emperor first clearly discerned the significance of this
tion
been supposed that there was a guild at Como ylaurice about 6oo' was conquered by the Lom- fact. Outside the Exarchate, the style was first
because they threatened the used and spread by the Lombards, which iusti-
which created and spread Lombardic architec- bards in 7<2, and,
ture. If the Comacine rdgime was observed ovcr pope,it was freed from their rule by Pepin III, fies its older name, Lombardic. In the end it
a wide area, comacini may have come to mean pho gave it to the Roman pontiffs (7-5.16). made an architectural reconquest ofa large part
simply builders, as lambardos came to mean The Byzantine Exarchate, with its continued of the area of the West-Roman empire, and for
masons, even in Spain. That there was a guild Eastern connexions, maintained an architecture that reason the French have called the style
organization of some sort, involving establishcd which was at one and the same time a living tmperi,tl, or Ju Bas-EnPire.
ideas of responsibility, training, and compensa- continuation of Late Roman architecture and The Erarchate has several important Byzan-
tion does not admit of doubt, and we owe Lom- an active outpost of the newly-constituted By- tine monuments, which our exposition takes up
bardic architecture to the creative work of thesc zantine style.lr No other early medieval stvle merely in their proto-Romanesque aspect.
guildsmen. On the other hand comacini is an had so august a lineage. As Ravenna paled in Galla Placidia's 1'amous tomb 16rl, built in
obscure word, and it cannot be shown to have a turn, the Ravennate style was simplified until it the decade or two before 45o, looks towards
connexion with Como, nor can Como be shown could successfully be put at the service of the Romanesque architecture through its perfectly
to have had a central'masonic' guild organiza- struggling barbarian kingdoms. Thus, without straightlbrward brick exterior, with simple cor-
tion of wide importance. The word comacinr a break, it became a proto-Romanesque style. bels and decorative arcading of the sort which
dropped out of use in the early Middle Ages. Its roots and its stem are Roman; its branches becomes the most ('amiliar adornment of the
Because pryX,avi in Greek, machina in Latin, are authentically the First Romanesque style, First Romanesquestyle.
and rnacina in Italian may mean a frame or'
scaffold, magistri comacini has been interpreted 6r. Ravenna,Tomb of Galla Placidia,r. 45o
,naster-clmpanions of the sco.ffold.Because the
tradition of architecture was better maintained
in the Greek Exarchate than in Lombardy, thc
name may be connected with some obscure
Greek word - or e\en p4xayrrd6, which mean:
contriver or designing architect.lr Whatever the
meaning, the comacini wrought well in prepar-
ing the architectural revival in Lombardy.
T H E B Y Z A N T I N EE X A R C H A T E
After Rome's glorious period, the centre of ad-
ministration fbr Italy was moved to Milan (in
Diocletian's time) and then to Ravenna (4oz),
but the life of the Empire at that time was most
vivid in the East. Yet Milan was flourishing in
the period, which is that of St Ambrose, its grett
bishop (374-97), who baptized St Augusttne
there in 384. The abounding fertility of the l)o
V a l l e y k e p t M i l a n p r o s p e r o u se v e n d u r i n g t h c
unhappy rule of the Lombards, and when thrt
was terminated (774), the region cam!into el en
closer relationships with its neighbours, papal
b-
 r04 PRE-ROMANESQUE ANDpROTO_ROMANESQUE STyLES
62. Ravenna,San Vitale, .52647
San Vitale (Sz6-+l) [62] has a number ofin-
teresting f-eatures.Its plan suggested that ofthe
Palatine Chapel at Aachen, where the columnar
screens are simplifications of its pierced apses.
'I'he
entrance-tower-and-reliquary chapel at
Aachen with its stairwavs is, though difi'erentlv
proportioned, partly dependent on the narthex
of San Vitale. This is true of the westwork of
Saint-Riquier also. The exterior of San Vitale
has decorative arcading and pilaster strips which
are bolder and more medier.al in 1brm than
thoseof the mausoleum of Galla placidia and
are hencc to be counted in the prehistory ol'thc
First Romanesquc style.
Flanking the apse at San Vitale there are two
pylons somewhat resembling those of'the con_
P R O T O - R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I N S O U T H E R N E U R O P E
(Fr6mista). and a group ol
Soanish church
in and near Rarennai but the round
liut.h.t
plays a distinctly minor role in church
tower
the engaging idea ofa chapel at the
design. Even
r o u n d tower' recordedin the plan ofSt
top ofa
was never represented as far as we know in
Gall,
The square belfry tower,
an actual building.
at San Lorenzo in Milan (t. Zlil,
adumbrated
added in 754
started supposedly with the one
rapidlv
to the east front ofOld St Peter's, spread
and thencc, through the First
to Lombardy
Romanesque style, became almost universal.
A bell large enough to be heard at a distance
could not properly and decorously be rung from
the crossing space ofa church becluse ofits verv
the exterior belfr5'
$eat inertia. Thus inevitabl.v
wall (bell-cote or wall belfrl') and, for grcater
height, the belfry tower, were developed, the
nrme campanile being doubtfully connected
withCampania. ra
The Benedictines. centred at \Iontecassino,
which is in Canrpania, carll' adoptcd bclls
Nothing certain remains at \'lontecassino, vet
Benedictines built some of the carliest known
belfry towers, in l'act square belfries veritable
Roman ,arra.s, built up integrally from the
ground
at Ravenna. Earliest is that of San
Giovanni (Benedictine in 89J); San Pier NIag-
temporar\, Svrian architecture. In I'act, San giore has a contemporary square belfr-v, accord-
Vitale has three types oftower the pylons ju:r ing to Corrado Ricci. A sign of'carly date in the
mentioned, a round stair tower attached to the various belfiies ofRavenna, he observes, is the
narthex, and its mate, carried up to form .l fact that thel,are not s]'stematic in their location
cylindrical belfrv aftcr the Benedictines took with regard to rhechurches.l:
o v e r t h e c h u r c h i n g r o .L 3 Most important is thc fact that the squirre
P y l o n s , t h o u g h t h e l ' a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y . s e e ni n belfry was adoptccl early in Lombardy', and
the early church architccture ol'the West, clid spread thence to Burgundl', where it appcared
not have a long history there. -I'he round stair oetore the end of tho renth centurv. 'l'hrough
tower continued in use, usually on a small scalc. Abbot Odo of Clunv and his successors, wh<l
'l'here x n e w L o m b a r d l w e l l , t h c s q u : r r eb e l fr v b e c a m e m a i n e n t r a n c c o f t h e S a c r c d P a l a c ei n C , o n s t a n -
were exceptions like the Irish round
tamiliarin
towers, the flanking stair towers ol' Sainr- n o r t h e r n E u r o D e .B o t h t h e n a r t h c x o l ' t i n o p l e . T h e p o r c h , g u a r d r o o m r v i t h d o r m i t o r ' 1 .
B 6 n i g n e ,D i j o n ( r e a l l y L o m b a r d F i r s t R o m a n c s - Saint-Philibert at 'I'ournus (rlatcd about t.;<.1o courtl'ard, and chapcl of the Sar iour, are orga-
q u e ) , m i n o r t o w e r s o f c e r t a i n G e r m a n c h u r c h es totg) and
that of the second church ar Clunr.
(like Trier Cathedral), the belfrv of Pisa Carh- built betwecn
9 4 8 o r q 5 5 a n d t 1 8 r .r u r . l . . o - -
ptete by
edral (the famous leaning tower), one importanr the 1,car rooo, had a pair of beltiies on
L-
IO5
the west f'agade, flanking the main door. At
Cluny the crossing beltry, instead of being a
wooden turritus uqet, was built as an oblong
'I'his
tower of somewhat Lombard character'
process is a perl'ect case of a Roman idea living
on in the Exarchate, taking medieval form there,
and, after being systematized by monastic prac-
tice, being spread to Lombardy and thence to
great areasof Western Christendom.
S a n t ' A p o l l i n a r e i n C l a s s e( S : : + 9 ) , t h o u g h a
fine basilica ol'the ancient type, is also import-
ant lrom the point of view of incipient medi-
'l'he
evalism. apse and thc lateral chapels at the
east end build up in boldly articulated forms
which lbrecast the vigorous handling of masses
-I'he
in medieval architecture. bold west front
h a s a n a r c a d e da x i a l p o r c h ; t h e a d i o i n i n g d w a r f
tower with its mate (now destroyed) made a
p a i r o f ' p y l o n s l t t h e f b g a d e . r tS
' ant'Apollinarc
also has an archaic example of the ambulatorv
crvpt like that ot Olcl St Peter's. It is sometimes
dated as earll as 8oo; at anl rate it is an addition,
and probablv ol'the ninth centurl'.
Also interesting fbr our purpose is the upper
part ofthe Baptistery'ofNeon in ltavenna, pos-
sessingan undlted but earll' example of the
pilaster strip with arched corbel-table between,
which is to be the hallmark of the First Roman-
e s q u e s t 1 ' l c ,r v h e r e r - e ri t i s l b u n d , i n I t a l y , D a l -
matia, France, Spain, Switzerland, and Ger-
'I'his
many. part of the Baptisterv wall is olien
ascribed to the eighth centurv, but it ma1'be
carlier.
The same applies to the fiontispiece of the
s o - c a l l e d P a l a c eo f t h c E x a r c h s r t [ 6 j 1 . H e r e w e
h a v e a b u i l d i n g w h i c h i s c x t r a o r d i n a r i l . vl i k e t h e
maturc Romanesque of Lombardl l'et in f unc-
tion like thc gu:rrd quarters of'thc (-halki at thc
nized in Blzantine fashion,and were probablv
built, with the protcctive palace wall, when the
Lomblrtls bt'gln to c\lend thcir poucr. alter
IOO PRE.ROMANESQUE AND PROTO-ROMANESQUE STYLES

TWO
PARI

STYLES
THE EARLIER ROMANE,SQUE

CHAPTER 5

THE.FIRST ROMANESqUE'

into
venna to the comacine masters' and thence
LOMBARDY ure'
t h e c u r r e n t o f R o m a n c s q u r ;a r c h i t e c t
building
year 8oo in Lom- In the Dark Ages there was littlc
The style created about the
intern:rttonirl which calted lbr the scrvicesofhighl!'instructed
bardy became the first reallv never
ramifications were earll- prol'essionalmen, but there rvas probably
Rornan..qn. style. Its
to southern France and a timc ruhen such nren rvere unavailable'
spread to Dalmatia, -l'he was
countrv' man who drew the plan of St Gall
Catalonia, to Burgundy, to the Rhine the Greek namc tor an
work' like a Greek p4XatrroE-
63. Ravenna,Palaceofthe Exarchs,after7rz and even to Hungary' Late Carolingian '.rrchitect W4avi being the worcl for an intrl-.
as we shall see, f o r m e d a s t r o n g ' s a t i s f i ctor]'
ot
with cate device ol some sort' The d'p4rccrctav
7r2. All was surely built befbre the f'all of the [3or] in the porch and campanile built in thc and consistent style in the west of'France' somewh'rt inde-
the Greeks rvas a responsible,
Exarchate in 752, and is described as old by eler,enth century by Abbot Guido ol'Ravenna imposing monuments (now lost) to its credit' 'clerk of the works''1 William of Vol-
pendent
Agnello, writing befbre 85o. Yet the wall-work a r e o f R a v e n n a t e o r i g i n . O t h e r f ' c a t u r e so f t h c It had an excellent s-vstemof lvall constructlon was both
o i a n o . a b b o t o f ' S a i n t - B 6 n i g n e, D i i o n ,
ofbig bricks, the paired openings, the decorarivc citv's architecture were also widely known ancl developed by the Gallic masons' but no tradi- r e'-c.r e nd u s abhas
rx 6; and' itppr trc trov
arcading, the vlulting, and the buttressing ale c o p i e d . T h e o b a l d , b i s h o p o f A r e z z o , s p e a k s0 1 tion for vaulting on a large scaleor at high ler els' 1*1Xav "'
mugistrttscondttcentlo et ipsum rtpus tbctond0 ' tnsu-
practicall]- identical with Lombard Roman- 'Nlaginardo
arte architectonica optime erudit,i In the other regions named, the incoming Lom- tlttstru-
tlautes t l i g n u n t l i i ' i n o c u l t u i t e n t p l u n t
esque work produced in the four following whom he sent to study in Ravenna in the vear bardic style pushed local building methods into
the patron
discard; western France maintained its own x e r u n t ' . 2U n d e r m e d i e r a l c o n d i t i o n s
centuries. Ioz6. Nlaginardo moved on a rvell-trarellerl to manage his
'First Roman- would generally have a delegate
Corrado Ricci believed that Romanesque road. to a I'amous source of architectural traditions unaffected by the in-
opcration' which might
esque'. sirle of ihe builtling
terracotta insets as lbr example at Pomposa knowledge.lT Leo of
'style' in the literary sense clucle supply and transport o1'materials'
It was no mere
rebuilding
which was transmitted from the Exarchate to Ostia. u'ho carefullv described the
b1. Abbot Desidenus' was pro-
Lombardy, but a living and efrfrcaciouss-Ystem of \[ontecassino
abbot's dclegate' l'he master builder'
of building, with a particular skill in vaulting' bably the
like ihe Greek dpVtircrrr;t'' would direct the
In this we recognize Rome's ancient skill in co-
master masons and work
ordination. T'he practical, working s-vstcms r,arious groups of
on a
which produce a building are more important gangs. Gangs would hale their forcmen
proje.t, and somc would actuall-v come as
than literary-minded critics suspect' and can iarg,
o n l y b e a p p r e c i a t c d t o t h e f u l l b y p e r s o n a l t e a m st o t h c s i t e.
con-
participation in the intricate teamwork b1'which The magistri in charge ol thc practtcal
h u i l c l a r c r l b u i l d i n g ' e v e n it.
successful building operations are conducted struction lould
'idea man' gar'e them only a
This aspect of the art can be traced tiom Ra- the l1ryXavffi6E or

L-
 I09
THE.FIRS'TROMANESQUE
IOI' E A R I - I E RR O M A N E S Q U S
ETYLES

The walls
stones ing, anclthe vaults solid and stlong
linear diagram with the chief' dimensions as the abbey of F6camp in Normandy, wh116 ,,,.,,- The masonsmerely split small was occa-
g u i d e , b e c a u s ee x p e r i e n c e , i n t h a t a g e o f c o n - William ruled, he received the plea: 'In 16. t!"i"iiio'" ke.sh
a-brick-ri
[rtut""".^ ^ h"iclr-like shaoe. and used them were ofien covcred \\ ith stucco, which

vcntional and even habitual procedurcs, dic- mattcr o{'the craftsmen sf our buildings whiqS
toub'"J lt': ::1.I ilL .lll]
s or rounded rircr sionallv ruled with tblse ioints to represent
iik. bri.k"':'9i'i1 has a
tated the sizc and matcrial of the walls. as well
as thc spans and the intcrior proportions. T'hat
we arc commencing, we beseech that you \ill
hastcn to send them to us, fbr we reall-v nce4
fi ,;,1',thorizontalcourses
I*"::Tl':: ot
:l'l^:,. ^_.r i.o^ninr
II:."Tf,'l,Tll"-",1:
rsrr ashlar. Ilut stucco, properly applied'
beauty o l i t s o w n . I t h a s t o o o f t e n b e e n stripped
in
[*;;;'into :ilt'l.t ll: by the {iom interiors; on the exteriors it vanishcs
is how the plan of St Gall could satisiyan early them Q,alde nnbis necessarii sunt)' - in a regiol tntt was doubtlesssuggested
iio.r. worl' and about two hunclred vears'
or herringbone
spt(d.tu.tn
,ii.n, rO,'
medieval master.'I'he dimensioneddescription which was slowly recovering from the devasrr-
the F irst Romrnesqut \-aults werc huik, like Romln raults' orcr
o 1 ' t h c a b b c - vo f C l u n v o f 1 o , 1 3w a s m a d c f r o m a tions and (afier g r o) the new immigration of the irliounat in buildingsof 'l a great
centering or f-alse-work u'hich provided
similar linear diagram, as we know from the Norsemen.5 lrtn the elevcnth.centurr" he hearting l i t t l e b o a r d s h eld in
Short
"",,t n o t p u d d l e di n s u p p o r t i ; g m o u l d .
obserrcd fact that many-of the dimensions in- For a considerable area this process o{'crlli ^ j . o r . o f a s t o n ew a l l u a s and poles formed the bed
poritio., bl trusses
and lbrm' but \4asrather 'So-.tim.,
clude a room or corridor width plus one wall. dilfusion started in Lombardv. Lomhardus bc- iroro, inriat t facing earth was heaped on the tbrms lnd
with somecare'
With incrcasing size and complication in came the word for mason at an early pcriod. a roughrubble laid
"'inJun.i.", where the Sieometrvof the vault was
buildings, a more numerous group o(' proii's- Clearlr, the more-than-half-Latin Lombard credit is giventhesemen lbr their moulded,
thc fbrm' roughll-' shapcd stones
materialsfor therrmor- difficult. On
sional desig;ncrsand clerks of the works came builders were onlv doing for the revir,ed Empir.r skillin findingexcellent mortar' and the haunches ol the
good qualitv' wcre laid in
into being the magistri par excellence. Evi- what their forebears had done for the Romrn *nl.ft is almostinvariablyof brought up with hearting work ln
endur- vault were
dcncc lbr thern in the earll' period is shadowl', Empire. *h"r"u., found. It makesthe wall-work
"t,
but in Gothic timcs their function is far too well One might call the First Romanesquestrlc
of r llr4 33, liom the south-east
eleventhccnturv' in tradition of church
recognizcd ancl too spccialized to be of recent the st.vleofthis Italian architectural reconqucsr. 64.Milan, San Vincenzoin PrJto'
'l'he
creation. myth o1'thc dc\'oted f'aithful spon- It is worth noting also that a large portion of
t a n e o u s l vr a i s i n g m c d i c v a l s h r i n e si s d i s s o l r . i n g , the work was clone lbr the monasteries. q'hich
n o w t h a t r e i e r l n t d o c u m e n t a r v e v i d e n c cl b r t h e from the earll"tenth century onwards becanre
buildings has bcen discorercd and studied.' i n c r e a s i n g l vt h e i n s t r u m e n t o f p a p a l p o l i c v a n d
U n t i l t h e t o r v n s a n d t h e m o n a s t e r i e sb e c a m c implcmented the first stages of the pontific..il
large, the masons neccssarilv worked as travel- conqucst of Europe which Gregory VII and
ling bands. It was the samewith bell-fbunders, Bonilhce VIII achieved. Rome. revir.ed once
g l a s s - m a k e r s ,s t u c c o w o r k e r s , l r e s c o p a i n t e r s , again in the Renaissance, made another anrl
and mosaicists, fbr a longer period. Bernardo, more lamiliar architectural reconquest.
who had l French name, and fiIn' master The magistri nmacini1 had more than thc
masons, manv of thcm indubitablv French. a n c i e n t r ep u t a t i o n o f ' I t a l i a n b u i l d c r s t o r e c o m -
were crrlled b1' bishop Diego Pcldez to work 'l'hey
mend them. had a new type of wall con-
(trom ro7-q onwards) at thc rcmore Galician struction, r'hvthmically decorated and pleasanr
c a t h e d r a lo f S a n t i a g o d e C o m p o s t e h . Y c t A b b o r to look at, which lvas pracrical and proved irs
Suger lt Saint-Denis, onlv a f'erv miles from t u s cuf l n e s so v e r t h e r v h o l e l v i c l ea r e ao 1 ' t h e F i r s r
medieval Paris, was no better oll. When his Romanesque stvle, e\.en where conditions wer(
grclt church rvasundertaken (about rr1.5) he p r i m i t i v e . T h e v a d o p t c d t h e B 1 ' z a n t i n et y p c 0 l
r v a so b l i g e d , a s h e s a \ s , t o c a l l c r a f i s m e n f r o m oblong brick (rvhich, because of thc mapistrr.
v a r i o u s r c g i o n s a n d c o n s i d e r a b l ec l i s t a n c e s . a has come dorvn to us) and built whole walls ol
A,n atelier thus assembled might become it as we do. without fbrm work. instcaclof mak-
rooted; it would gir.e training to local talent, i n g p u d d l c d c o n c r e t ew a l l s l a c e d w i t h t r i a n g u l a r
and in time become a centre lrom rvhich crafts- t a i l i n g b r i c k h e l d b - vf-b- r m s , a s t h e R o m a n s d i d
m e n c o u l c l h e s e n t e l s e r v h e r e .W i l l i a m o { ' V o l - Such comacine walls wcre called opus ronra-
piano brought crafismen lrom his native Lom- 'fhc
rrrrs,'. ancient Romans had used facing
barclr.a
, n d i t i s b e l i e v e dt h a t t h e i ' w o r k e d o n h i s stoncs also, but the First Romanesque wall-
abbel church in Dijon, begun in roor. From work which der.eloped from this was called zrpr.ri

L-_
 \

tHn'nlnst RoMANESQUF.
IIO EARLIER ROJ\TANESQUE STYLES

the First Romanesque style, p5roinvaults were columns' with a \ault tralized edifice clated about to4o, with sophisti-
Milan, the Lombard capital, has lost its Carqr , i s l e s ,c a r r i e d o n r e - u s e d
f r e e l y u s e d ; a p s e sw e r e r e g u l a r l y v a u l t e d , a n d lingian and First Romanesque buildings. These s a n c l u a r \ h l v s a n d a p s e sa ( t h c h e a d o f c a t e d u s e o f s q u i n c h e s a n d b u t t r e s s e s ,t h o u g h
^*r rtta
tunnel vaults were also common. In lvork which have, however, a good representative in the l ' h e b u i l dcrs did nol rentttre rough in construction. Nlore conventional is the
ile composirion
can surelv be traced to Lombards, tunnel vault- simple columnar basilica of San Vincenzo in under the tunnel raulting ol the stone-built basilica of San Paregorio at Noli,"
i'.I...r,or.
{est of Genoa in Liguria. Its exterior is u'ell
ing is little, and r,erv cautiouslv, used at high Prato [64], a brick structure so conser\.ativel\ b a 1s ' b u t t h e a p s e sw e r e p i c r c c d u i r h
lrn.r,,ur,
levels. For crossing r,aultsthe Lombards used rebuilt in the eleventh century that it was ac- lbr the thrust ol a semidomc composed lnd gracclulll' dccorated lvith pilaster
nindo*t s usual' r
a derivative ol'the Roman domical or octagonal cepted (except certain details) as the church of than that of tunnel or groin vault- strips and arched corbel tables. f'he apses' the
i, mu.tt less
cloister vault, rather than the Byzantine dome. r. 8r4 j3.i Its only vaulting is in the thrct plattbrm is raised at San cr\pt, and the aisles are vaulted. Substantitl
lg. fh. sanctuarv
p i e r s o f ' l o g i c a l l y 'g r o u p e d e l e m e n t s s u s t a i n t h c
The Lombardic crypts, groin-vaulted or,er a parallel apses, henceforth characteristic of this pi-atro, there is a spacious groin-\'aulted 'l'his
""a r,aulting and the high clerestorv wall' was
quadrille ofcolumns, are characteristic, and are type ofbuilding. 1'his part ofSan Vincenzo has crypt *ith lirteral entrances under this plat(brm'
widelv used within the areaof the style. the tell-tale First Romanesque pilaster srrips level ol' the church as at a ler-v acccptablc tYPeof building xt the time'
at the pavement
By the tenth centurv architectural member- San Pietro at Agliate about rozo 4o. The third monument, San
and arched corbel tables, with typical arched Sant'Apollinare in Classe'
ing of ashlar was again in use. Second-hand recessesunder the ea.r'esof the main apse. but attractive wall-work' Pietro at Civate, near Como and Lecco, is dated
is stone-built. ofcrude
c o l u m n a r c a p i t a l sa n d s h a f t s w e r e b 1 t h i s t i m e o f t h e o l d e s t p a r t s with the irbout ro4o. It is a double-ender' uith the en-
San Pietro at Agliate, near Milan, rhough and a c o m p a r i s o n
how easil-v trance passageflanked prettill.b-v two absidiolcs
almost unobtainable. The practice ofmaking big now assigned to the eleventh century, well rcp- twelfth-centurY campanile will show
gre\l' oLlt {bcing east lvithin the mass of the western apse'
blocks especiallv for their places brought about r e s e n t sw o r k o f t h e d a t e f o r m e r l t ' a t t r i b u t e d r o theaccomplished mature Romanesque 'l'hese
a p r o g r e s s i re i m p r o \ e m c n t i n t h e m a s o n r r ' . p r i m i t i v e s t v l e l n p a s sing' the three elements open upon a wooden-
i t , , . 8 7 5 [ 6 S ' ] .I t h a s a b a s i l i c a n n a v e a n d r u o of the more
roof'ed nave through three arches beneath a
baptistery should be mentioned as a companlon
tvmpanum fiescoed rvith the Victorl o'r'erElil'
65. Agliate,San Pietro,chevet,style ofr. 87s example of a building of the central n'pe 'fhe
altar of San Pietro hls a rcmarkable old
(about goo).
baldacchinoresembling that of Sant'Ambrogio
Santo Stefano in Verona. rebuilt about 99o,
in NIilan.
has a cr1'pt and an apse,each of'which is sup-
plied with an ambulatorv, the upper one open-
ing on the main apse through an arched colon- D A L M A TI A
nade. Ivrea Cathcdral (be(bre rooz) has the
The f urther spread of the Lombard st1--le'and
w r e c ko f a s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c l i o n . '
in
the round church tvpc, are both exemplificd
B e f o r e l e a l i n g t h e s ee a r l v b u i l d i n g s . m e n t i o n
San D o n a t o N Z a d ^ r ( Z a r a ) , Y u g o s l a v i a , b u i lt
should be made ol screral interesting monu- - or
ments which show continuing Brzantine in- during thc Frankish occupation (8tz'76)
i')
fluence in Lombardl'. San Satiro at \Iilan (ti76) at latest befbre 9,19, when it was describccl
of
is, except for Renaissance additions, a perlect This building has an interestinganticipation
Byzantine four-column church. Its tower, dated the ambulatory with radiating chapels An an-
a b o u t r o 4 3 , i s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s to f t h e c h a r a c - nular aisle surrounds the central space' irnd
'lhe ex-
teristic Lombartl square toners. apse of o p e n s o n i t t h r o u g h a r c h e s ,w h i c h a r e s i n g l e
cept at the east, rvhere there are three arches
Sant'Ambrogio has mosaics dating from about
rusting on columns. Opposire lhese t-rprnings
94o, when the present svstem of cr1.pt, choir
apse,and flanking sanctuaries was built' a r e t h e t h r e e a p s e s .C o n t i n u i n g f r o m t h e a p s e s
Three monuments near the borders of Lom- ( t o e a c h s i d e ) t h e e n c l o s i n g w a l l h : r s a s e r i c so f
bardy show the First Romanesque stvle on the niche recesses.
threshold of maturity, lacking onh' the greater
finish of execution and perhaps the sculptural
C A T A L O N I AA N D A N D O R R A
embellishment which are lbund in the Sccond
Romanesque style. 'lhe lirst of these buildings Westwarclexpansion of the First Romanesque
Lombardv
is the bantisterv of Biella, near Norara, a cen- stvle across thc south of Frirnce fiom

^L--
 THE.FIRST ROMANI]SQUE rl3
II2 E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S

ol filling abore the web

i s c e r t a i n b u t n o t w e l l m a r k e d b y e a r l y .m o n u - tem, came into a region which built successlirl 61i directly .' .tlbblt in southernbut
is practical
m e n t s , t h o u g h w o r k o f F i r s t R o m a n e s q u ec h a r - tunnel vaults related to Roman, \Ioslern, ,r111 ^iiif,. r.rut,. uhich
'l'he climales Conserrartre oprnlon
acter survives in the cathedral of Vence. Thc p e r h a p s P r o v e n q a l ex a m p l e s .
resultrnq tiiatin not,h.tn
lnt
in particular) dates
stvle sureh camc to (,atalonia bv land and by'. tunnel-\.rulted work is more properlt callrcl of Senor Gudiol.Ricart
s e a . I ' h e C a t a l a n s ,t h e n a s n o w l i v i n g o n b o t h Lombardo-Catalan Iiirst Romanesque. somewhatlater' Low and unas-
)iJ.nur.tttt
-fhe are ver] happilyrelated
slopes of' the Pr,renees in Rousillon and the interest ofthe stvle residcsin its ex|111 l"r;"t, the structures
setting. with a look of naturalobiects
eastern part of the Sprnish N{arch of Charle- v a u l t i n g a t a n e a r l ) ' d a t e ,t h o u g h w o o d e n - r o o l i d ,]il
'*"Tur,than buildings'

lrom
magne, werc in a lbrtunate period, rvhen the churches were also built. Senvor Puig i (.atlrr- rather
the year rooo a notableexampleof

W,W
Countl' of'Barcelona was flourishing;. The new l h l c h b e l i e v e st h a t r a u l t e d c o n s t r u c t i o nt a n l r q
"fr.t Lonbardo-Catalirnstvlc was built
this vaulted

l[[lilq
modc at first coalesccd with and then sup- traccd back to the middle ol the tenth cenrur\,
spur of the hugc moun-
planted a stronglv Nlozarabic architectural st\1e. He datcs thc church ol' L'Ecluse (La Clu:rr1. sn 1 pi.tut..que
N { a n v g o o c le x a m p l e s x e r e b u i l t , a n d s t i l l s u r - norv in French Catalonia (aisled, with thlee ,ri" rn"* calleclthe Canigou,r: above Prades
vir,e almost unchanged in back-countrv places p a r a l l e lt u n n e l v a u l t s ) , a b o u t 9 5 o ; s o a l s o S a n t a in Fr.n.h Catalonia'
,..,orrtion
Long-continued neglect
nccessar-v about sixt-v-five
i'i \
lvhich have cscapcd thc der'.rstating effccts of' \{arir at Amer, dedicated in 949; and Sanra trda
" but the work was well and lovingly
later prosperity. The result is that the Irirst Cccilia de Montserrat [66] an interestinq ,.rr, "go,
a witness'
R o m a n e s q u es t y l e i s b e t t e r r e p r c s e n t e di n C a t a - church, perhaps the one dedicated in 957. In ion. ,o that the building standsirs
setting' to the
lonia than anywhere elsc.rl
It must be noted that the stvle, rvith its
that 1'ear St Stephen at Baiiolas rvas rebuilt in
t h e s a m ew a v a f t er b e i n g b u r n e d b v N o r s e m e n .
completein its inspiring original
architectrr. of that remotc agc [67-q]' ('harac- I
to St
characteristic masonrv rvork and decorative sys-
'I'hese
buildings had thcir slopinpt stone roots teristicallyit is a monasterl-(dedicated

66. \Iontserrat, SantaCecilia,giT or latcr,

fiom the east

i 5 n

6r rnd 68. Saint-\'lartin-du-(-anigou,roor z0

(rrstorccl),intcrior and analltical perspcctire

>--
 I o o r 2 ( )( r c s t o r c d ) .
6 9 .S a i n t - . \ 4 a r t i n - d u - C a n i g o u .
view from the south
Martin) with the austere, solidly built church
and conventual quarters arranged about a small
cloister. The rooms command lovely views.
Awinding approach road leads to and through
a splendid big tower, strategically placed and
crowned with Moorish stepped battlements
which break its substantial mass against the skv
as happily as the characteristic pilaster strips
and arched corbel tables model its ample sur-
faces. This tower composes beautifully with
the rocky masses and with the building group;
it is contiguous to the church on the north-east.
The church is on two levels. Its crypt has
tunnel vaulting with transverse arches carried
on two frlesofgrouped piers, except at the head,
where there are two oblong piers and two
columns carrying a set of nine groin vaults iust
in front ofthe three apses.Beyond the west end
ofthe church crypr there is another, which sup-
ports a platform in front ofthe church proper.
The latter is as long as the two crypts together,
ilnd consequently the three church apsesextend
beyond the crypt rpr.r, to*r.ds the east.
For its period, the superstructure of the
church is a remarkable achier,ement. The three
long tunnel
vaults which cover the nave have
only ten interior
supports two sets of four
columnar shafts with simply-can'ed capitals,
separated bl two grouped piers supporting
arches which greatly strengthen the middle part
of the building, where a tunnel vault is most
likely to collapse. The tower, the lateral recesses
(including a chapel with a quadrant vault), and
the monastery buildings abut the high vault so
well that only a fraction of it collapsed during
a century's neglect of the rooling surface after
the secularization and abandonment of the site
in r785.
The church interior is lighted only from the
ends, which might seem to be a defect in the
building - but, in f-act, many of the monastic
services take place at night. Also, it was usual
for the monks to know large parts of their liturgy
by-heart, and therefore natural light was not so
important.
Clearly, Saint-Martin-du-Canigou is an ex-
cellent piece of architecture: the more so be-
cause it is of earl-v date - roor to roog (for a
preliminary consecration) and Ioz6. The monk
Sclua, who superintended the building, became
t h e f i r s t a b b o t i n r o I 4 , a p p a r e n t l y - a f t e ra p r e -
liminary regime under Oliba, abbot of Ripoll
and Cuxa, later bishop of Vich (Ausona)' whom
we have already mentioned.rr
I16 E A R L I D R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S

f'he architecture of the period came to a high
point at the monastery of Ripoll under Oliba.
A spacious cruciform church with double aisles,
transept, and seven apses was begun about rozo
(possiblv incorporating some older work), and
dedicated to the Virgin on r January ro3z)l
[7o-3]. Afier many vicissitudes the building
was restored (imperf'ectly, romantically, and
too radically), between r886 and r893. Its mag-
nificent plan was unmistakably inspired by Old
St Peter's in Rome, and the vaulting as un-
mistakabll.by Roman imperial works. The nave
vault is modern, but parts ofthe transept vault
are old. Santa Maria de Ripoll was without
doubt one of the grandest works in the First
Romanesque sty.le. The rough stone, which is
usual in the stvle, and the heavy, obstructile
piers (which made the modern tunnel vault pos-
sible) give a sombre character, but it must be
remembered that the church had extensive fres-
coes, a iewelled altar, and a mosaic pavemenr
Santa\4aria' r ' ro2o-.12(restored
with animals and sea monsters. The chief strr_ rz and73 -Ripoll.
and ui"* lrom thc south-cast
viving embellishment of the building is a carlg6 ilan
doorway ofthe twelfth century, connected iconr
ographically wirh manuscripts created in thr
scriptorium which flourished from about g5o.
Ripoll was one of the lights of its age. ft had
a large library (246 volumes in ro46), and it5
school was illustrious for works of historr,,
poetry, astronomv, music, and mathematics.L;
T h e r a n g e o f O l i b a ' s o w n a c t i v i r i e si s i n d i c a t c d
by his personal friendships with Pope Beneclict
VIII, with Gaucelin, the great abbot of Fleurv,
and (it is said) with Hugh of Semur who became
abbot of Cluny shortly after Oliba's death.
'I'he
stone sculpture at Saint-Martin-clu-
Canigou, Cuxa, and Vich is not remarkablcl
but at Ripoll there are still in existence a lcrv
interesting pieces which show the influence of
fine Moorish workmanshipr(, [7r]. With good

7o and 7r. Ripoll, Santa\'Iaria, r. rozo 3z (restolerl

r 8 8 6 g 3 ) ,i n t e r i o r( n a r ev a u l tm o d e r n ) ,a n d
capitalin N{crorish stvle.tenth or clerenrh centurr

L
 (FIRST II9
THF- ROMAN[,SQUE'
IItJ E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q U S
ETYI-ES

'l'ournus
a sysrem and the regions around Clun.v and
so conr incing and purposeful
stonc-carvers becoming available in Catalonia, by half-Moslem San Pere de Roda, as Serior n
t je t ef idirnt i .
l "c, u Diion (whither the st-vlewas brought about 9tl7
Gudiol Ricart says) has a similar lintel, more 61 dctelopment as can lhese doctlina] follow it to
and because the milieu was intellectual, it may and or roor by William o{'Volpiano), we
less contemporary, but showing details of Nlrs- French Catalonia' Languedoc' in gz9'
be supposed that some members of Oliba's circle llrir Romainm6tier,rr which becamc Cluniac
",
suggested the serious, doctrinal use of figure l e m o r i g i n . O n t h e f a g a d eo f t h e c h u r c h o f A r l c s - BurgundJ and later
lrter
'-
momcnt to Catalonia' For the existing church, the date 996
sculpture on church exteriors - a noveltJ' in sur-Tech, Iater a Cluniac prior.r, is a cr,rsr. R.turning for another ofthe
foreign influences lntro- i s a c c e p t a b l e ,b e c a u s eo f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e
that thc
Western Christendom. In f'act,thc use of apoca- datable to ro46, with Christ in glory and the *a try t"t olclestparts ofthe building to thc second church
about rhe \car looo
lyptic themes carved in relief on church portals s 1m b o l s o f t h e l b u r e v a n g e l i s t s . r s ,".aa inro thc architccture Io5;'
m a r urc Romanesquc to at Clunv (948 or r. 955 8I) [ro4'
the
was initiated in early eleventh-century Cata- The marble employed is local. It has bccn ]u"ntutltl brought
h u t m e a n w h i le mant tardr ex-
lonia, and with it one of the most brilliant used since antiquity. Well-carved altars wcre ,fr.i t.gi"n'
made of it and exported; late examples turn up o f r n . F i r s t R o m a n e s q t r ew e r e s l i l l p r o - GERNIANY
episodes in the historv of sculpture. Concur- ,*0f.,
'l'his apse: and. tower: gire much
rently, the use of ligural decoration on the in Clun1, (rog5) and Toulouse (ro96).r'q i'o'JJ. rn.i, radiating ab-
St M:rry, the circular chapel with
same marble was also used for cloister capitals, to the countrvsidc This is particu-
arcades of cloisters inaugurated one of its most sidioleson the Feste Nlarienburg, at
Wiirzburg'
""i.r".,., i n . \ n d o r r a ' t h i c h i s ( i n a w a ) ) b u t
lbr example at Cuxa in French Catalonia and but tts
poetic cpisodes.tT (oloma' has been claimed as a monument of 7o6,
at Toulouse. "t lrei ,' c o" un .t i n u a t i o n o f C a t a l o n i a S a n t a
Such enlarged use ofrrpocah'ptic iconography of identification is not certain and its Lombardic
round tower
was the more natural in view of thc special The intellectual and art-loving Cluniac .nnaorrr, has a handsome There was
Later Catalonia produced featurcs appear to be of later date'12
interest which northern Spain and southern monks, who used Resurrection iconographl in ,*.tf,fr-i.ntu.1. style' b-v Italian
works in the maturer a continuing penetration of Germany
France had in the subject, resulting lrom imag- their liturgical processions, had priories at many beautif'ully finished t i m e onrvards'
its turn was much cherished' inllucncc from Charlemagne's
Saint-Beat, Saint-Pons-de-Thomidres (ro13o). ,ryt., *fti.ft in
inatively illustrated and widely circulated manu- but eristing examples with'First Romanesque'
of the contract signed in
scripts of the Commentary on the Apocalypse and Arles-sur-Tech; it is certain that thel- cr;l- f'frri ls tt . explanation less like the
'Ihe p c r i o d ) b c t r v e e nt h e f'eatures look to the practiscd e1'e
l a b o r a t e d i n t h e s p r e a da n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h i s l r 7 5 ( r e a l l yi n t h e G o t h i c than
bv Beatus of Li6bana (78o). church of. lrorks of Italian architectural missionarics
of the Seo de Urgel and Raimundus
Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines has the oldest pre- sculpture for cloisters and portals. Of this more Chapter o('Germatrs trained in the
the cathe- likc the achicvements
served architectural example, a marble lintel will be said later. In the architectural construc- Lambardus, who engaged to work on rvilling to
on lanbudtts' The tradition of Carolingian building, vet
tions of the earlier period there are man) scrl- dral with four compani to adopt
dated rozo-r, with Christ in gloly, two angels, ofthc improve their vaulting technique and
church they built is an excellent example
a n d s i x o f ' t h e a p o s t l e s .T h e f i g u r e c a r v i n g i s tered examples of sculptural ernbellishment.
,u.h f-.",u.., as Lombarcl pilaster strips':rrched
'l'het'occur
b e t w e e n9 7 5 a n d r o 8 o i n B u r g u n t l l , mature Lombard Romanesquc st-vle[233']' German
obviously archaic, and hardlt glyptic in style: c o r b e l t a b l e s ,a n d b l o c k c a p i t a l s ' G o o c l
when
Saxon England, German.v, and Byzantium, btrt This old st-vlewas not cntirely givcn up ashlar'
it looks like a cop-v of stucco-lvork or metal re- r,r'allconstruction, f'accd with ercellent
the-ycannot (at an-vrate for the present) be con- the Gothic eventuall,v reached Catalonia' Verv
pouss6 [74]. Saint-Andr6-de-Sordde (inspired was superior to Lombard First
Romanesquc
often the sun-baked sober brown bulk of a
thirteenth-centur-y cathcdral or a fburtccnth- o o o r k .a n d t h e g r a n d t r a d i t i o n o f C a r o l i n g i a n
than an]'-
churclr,lintel, ro-:.oI
7-1.Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines, centurv tower will be esscntiallv Romanesque' monumentllitv was more imposing
t h i n g t h c l t a l i a n s c o u l d b r i n g t o t l - r eN o r t h l a n d
The church paintings long retained a Roman-
'I'he at th(j tlme.
esque imprint.io beautiful museum at
buildings
Barcelonaincludes rc-mounted ficscoes, balda- One ot the oldest conspicuous
a G e r m a n t e r s i o n o f t h e Lombardic
cchinos, altar lrontals, and many other obiects sholving
be St
associaterlwith the culr.
'I'here
is no place rvhere pilastcr strips and arcading appears to
(begun under Otto the
a better contact with ccrtain spiritu:rl aspects ol Pantaleon in Colognc
q66, cledicated in 98o) [77l This
Romanesque art ma]' be attained. Great. ;rlier
through its
church hatl manv outside cont:rcts
Lombardic
vcr-r {hmous atelicr o|enamcllers
T H EK I N G D o M o t ' A R r . l r s
.l.toil upp."., carlv rlso i n W i m p f ' e n (szq q8)'
\Iore doubtful i s S t C a s t o r , C o b l e n z' as oi the
We have alreaclvsccn the expirnsion of the Lom-
b a r d F i r s t R o m a n r s q u es l \ l c i n l o L i g u r i r : i t cnd o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u r l A s t r i k i n g example
the church at
moved up the Rh6nc Valle-v to Switzcrland and o f t e n c i t e d i s t h e f a q a d et o r v e r o f
htrt this
Germanv in the tenth centurv. Leaving asidc -\littclzcll on lhe lsle of Rcichenau'

L-
I2O E A R L T E RR O M A N E S Q U E
STYLES

o
work, according to recent studies, must be as- Adriatic. I'he imprint of Lombardv was strong CflAPTEn
signed to ro482rIzo]. The Lombardic themes, at first in Yugoslavia - at Studenitsa (r. rrt1.;y.
ARCHITECTUREIN GERNIANY
once integrated into German architecture, were Zhicha (rzoz-zo), and Visoki Dechani (r.i:7 ROMANESqUE
spread far and wide, and easily reached neigh- 35); a reminiscence surlived the change ei (936-1125)
S A X O N A N D F R A N C O N I A NE N { P E R O R S
bouring Hungary and Moravia. Thev also much orientation which made Serbia a Bvzantinr U N D E RT H E
later reached Russia in a modified form, pro- state, and counts for something in the beautl o1
bably from Germany, and contributed super- churches like that of Manasija. contemporirr\
ficially to the elegant beauty of the twelfth- with the Turkish conquest. Thus the rhythm of queathed to us by the Early Romanesque flow-
century churches in and about Vladimir. Rascia the Late Roman pilaster strips and the ripplc ot 1flE OTTONIANSI notable con-
RoN'tANESQUE
ever, the renewal brought about 'Ihere
(naissant Yugoslavia) borrowed Lombardic their connecting arches lived on to appear in THE OTTONIAN was' tor
struction over a wide area'
motifs from early Dalmatian work, and perhaps the architecture of the medieval empires, Ger- general derelopment o f militart
st-'-'lewhich we have i n s t a n c e , a
also from Norman-Apulian buildings acrossthe man and Slavonic.:l The First Romanesque manl o f t h e s i t e s w h i c h a r e graced
to Old Russiacameas a r c h i t e c t u r e ;
followedfrom Ravenna castles (ultimately numbering near-
some technicalimprove- by German
,n .pi.oa., bringing lv ro.ooo) were ibrtified at this time' Yet the
*nL an attractivedecorativesystemto the architec-
".ra of Germany near the end of the heart of the people was in the church
,rahit."tur. w h e r e t h e c h u r c h e s a r e p r eserved'
(936 73)' The inde- t u r e , a n d
,.ign of Otto I, the Great the massive unity of the Chris-
theystill breathe
pendence and greatpowerof Germanarchitec- in Ger-
themselves an external sign of the tian Imperial communitl. Traditionally
,ura ,ra (as in England still)'
-any, u.r<'lin Byzantium
grandeurof the secondimperial Renaissance' as the spiritual aspect
the Church was cherished
calledOttonian. power
age the country had of the communitl- under the sheltering
Sincethe Carolingian with the Popes'
the of an anointecl ruler. Conflict
sufferedterribly from wars with the Slavs' international
well as from dynasttc who were developing an eftbctive
Vikings,the Magyars,as greatly iniured the
goYernment'
*.rkn... and internecine feuds' The Saxon ecclesiastical
Empire.
ilynastywas inauguratedby King Henrv I' the but des-
He began During the confusion which had all
Fowler,who reignedfrom 9rg to 936 the Papacy fell to
the Western Empire,
the long processof putting the governmentln troyecl which came to the
nadir. It was monasticism
order - assuringthe frontier, and refusing to its The great monks
buy off the barbarians.Characteristicallyhe is r e s c u eo f t h e R o m a n C h u r c h
the P a p a c l u e r e accustomedto
remembereclin architectural historv for works u h o r e f o r m e d
obedience which an abbot.re-
of fortification,especiallvat Merseburg,Werla the unqualified
in his monastery, and this conceptlon'
(nearGoslar),and Quedlinburg.whereimpor- ceives
in schism with
tanturbancentressubsequently developed't applied to the Papacv, resulted
(ro54, rz45) and a fbtal loss
Whilethe Orlonianchurchdesigns are'in the ti. Ett.t.rn Church
bv the gol'ernment of the Western
Carolingiantra<lition,agglomerative,th.erels a of authorit-v
a t c r i t i c a l r i m e s (ro7fr' r z5o)'
tlew, commandingskill in the composltronoI E m p i r e
unavoid-
their varied elements, as Louis Grodecki's In medieval Germanf it was still
rulcrs to rely on churc.hmen ancl
monograph L"lrchiterrure otlttnicnne(Paris' able lbr the
church organization fbr many essentlal servlces
I958)admirabl)proves. re-
support' The ranking abbots
Saxony,becauseof the d.vnasty.becamethe and for fiscal bishops
but the principal
architecturalcentreof gravitf in Germany' and tained importance,
anct
becomingly act as court figures'
Producedor influencedchurch designswhich could more
go\iernmental
are among the most impressiveof those be- thel' came to have important

\-
 I22 E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
f,r O'TTONIANROMANESQUE I23
\

a t t r i h u t i o n s ,a l o n g l r i t h c o p i o u sl . c s { ) u r c e s
an(l
c o n s i d e r a b l ep o l v e r . U n d e r t h e s ec i r c u m s t a n c e s
the construction of a number of'r,erv imposing;
c a t h e d r a lb u i l d i n g s i n O t t o n i a n a n d I i r a n c o n i a n
times needsno f urther explanation.Grouns
of
b u i l d i n g s l r e a s s o c i a r e twl i r h c c r t a i n h i s h o n s .
a n d r e l l e c r r h e i r ( a s l e , i n a l l c a s e sm a r k e d b r
c l e m c n r a ls t r e n F l hr n d s u p e r b g r l n t l c u r .
Otto the Great (9j6
Z3), who rcnewed rhe
Imperial office in 96z, developecl Magcleburg
as
G e r m l n r ' s g r e a t b a s t i o na g a i n s rr h e S l a r s . H c
f b u n d e c la c h u r c h h e r c , s e r r , e db v B e n e d i c t i n c s
'l'rier
from (955), which in 967 became the
c a t h c d r a l . T h e b u i l d i n g r v a ss o m e u h a t s m a l l e r
than the cxisting Gothic structure, which
in_
corporates columns of porphr,r.v, granite,
ancl
marble brought fiom Italv fbr the original build_
i n g . \ l a n _ vt l c t a i l sa r . t . u n c l e a r .
- r e ri t i s c c . t a i n
that the layout resembledthat o1'thecarheclral
o l ' P a r e n z o ,w i t h a n a t r i u m a n d b a p r i s r e r l . a t
the
7 . 5a n d 7 ( r .G e r n r o d e S
. t C l r i a k u s ,q 6 r a n d l a r c r .
r i c n l i o m t h c s o u l h - r r c s,lr n di n r t . r i u r
w es t ; t h c n a \ . e w a s a v a s t w o o d e n _ r o o f t d
bastli- ofcolumns undcr arches with substantial In the reign of Otto II (97j 8t) the major
ladon
c a n s t r u c t u r e v r , i t hc o l u m n a r s u p p o r t s i t i s piers.2The crossing is stronglv narked' church enterprise was the ncw and greatcr
; crr_ mrsonry
t a i n a l s o t h a t r h e e a s t e r na p \ c \ a s f l a n k c t l proportions, here, nt the east end, are crrthedral of \'Iainz, begun under Archbishop
6, and the
t w o r o w e r s , a n c lt h a t t h e c a t h c d r a l w a s t b r t i f i c , i \\rilligis in 97tl.r (-arolingian influence,and in-
-l'hc y94ical. The exterior is a graceful interpretation
c h r r r c h i n a u g u r a t e d a s e r . i e so t , . 1 r , , . , i though without the lanterns. fluence from Old St Peter's in Romc, were
of Saint-Riquier,
b u i l d i n g s t h e c a t h e d r a l so f N { a i n z , A u g s b L r r s . . t h a t the Empress Theophano (d. qqt) strong in the design, and thc grand scalcol'the
Jt i s s a i d
en(l \ orms among rhem. bur r.ebuilding building is perceptible to-da]', fbr thc majcstic
1,,r, qrve funds to complete the work, which is a
d e p r i v e d u s o f t h e s e e x a m p l e sa l s o . lines of the verr ellborate existing cathcclral
f,ne exampl. of bold Ottonian agglomerative
Yet Otto thc Great's period is well repr.c- u e r e l a r g e l . vd e t c r m i n c d b y W i l l i g i s ' s b u i l d i n g .
comPosition'
senlcd in middle Cernrrnr br rhe lbrnrcr. Its red sandstone bulk is sharplv cletached
.1,,r,_ S t P a n t a l e o ni n C o l o g n e , a l r e a d l m e n t i o n e d ,
r , e nt c h u r c h o f S t C v r i a k u s a t G e r n r o d e against a long woodcd ridge, and it stands on a
h S,I r,l, should be recalled here as a work of the reigns
founded in 96r b1' l{arerave Gero. lorv shelf above the Rhinc close to the con-
,/c/i,,,,,,,, of Otto the Great and Otto II, built with a sLrb-
7 r , r / r i , r r a g a i nrshre S l a r s . I r i s a b o u r h a l l r h e r r z , . 'Ihis
sidy from the bishop, Bruno, who was Otto the flucnce of' the N{:rin. latter riler llows
o l \ I a g d e b u r g ' so l d c a r h e c l r a C l . c r r r r , r . l ei , , . , , directh' toward the cathedral, which is thus
Great's son. Of thc work bcglrn afier 966,
u e l l c o n s t r u c t e di n c r c e l l e n t u s h l a r m a s o r r r . r
finished and dedicated in g8o, onlv the wcst- risible for many' miles down the vallel'. The
Except lirr the atldctl \restcrn ,1,r., ,,.un..,,,.,1
work with three towers retains its original cxisrinqcalhcdrxl hus rcrerse oricnlation.in-
g a l l e r i e sa. n d e x t c r i o ra r c a d i n ga b o r e t h e herited perhaps lrom Willigis's building, and
rirl.r. character[771
C e r o ' s c h u r c h , r r c c n t l - rr e s t ( ) r e ds. t i l l e x i s t , . r l - c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e v e r s eo r i e n t a t i o n o l ' O l d
most unchangcd. It is handsomclv austerc St Peter's.It was fbrmerll'approachcd, like the
in
t h c i n t er i o r . w h r : r er h e r e i s , r t i n e r h r t h m i c l r . 77.Cologne,St Pantaleon,966-8o; porch modcrn
a r_ latter building, through a propi,-laeum-chapel
of St N1arl' and an atrium. At \'lainz, each of
these featurcs would scem to have occupied a
square about r2o f'ect on a side, ancl the nar,e,
r v i t h t r v o a i s l e s ,t l v o m o r e . I t i s s u p p o s e d t h a t
there rvas alreadv in Willigis's time a western
transept about 6o f'eet rvide and zoo I'eet long
rvith a single apsc, and that a church of the
central t]'pe. perhaps thc Constantinian cathe-
dral, lav bevond. Herc there would be an ana-
logv lvith St John f.:rtcran, thc crrthedral of
Rome.
\ \ i l l i g i s ' s c a t h e d r a l r v a sb u r n t o n i t s d c d i c a -
t i o n d i r v i n r o o r - ; ,a n d w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n
s i m i l a r f b r m ( t h o u g h p e r h a p sw i t h a t r c l b i l w e s t
s a n c t u a r yr v h i c h i n c r e a s e dt h e c o m p o s i t e l e n g t h
to about 6oo fcet) bv Archbishop Llardo. \ new
'I'he
tledication took place in roj6. new east
f a g a d co f \ I a i n z C a t h e d r a l h i r d a c c n t r a l a p s e ,
'double-
and the building \ras consequentlv a
ender' l i k e F u l d r r . T h e f l a n k i n g r o u nd stair
t u r r e t s o f ' t h e c a s t l h g a d e ,a n d s o m e r v a l l - r v o r k ,
are now ascribed to Bardo's roconstruction.
'I'hrough
t h i s a n d n r o r e o \ ' o rt h r o u g h m a n l s u b -
sequent building episodes notablv in to6o

,1 l-
 r24

o r T O N t A N R O N t4 N L s Q r E

li;l3iff
,:iififfI ffi,:i: ",o
i:t,1iti1:il.t", in 994
on the scale of' the eristinp; large and old monasterv of St X.,Iaximinin 1-rier,
and rva.
building. It had a pair of' square fiiendll. to the Cluniac monks.
inportant Henrr, me:
towers set flanking the aisles, at thc east or en_ .{bbor Odilo ol Clunr ar Ronte in
ror+. rh,
$snce faQade,which, as in the other Ottonian c o r o n a t i u n . r e r r , p r e s e n t c dh i m n i r h
thc, im.
G iit
IE
c e t h e d r a l sm e n t i o n e d , h a s a n a p s e o n t h c a x i s . j perial crown and orb, and is said
to have visiter
The tower arrangement is handsome, and came tllalUcf in companl, with Meinwerk,
bishoy
to be widell used. Italian and French eramDles ofPaderborn, in ror5.
o f t h e d i s p o s i r i o na r e w e l l k n o u . n 1p a r m a ( . a i h e - Undcr Henrr II, abour ror5, a
start $,a.
dral [3o8, 3o9] and Roucn Cathedral), but a made r_rna great Earl\ Romanescluc
cathedral a.
connexion cannot be traced; howeler, Augs_ S t r a s s b u r g .E x c a r a t c c l f b u n d a t i o n s s e e m
n
Il
[fl burg Cathedral is probablr in thc linerec of dicatc thar this building u,as planncd
to in_
ro har,
s u c ht o w e r - p a i r s i n n e a r - b l H u n g a l , i r n d t h u s n o b l e s q u a r e r o w e r s a t t h c t b g a d e ,w i t h p o r c :
a
it was an influential dcsig;n. h e t $ c c n . s c ( d i r . e c t l ri.n l i o n t o l t h c
a i s l c sa n .
T h e s u c c e s s o ro f O t t o I I I s . a sh i s c o u s i n . t h e na|e respecti\ ell IZq]. In \.ieu, of the
f]ct tha.
saintedEmperor Henry Il (rooz 24) of happ,v a s i m i l a r n a r t h e x f a q a d eu , a s n c w l v f i n i s h c c l
memory. Characteristicallr. a great deal of. a:
C l u n r . i n r o r 5 . m a v w e s u s p e c td i r e c t i n f l u e n c e,
monumental church construction u,ent forward
lt
I
il during his reign, and the remains which har,e
come down to us nobly exemplif'v the tempcr
T h c p a i r c d \ y e s t e r nt o u . e r so f s t r a s s b u r g .
a t t a c h e dt l i r c c t l r t o t h e e h t r r c hp r n p a r .
bcini
p..fierr.
the t1'pical carhedral frontispiece, lvhich
o f t h e t i m e . H e c r e a t e da n e N c c n t r c o l . i m o c r i e l er,er:_
tuallv prer-ailedover rhc triparrite Saint_Riq
p o w e r a lB a m b e r gi n t h e e a s r ,w h c r t , a uie:
carhedral t h e m c .S t r l s s b u r g i s i m p o n a n r t o o , s i r h
and residence were built in the r.ears roo2 Reicl-
12. ( j n a u ,a s t h c t r a i n i n g g r o u n d
Henry II was interested in church of Benno ofOsn:-
relbrm: hc b r i i c k ( r . r o z 8 8 - 1 ) ,r v h o u a s i n c h a r s c
grouped a congregation of tl.
often abbeys about thc o f i i c co l r r o r l s f b r H e n r r l l l a r r . lH e n n
I\.: l:.
b u i l t c a r r l e s{ o r t h c I a t t e r . ,
Carolingiancacherhas 'fhc
.ti:2,.,t"
tarned[78,3j.31. beenmain_ SharedberweenOtto S t r a s s b u r g t a g a c l es c h e m e w l s a c l o n t e _
II and Otto III is thc 7 9 .S t r a s s b u rCga t h e d r a lr,c s t o r n l r o rnr r r t l r
original church of Wimpf.en o l t a g a d ea,s i n l o r 5 in a lair numhr.ro . f b u i l t l i n g si n n c a r _ b r a r e r .
age is recalledin the i, Tri (9;9 fl. (Kaurzschl
_,Charlemagne's
countr).b-t'the western Ruhr a hexagonaibuildine 9;; \ l l s e r c b a s i l i c a ni n t b r m . i r i t h c l e r u s r o r i r . :
ba ar:-
choir and ,"*.;;;;
I'Iinstcr at Essen,which Pa,a
tin"e
d;;;i';; T#::1 ;I..|;:';;,X,[j nooden roofing, simple in plan :rnd austere
r:
it r',,
::-?l:" jl; b.rcxcararion), their architectural lines. The list
incluclcs th,
"ri"ii'.:il:'":A;''::
i::i]f' with
n".r1go1
otto III (e83rooz).a
,1"^t"_*u
(.s,_const
A .u.tou.i"ri. rs srmpler
rhelaqaderaareator..*
ructlon.programme
and still existi n,-lr
cathedrals of Basel (ror9), ancl (.onstanc.
( t o ( r 9 8 9 ) ; t h e a b b e l s o f E i n s i e d c l n( r o r r
galleries,resembling rhan that of Aachen.Th" o,
a {iaction in a dcep d"o;*.;., ;; S c h : r Hh l u s t . n ( r o . 5 o r ) + ) . S r \ t r r c l i u s .
o1 Palatine.Chapel. was rccess,thc bold arch Hirs,:.
^the built hcre as a a gallcrr ( l o r t i 7 r ) , a n c ' I , \ ' l a r m o r . r t i e (r , \ I a r r r s m i r n s t c r
westcrn choir. Abor.eit sr ; at rhe cornersrlse two ", ".n;:;r;,., .
a squarefagade gonal simple oct;r- t h e l a t r e r f a q a d e ,c l a t i n g f i o m t h e t w e l f t h
rower set between,l.o totyers-. cer_
,rrtLtlt
rowers
wasunu.iu--.iol'JatH".i'; brillianceof.rheEmperor
t u r t , h a s ( ) c t a l l o n a lc o r n e r t u r r e t s . u . i t h
a t;..
napnsr.. i'..ffl;
r-r.asis rhecaselr parenzo
'.,-t:...t:lr.jt
nrs ruror Gerbertine anct a n d g e n e r o u s l l p r o p o r t i o n e d s q u a r ea x i a l
bell-,
of Aurillac. frr., l"p.'i f-
I r a 1 1 , . a n du, j r h r a r . i a r i o n s . Crrr,.l..il" tolver behinclrhem..
It.(.igs-roo3), and their
i n t h e O r r o n i a n .lllll.. interestin an'ri- N c r v c o n s t r u c t i o n r v a si n i t i a t e c lu n d e r
of i,tagdebursand .\{ainz. qurt]-atrheopening Hen.
of the newmillennium,rhc
Li;l:U..ts; Suchatria II at \\iorms (,athedral, t,hich has largclr pr,-
-:.. rhan merelv enrrance Ort: III (983-rooz)i,
)_.^.-: wa_r.s;it is sented_l:isn:f not *,.il ,.p."_ scrrccl its olcl character throughout long_co:_
known rhat thel.had a spccial in architecture.
i_pu.iun.. in t i n u e c lr e b r r i l d i n g . H c n r v I I ' s g r c a t c t . r u n . s e l l c , .
processional Iitureies. N{entionshould be
made, however,of.thc
ncw cathedralof'Ar-rgsburg, Burchard, bishop ol \\iornrs, rvas responsib:
which ras startctl for this work.
I' I2O

Henrv
E A R L I E RR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S

II and Bishop \4einrverk, together 'l'his

oTT0\1.{N RO\r{NLS()t E r27

imposing louer and ils accompxn1ln,,

with Odilo of Cluny, arranged the penetration
of-Cluniac monks into Germanv, fbr the bishop
refounded .{bdinghof'at paderborn as a Cluniac
priory in ror6.', f'he church, cledicateclin ro36
and partly replaced in ro58 78 aftcr a fire, is
interesting as rhc firsr example in north Ger_
man\'ro be built on Cluniac lincs.
Beginning in roor; Bishop \Ieinu,erk also
built a cathedral in Paclerborn with the western
c h o i r i n a t r e m e n c l o u ss q u a r e t o w e r , \ . e r v u n _
mistakablv Germanic in fceling, er,cn without
thc tall steep spire, which is of larer date
Igol.
an itgclrhen fhe sfonec:l[\ er \\Js \ er\' s t n t c t i o n o l \ \ i i l l i g i s ' s h r r g ec a t h e d r a lt h e r e , a n d
s t a i r r u r r e r sr e c a l l ,i n s e r . e r ca n d p o r , e r t u lt v i g o u ri n
rrli- t h e b . r o n z cc a s t e r ' t h e i r o r r c a r r c r ' he served as bishop of Hildeshcim lrom gg3 t<.r
nian fbrm, the chapel of the Sar.ioura fr, Uaf,ina
. t Sr;,,t- r e P o u s s cw o r k e r I d I l ' r o z u . S o m e G e r m a n i r r t h i s t o r i a n sa r e i n c l i n e d
Riquier. 3pdthe
is the connerion with Italv of' to bclicve that Willigis's church of 978 roog
'I'he Important too
cclectic spirit of' Meinwerk is fr,rrthe, underlies St Nlichael, though the latter church
the b u i l d e r - b i s h o p Bernward ol' Hildesheim.
p r o r c d b r t h c c o n s t r r r c t i o n .i n , o r 7 , , , t
11.,. t o t h e p eninsula in C)tto III's srritc showed considerablevariations on the theme.
who went
chapeI of'St Bartholomew near the cathedrrl Its compositionis tvpical, bold, and skillul.
'Greek' t1i in roor '
workmen.r0 'I'he aisled irrt.rio., nrri. St Nlichael now shows everv indication of its
This subject inevitablr calls up anothcr north-
rupof domed compartments carried on two
ljles Bishop Bcrnu-ard's cherishcd original arrangemcnt, lvhich in some \r'al.s rvas
German church
o f ' c o l u m n s ,h a s a M o s l e m c a s t t o i t w h i c h m a l e c unusual. The westcrn part has a transept termi-
St Michael a t H i l d c s h e i m " [ 8 2 - + 1 .T h e b u i l d -
u s s u s p c c tt h a t t h e G r e e k s c a m e l r o m t h c s o u l l
ing, b e g u n a b o u t I ooI, had a detlicationof thc natetl at each end b1-galleries and a slc'nder ex-
of ltalv. f'he columns har.e quite exceptional
crypt in IoI5, lvhich is alsothe date ofits cele- t e r i o r s t a i r t o $ e r I b r c o m m u n i c a l i o n ,c o m l ) o s -
carved capitals, remarkable for their plasril
ing handsomell. with a square lantern at the
bratedbronze doors, now installed in the cathed-

8o. PaderbornCathcdral,tirgade,
r.tpto corniceof torvcr roog

8 r . P a d c r b o r nC, h a p e lo f s t B a r t h o l o m e wr,o r T 8z Hildesheim,

St N{ichael,roor .1.1,r r6:, navebefirrcreconstruction
ral; by Io33 'I'herc
St N{ichael was complete. Recon- crossir.rg. are irlso a spacious silnctuar\'
struction ofthc
church after screre war damapJe b a 1 ' a n d a n i r p s e ,b e n e a t h w h i c h l i e s t h e c r 1 ' p to f
has given us 'l'he
back the original clesign, rvhich is rorS. crlpt is reached by a semi-subter-
qedibly
ascribed ro Bcrnrvarcl himself. IIc hacl r a n c r n p a s s a g eb u i l t o u t s i c l et h c s a n c t u a n a n d
oeen at Mainz
as subdeacon during the con- cnclosing it. Thc eastcrn part of the building

L
 I2d E A R I , I E R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S
o I toNtAN RoMANF.SQUI r29

83and8.1.Hildesheim,St llichael, roor 33, r r(rz,

aislebefbrereconstruction
andsketchrestorationas in roor I i

has never had a crvpt, and its sanctuarr bav lvas \oung cmperor's palaceon the Aventinc. nclr B a s e la n d n o r . i n t h c C l u n y N { u s e u m i n P a r i s , figure sculpturc in stone hr ahsorbing nrost ol'
s h o r t e r , b u f o t h c r u i s c t h c t l c s i c n r r . t st h e s u n t c 'I'his
.SantaSabina. latter church still posscssesI p o s e sp r o b l e m s r l s o . I t i s d a t e d a b o u t r o z o , a n c l the 6ne talent available firr g'ork ol'that scale
as thar of'thc westcrn part_Betwecn thcsc t\\o pair of' fifth-ccnturt carr-cd rvooden (loors obviouslv represents a cliflerent stream of'artis_ and charactcr.
nearh' s\.mmetrical terminations strctches the r v h i c h p e r h a p s s u g i s e s t e dt h e n o r k s a t I l i l d e s - tic development as well as a difl'ercnt method Sculpture in stone rcceired an occasional
b a s i l i c a n n a v e * i t h i t s : r i s l e s .' l ' h c s o u t h a i s l e heim. (repouss6)and a tlill-ercnt material. The loss of' i m p u l s e , p e r h a p s .f i o m m c n * h o w e r c a l s o a b l c
servcd as a sort of intcrior narthex, since the It was a flourishing pcriod lbr church art ol monuments of rhis kind through fire, pillage, to work in somc othcr mcdium. and werc callcd
t w o m a l n e n t r a n c c sa r e t h e r e . V i s i t o r s t h e r e l b r c t h i s s o r t . C ) n cr c c a l l s t h e b r o n z e E a s t e r c o l u l n n l e v i g 5x, n f l r c m e l r i n gi s o n l r t o o u e l l a t t c s t e dh 1 upon to producc ligure sculpture for special
c n t e r e t l t h c c h u r c h ' b r o a d r v i s e ' ,a s I h c m o n k s madc fbr Bishop Bernrvard bcfbre ro2z, no\\ in d o c u m e n l sB . ut liom the rigour ol rhc Hildes-
'l'his positions rvherc onlr stone rvor.rldbe suitablc.
did. curious contrldiction of' the basic Hildesheim Cathedral, ancl .\bbot Gaucelin's heim doors antl
thc pcrtlition ot' rhe Bascl This situation u'ould account equalll' for the
b a s i l i c r r np l a n w a s l o g i c a l i n a m o n a s r i c c h u r c h bronze tnu/rt11llr at Saint-Benoit-sur-Loirc rrontal a conviction
emsrses that these cannot carvings on the (destroved) sarcophagus of'
w h i c h f i r l l o r v c dt h e t h e m c o f ' S a i n t _ R i q u i c r a n d (about roz6) b e c a s u a lo r s p o r a d i c
also thc altar of'thc ])alirtine *ork.. St ch untlerstand- Abbot Hincmar of Reims (d 8zz)rr and the
S t G a l l , a n t l i s r e c h n i c a l l , rr e n i n t e r e s t i n g . C h a p c l i n - { : r c h e n ,g i r c n b l O r t o I I I ( q 8 - i -r o o , :) . Ing and skill
'I'he as thcse monumenrs show pre- f i g u r c ss e t o r e r t h c o u t e r d o o r s o f ' t h e g r e a t a b b e v
ercr-memorablc bronzc doors in the and the splcndid pulpitthere gilen bvI{enn | [, supposea tradition
ofbasic cralismanship trans- church of st Ilmmcram at Rcgensburg shortll-
cathcdrrrl \,vercreirllv madc fbr the latcral main h i s s u c c e s s o ra, n a d m i r a b l c a c h i c r - e m e n itn c l ec t l . mitted from gencralion
ro gcnerirlio;. lr is after ro4g. NIetal-shcathed statuarl' and relicf'.s
c n t r a n c e so f S t \ l i c h a e l l l l q l . A s a l r c a t l v r c _ d l t e d b et u e e n r o o 2 i r n c lr o . z + . 'I'hc
Q u l t ep o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r o g r . r eo f - p r e c i o u s a l t a r had firrmcd cores of wood or mastic.
p o r t e d . t s i s h o p f l e r . n , w a r dr i s i t e c lR o m c i n r o o r 'I'hc trontals
g ^ o r p ; c o ugst r l d e n a l t a r f i o n t a l p r e s c n t c c l ancl other ecclesirstical Iurniture rvith bronze-uorkcr's sensc of bulk and his wax
rvith Otto III, and he lived fbr a tinre in the br the Emperor I lenrr ll ro thc crrhcdral,,1 ngure sculpture
clclavcd the rcnaissance of model. rhe reDoussdworker's hammer and drill,

\

ti.5and 86. Hersfeld, abbel.church, ,. I037, un an older scheme
worker's chisel and fini:hing proccss'
1 6 ei v o r y
t h e d e s i g n sw e r e p a i n t e di n c l c r a t i o n
a n d( s i n c e
b l o cks belbre being ctrt. and tinted
on the
even the manuscript and fiesco
aft.rwttd)
p a i n t e r s ' c r a f tw c r e a p r e p a r a t i o nf o r t h e
s c u lp t u r e i n s t o n e .
renewao l f figure
F R A N C O N I A NE N I P E R O R S
T H E S A L I . { NO R
Under Conrad II, the Salian
(Ioz4 39)' the
of Strassburg went forward, and a
cathedral
related building, the magnificent abbe-vchurch
of Limburg an der Haardt (roz5-45), was
begun.13The reforming Abbot Poppo of Stablo,
under Cluniac influence, had it built near the
Stammburg of the Franconians' It inspired
many other such structures. Cluniac influence
is perhapsultimatell'responsible fbr the western
tower pair and the tower at the crossing, but the
temper of the building is unmistakabll'German
87.SpeyerCathedral,cr)pt, ,. Io3o antl later
FRANCONIAN GERMANY I.]I
in its monumental, fastidious austeritl', and
grand dimensions,oler a bold and simple plan.
-I'he
church is a ruin, like that of Hersf'eld (fiom
a b o u t r o j 7 , o n a n o l d e r s c h e m e )[ 8 5 , 8 6 ] ; b o t h
gcneral r e a c hi n t o t h e r e i g n o f H e n r l - I I I ( r o 3 9 5 6 ) . 1 r
M o r e i m p o r t a n t , h o w e r e r , i s t h e c a t h e d r a lo f '
Speyer. It was the d,vnastic pantheon of the
Franconian house, and though like the othcr
Kaisardome - Mainz and Worms it has been
much rebuilt, it has presened, better than thel
have done, the simple and assured grandeur
which marks the finest buildings of the German
E a r l r R o m a n e s q u e1 8 7 q r l .
\ \ o r k u a s s t a r t e do n t h e e r i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e
uncler Conrad II abor'rt ro-3o, and the remark-
able crypt [87] dates liom the initial period.
'l'he
whole area under the transept was marked
o f f b y p i e r s i n t o t h r e e s p a c i o u sc o m p a r t m e n t s '
each with four stout columns, to carrv conncct-
ing arches and nine bays ofheavy groin vaulting.
 I'RANCONIAN GERMANY I'I3

of the crypt forms, of'course, the

F,.,',rr,./.\,.,,i,r r_,j-,,.,. (, -. ... The vault
I 'ror..( itlo, o f the transcpt and sanctuar\ of thc
nlatform 'Ihese
Cam^,tt,tt, .tI,..tt,r,. .,. .! /o..1 mcmbers are cn-
|@
| N7!1| Ji lJdJ | ! 'IJ, @ Z7-l ptop.t [88[
../ /r{j r I ur.,, ttt I, tll td2t1-, I ihur.h
by a massire precipiceof wall. with rall
" l o s etdo * . t t i u s t w e s t o f t h e a p s c . W e s t w a r d
,tri,

.
ertends the hr'rgenave, with
from the crossing
t4aa%a%fs I r spacious
groin-vaulted aisle on each side. The

,,Iil western wall

deepdouble-splayed
is about zo f'eet thick; it includes a
portal and two spiral stirir-

waysin this enormous thickness. The stairwal's

%&%&*&s* #'' f detachthemselves as flanking towers at an upper
level,and to the west of them a large open porch
<)
**{ffr*-t (with tribune and a great octagonal tower) was
laid out. This brought the total lcngth to about
is almost exactly that of Chartrcs
88. SpeverCathedral, 435 feet, which
r. loqo-nincteenthcenturr',plan Cathedral. Comparison of thc two uill strik-
ingly show the overrvhelming stout simplicin'
N i n e s i m i l a r u n i t s c o m p o s et h e r , a u l to f a n a r e a ofthe German design [891.
origin is Byzantine or Lombard, but a peculi,rr
The nave at Spever has a span ol about 45
under the sanctuarv bav of the church, con- weightiness here makes them seem Germrnl
feet, which is close to that of thc cathedral of
t i n u i n g e a s t w a r d i n t o a s e r i e so f s i x m o r e , f i t t e d indeed, the form was widely used, with intere :t_
Beauvais,widest of the High Gothic churches.
i n t o t h e a p s i t l a lh e m i o c l e ; t h u s t h e c r 1 , p tu n d e r ine lariations, in German Romanesquearclri-
'I'he Its height is approximateh' twics this dimen-
t h e s a n c t u a r va r m o f t h e c h u r c h i s l a i d o u t w i t h tccture. simplc and ample powcr ol rhe sion. The length of the nave proper, about 235
two files of lbur columns each.-\ll the columns m a t u r e G e r m a n R o m a n e s q u ei s a l r e a d v p a t c n t -
'cubical' feet,is about fir'e times its width, and ranks with
har.e (or block) capitals of'rvhich the l v t o b e s e e ni n t h i s c r y p t .
the grandest and largest achicvements of both
Romanesqueand Gothic. The walls o1'the nave go. Spci''erCathedral,rcstorationstud] of intertor
rs in ro6r(K.j.C.)
bearan obvious resemblance in design and scale
to a Roman aqueduct, though the model was
probably nearer the exterior elevation of the A new period of construction (rollz rro6)
Basilicaat Trier. 'f he nave piers at Speyer mea- starting under Flcnrl I\' finally sru the nave
sure about 6 by 8 feet plus engaged shafis, r,aulted, as was probablv intendcd liom the
'l'he
which,on the nave side,continue upward as the bcginning. u l t i m a t e r e s u l t , a c h i ev c c l u n t l c r
s u p p o r t so f a t a l l b l a n k a r c a d em e a s u r i n g a b o u t I-othair II (rr37). is verl impressivc, but on
85 feet to the soffits. This arcade cncloses the account of the olerwhelming scaleit must be
aisle and a series of large clerestorl' windorvs, visited to be apprcciated [9r1. .\lternatc piers
and it provided support originalll-, at a level of'the original nare werc strengthened with
{t q 8l' . : i. i over ninety feet from the pa\emcnt, fbr a rast s h a f t s a n d c l o s s e r e t ss. o t h a t t h e ] ' n o w m c a s u r e
-.: il r' l-F ,...:. timber roof
[go]. Construction wcnt forward on nearly' tcn f'eet across, in order to sustain six
f:o the nave from about ro4o, under I{enry' III i m m e n s c d o u b l e b a 1 ' so f ' d o m e d - u p , u n r i b b e d
:i .tr i .ri t adital
3t:t4
a , r;lj (Io39-56), and
; -:i * ,, tl
I
t h e r e r v a sa d e d i c a t i o n i n r o ( r r , g r o i n v a u l t i n g s c p a r i r t e db v t r a n s v e r s e a r c h c s .
perhaps when 'l'he
the great church in its woodcn- c r o w n s a r c a b o u t r o 7 f ' e e t( . 3 : ' 6 r m e t r e s )
roofed phase from thc pavcment, higher than an]' other
had been brought morc or less to
completion. Romanesque navc lault; thc basic mcastlte-
ll9. SpeverC.athedral,
rcstorationstud,rofnorth flank as in ro6r (K.I.C.)

-.
 FRANCONIAN GERMANY I35

At Spe.ver afier the ruin of 1689 there was

r a t h c d r r l 'i n l c r i r r ro l n a r c ' l r r o l ' i n gw c s t '
- q n e v eC
9i,''rljo-o'and ^rcltth eenturr much Baroque re building at the west end of the
cathedral (r772 8),tt'but further rebuilding in
t'cet (-14 the Romanesque revival period (r. r8zo and
was prohahlr roo Carolingiiln
ment later) gave it back its original scheme, though
a l i t t l e l c s s ) h e t u c e n l $ o u ndcler-
.attar oa
1 ' h e c r o s s i n g h a s a r a u l t hall'as the new work is dry. Speyer is not subtle, but
poln,t..
,in.a
' thc loliiest Romancsquc rault in anyone who understands masonry will love the
ii*f, rgtin
torrer carried on squinches' tremendous clifl--like massesof its walls and the
,-!r.ri o.,rgonal
w i t h t u o s ta g e so f a r c h e d w i n d o u s ' heav-vover-arching testudo ofits vaulting.
, . , " ap i . t . . d
vertical elcment, though not tele- M a i n z 1 3 3 3 ,3 3 4 1a n d W o r m s [ 3 3 r ] t h e o t h e r
it is powert"t
r e c a l l s Saint-Riquier' as indecd does Kaiserdome were likewise the object of con-
scopic,
stairtowers near siderable works during this period. So also was
thearrangcmeno r f lso slendcr 'lrier
great octagonal towers' the cathedral of [33o],tt a Roman monu-
eachofthe
vaults ment translbrmed into a German cathedral af ter
Gothic Beauvais and Milan havc nave
pavement' r o r q , i n t h r e e s t a g e s ;t h e y e a r s r o 3 9 6 b s a w a
reaching to about I-58 feet lrom thc
tower at handsome west lront built, and an eastward ex-
and the highest tault ol thc crussing 'I'he
fcet from the palement' tension was built still later. f'amous church
Beauvais was about 44o
But these Gothic designs werc built in a st-vle of trefoil plan, St Mary in Capitol, Cologne, was
which was engineered specilicallv to permit huilr in its first form beginningabout ro4o [.335'
'l'he Laach, a per-
breath-taking eft'ects of'height. lair com- 3371. The abbel' church of Maria
f'ect example of the mature Gcrman Roman-
parisonsfor Spel'er are with Romanesque Clun,Y
III (ro88-rr3o), whcre the nave was 98 f'eet esque, was, to be sure, founded in ro93, but
high and the maior crossing about r19 or, the building was built slowly, in a st1'le quite
better still, with the Basilica Nova of Nlaxentius unaltected by Gothic impulses, though the dedi-
and Constantine in Rome (e.o. 3ro ff. clear c a t i o n t o o k P l a c ei n I r 5 6 .
span83 feet, height rzo I'eet) fbr Spever is aftcr
all basicallrand solidlv Roman in conceptron. gz. \'Iaria Laach,abbcl'church,
Speyer has something of that serene largencss lbunded Io93, dcdicatedrI56, interior (bcfore
which is the common possession of all things modern additionsand embellishments)
well inspired f rom Rome.
The late eler,enth- and tll'elfih-centurl' altcr-
ationsat SpeJrerwerc carried out in a stvle which
ts very close to thc maturs Lombard Romanes-
9ue - the eavesgallerl', upper clcrestorl', decor-
ative arcading, pilastcr strips, corbel tablcs, arc
all close to Lombard originals. In fbct, Ger-
many and Lombardv, brought close bf impcrial
politics, coalesced,
logicalll. cnough, in their
architecture at this timc. Nlorev believcs that,
,.ulptorc ol rhe da1 uorking in Lom-
lint.
b a r d yh a v e
s i g n e d C e r m a n n a m e s .t h c a r t i s t i c
oevelopments
of Germanv in the eleventh cen-
tury were
actuallr transmitred to Italr and
oroughtabouta
r e n a i s s a n c e uslc u l p l u r e r h e r c . I '

L
 r30 E A R L T E RR O M A N E S Q U E
STYLES

93 (oppostte
1. t\laria Lairch,abbc1.church,
foundedro9-3,dcdicatcdr r 56, I iov fiom thc norrh_wesr

94.Goslar,the Pl'alz,rcstorationstudl,as in r.. rollo; se.ealso.1z7,3zg

x{aria Laach
Isz' glr is beautifulry set in buirding among rhese earrier
verdure near the Laacher work,- of Gernr,rn a court in the fornr o1'an extendcd lozengc.
See, and Or.ran,r-, *r_rnarqu.. $.ith a r c h i t c c r u r ea r o n c c ; l ' o r t h e s p l e n d i d c l u s r e r
quite lovely picture of a t r i a p s i t l a lo p r . n - n a \c c h a p e l of.
ther'e,-dc'elopcd Ger- a r rh e h c a . l o t .i r I
It oughi ro be mentionecl Romanesquemonuments ot twelfih_ and
manmedievarmonastery;forth"g.oup..rp..,s at this point thrrt a quatrefbil chapel occupied thir-
the pfhlz at Goslar each of the lateral teenth-centurl' Germant. represents thc
traditional planning The
aspect e'en of fhe [g4, jzgl rs beriercd to ^rrc potnts of the lozenge. 'I'his full
been built in somewhat scheme was tn poser of'the Enpire, and it is rhe culmination
late buildings harmonizes it, p....nt torm rr\ tmagrnative autr;mentation
with the order work, of'the court bevond of the great renewal of architecture within
Henrl' III, whose livourite thc
dominates residence ir '.r.. t h e a p s eo t t h e L a r e r a n
:Jjrfi..fi:|;3;;:::,, ,h;;;l on^,,, Resia
wastui,"u,,, ro.5o B a s i l i c r ; n n n - " 1_ - U j I r r ' i d el a n d s o f c e n t r a l E u r o p e . l l o w e l e r ,
which
c,r_ and it is a pitv that it
had ro bc demolishecl to
b u i ld_
i, u,ry.oo,,,,;;;;;
;;:ffi';"'l;";::.';] .-o exrenslons
0".,i..'i,.i,*."un,,.u.,,,,,,,
j11'":-::]."',i" t*: * r t f o r l , r r g e rn r c d i e r a l c o n s r r u c r i o n s .
ings of grear interest were built, especiallv
F r a n c e . w h i l e t h c R u m a n e s q r r co f G e r m a n r
in
Lombard_influencedversion have givcn a rwelfih_ccnrrrrr t n e m a fu r e r C c r m a n R o m r n e ) q u ( s l \ l e c o n _
of St Mi.t r"i .i . * u s b c i n g c r e a t r . r ,l r ) ( l d c r c l o p e d . - l h c r e l o r e ,
H'desheim.
-{ smallat,iumriesberow i" use.rhough nor exclusireh. to
wesrernapse.Within, ,n.
the .yrt"j::,:ff;:.il,';:::;r.T;.t;i:ii :t n
l "et : 1 i . r sl a ( c a s a v o i d t o o g r e a t a d e p a r t u r e f i o m
c h r o n o l o g i c al
t h i r r c e n t hc c n t u r \ . . I t i s
is sturdily_ tru II.b";, ,;;,.*U,n. c a r r t o l . o r g i r et h e s e q u e n c e ,o u r p l a n o f c x p o s i t i o n n o w c a l l s f b r
l,::,Oi* 9oi."a (.apella
Rccirr \rermans thcir a
fllHT",:i.l oi uitte.rbot_ortr,.,i"r.
cathedrar)
ri",",',re
c o n s c r r a t i s r n , r , r h e no n c h a s a d _ s t u d r
of the Frcnch works which, asthe Roman_
't:r,. u.rs rnired and
understood thcse splcndicl monu_
un ",?:llti::11^i1r-'o.ba-v.a*orko|Hen'v tIi. wholegroupwas ,rrr rnentsofa e s q u e s t y l c d e v e l o p e d ,a c l u m b r a t c d t h c G o t h i c
1,0.. "r,r*. s.;.q;;'#::t'J ;ifi':ij expressionof the power which rhe
g l o r i o u s h i s t o r i c a lp e r i o t l . l n d c e c l
a t t t s t i cl e m p e r
rhe s t r . l em o r e a n d m o r e , w i t h o u t a c h i c r . i n gi t . T h e n
sanctuaryhas a similar Luy a.,.t a semidome. of the Cermans uas so wcll
'I'he ,,u.tll:"t and the Empire posscssed etpressed i r u i1l bc lppropriarc to r isir rhe manl and
architectu.ol tbrm, or the in Hen.'s i n t h i s R o m l n r s q u c s t r . l er h i r r
intcrior arc ,",.tuttt
ttlilo,n.. ;rlllarer \ d r i o u s r e F i o n so l r h e E m p i r c , w i r h t h c i r
austele,quitein.onr.n.,ro,h..,.,..,"..r"O"., ' ( . v r e so l tirsci_
a r c h i t e c r u r ei n C c r m a n _ v
group, little known bccause some.influence hare shoun nating local stvles which remaincd Roman_
decorationsand rurniture have so r.e-
somewhatdim- centll. excaiatJ,' ;r- ;;;;';; o l i r s b o l t l n e s s ,d i g n i r r . r n d esque, bcfbre considering the Romanesque ol'
inished the serenityof this Alrerheirigen,rr austeritv
fine a..;gn. i'h;. i.innnrur.n in switzerrand, \ormandv lnd rhc il.-.1.-1,.rn... rhc arcls
serenitfis the essentialreason aateds[6111ylrr- one poinr ot vieq ir woulcl
fbr placingthe tb.. ,oag.,, Bevondthe apse u o n t l n u e bc logicnl ro where the stvle was actrrallv transfbrnred into
ofthe churchl,rl. "^llo* our analrsis ol German
Romanesuut. Gothic.
 CHAPTER7

F R A N C E :9 0 0 1 0 5 0

T H EA M B U L A T O R Y located at the head of thc apsc, ancl also to a

scries of round chapels attached to the peri-
We have iust passed in revicw the relatively pheral wall ol'the corridor'. This was the first

conservativeEarly Romanesque st)'les of Lom- ambulatorl with radiating chapels irrranged in

bardy and Germanv. In this architecturc we what was basicallv the dcfinitive fbrm, and it
seehow an attractil'e, fairly uniform stt'le re- brought to fruition the dcvelopment already-
sulted when the builders turned to ancient ref'erred to in our chapter on Carolingian archi-
Roman monuments fbr inspiration, revived the t e c t u r e i n F r a n c e . B e c a u s e< r f ' t h ec h i c a n d s k i l l
Roman manner of planning, and l-elt the fbrce
ofa living stream of influence from Antiquity as
96. Chartresf,athedral,apscand ambulatorvol'
the Lombardic First Romanesque spread. The crvpt, [i-5llwith superincumbentlatcr construction
buildings are ordinarily cogent and practical;
often competent rather than inspired.
In France it was different. Delivered at last
from the'Norman fury' in gr r, when the treaty
gs. Tours, ,St Nlartin, renth, eleventh, and thirreenth centuries. exca\ations of'chcr.ct of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte laid the foundations ol'
the great Norman duchy, France could rebuild.
Before long there were signs ofan intellectual,
spiritual, and architectural revival in the north-
w e s t ,i n A q u i t a i n e , a n d i n B u r g u n d y . T h a t t r a d -
itional inventive flair, that active skill in com-
position which had created the silhouette of
Saint-Riquier, turned for a centurv to the morc
difficult problems of plan and articulation in the
maior churches. 'I'hen during half a centurl it
absorbed the lessons of the First Romancsque
style into this more highly er.olved pattern of
church buildins. and ar the micldle of thc
eleventhcentury stood ready for its great age.
As already indicated in a prcvior.rschaptcr, it
was actuallv durine the last effective Caro-
l i n g i a nr e i g n ( t h a r
o i ( , h a r l e s I I I . 8 9 . ; 9 2 . 3 )r h a r
tlt n.* architectural
e p o c h r . r ' a su s h e r c d i n h v
the reconsrruction
ol st Martin at Tours lq5l.
-t lte church
was dedicated in 9 r 8 u ith a ner.rly
built annular
q-5e.chartres cathcdral, plan 01'crvpr (H. H. Hilberrl'). The apsc, amhulatorv, and rrtliating aisle or corridor cnclosins thc
chapcls sanquar),
of8-58 are encbsed trithin the cheiet ol the cathcdral lbundations ol rozo 1o, rvhich arc in turn encbsc,i and so arrangetlas to gire Jcces\fo
bl the Gothic fbundations of r r94 li. (not shown)
the tomb
of Sr Nlartiri ('Sr 1\l:rlrin's Rcsr'),
 r40 EARLTER OMANE.SQU
SETYLES FR.{\CE: goo r o-5o r+l

of'this solution it may be considered the beein_ 'St

Martin's Rest', and perhaps elsewherc which passedto other Auvergnat \ / e l o p m e n t . rA l l w e r e u n d e r r v a vw h e n t h e H u n -
ning ol specifically French derelonmenr; in x. usualfeature
w e l l . ' l h e r em a y h a v e b e e nw i n d o * s i n t h e garians visited the region with fire and sword in
an:. shurches'
R o m a n e s q u e a r c h i l e c t u r e .I
but possibll ir was dark. resemblingth. ,pr.,,t is characteristic that the ambulatorlcon- g37 and 955 and stirred the Burgundians to
What existed(most probably by It
9rg, admit_ Vignory (dated about ro5o)
[97]., T'he ambu- to be used, in increasingly'sophisticated undertake fireproof' vaulted construction. Thc
tedll' by ror4) was like the crypr and ambula_ tinued
latory and radiating chapels of St Martin connexion with more and more r e s u l t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s i n p l a n a n d s t r u c t u r e
torv built at Charrrcs after g5g nq form, and in
[95.r, 96], plus rebuilr after the fire of gg7, and dedicared vaulted churches. At Clermont- make the Burgundian churches of'the time r,erv
r a d i a t i n g a b s i d i o l e s .B u t a t T o u r s , a s D r C a r l in completely
ror4, were undoubtedly of mature form a fully developed Romanesqueambu- important fbr the historv of medier,al archi-
Hersel-, a carelirl student of'the problem. has and Ferrand
proporrions, with the apse wall carried
obserred, rhe high lelel of the ground water
on , htory replacedAliaume's design,and a bcauti- tecture.
light columnar arcade. This very b.rurirul
prevented this arrangement lrom beine a crypt: ful Gothic chevetreplacedthat in turn. At St Philibert's Abbcf in'I'ournus a deriva-
'St architectural disposition, so acceptable from tive of Aldaume's ambulatorl' still exists [98
the
Nlartin's Resr' was only slightly below the
point of view both of symbolism and ol.enui_ rozJ. In g4g this abbel was at the end of the
pavement level. The ambulatory and radiatine
neering s(ructure. was a capital conlribution B U R G U N DAI I . .D E V E L O P N 4 E N T . S l o n g p e r i p a t e t i c so f t h e m o n k s o f N o i r m o u t i e r ,
c h a p c l s t h e r e f o r c b e c a m ep c r f o r c e a b o l d l v a r t i _ Lr,
the art of religious building r r r ProgTesswas early made towards the Roman- who, drir,en in 836 from that island to thcir
c u l a t e d e x t e r i o r a d j u n c t t o t h e a p s e ,a n d a r c h e s I 3( )].
O t h e r t r a c e so f a n e a r l y s t a g ei n t h e d e v c l o n _ esqueideal in Burgundy because ofthe unique mainland priory of D6as or Saint-Philibert-de-
like those of Chartres, pierced in the aose at
ment of the ambulatory and radiating chaptl, coniunction there: easy contact by wav of the Grandlicu, as alreadl noted, were once more
S t \ l a r r i n , u n i t e d b o r h r h e a m b u l a r o r va n d t h e
exist in the excavations ofthe cathedral o1-C_lcr_ Loire with the active school of western France; d r i v e n o u t i n 8 5 8 a n d u l t i m a t e l y - c : t m ew i t h t h e
absidiolesvisually with rhe sanctuarl. 1he
mont-Ferrand, where masonrv of a building early contacts by way of the Rh6ne with the rclics of St Philibert to Tournus in 875. The
generous size of thc absidioles attache<l to the
d e d i c a t e d i n 9 4 6 5 u 1 1 - i y s s i,n t h e f o r m o t a Lombard First Romanesque st)'le; strong con- m o n a s t e r vs u l l e r e d f r o m t h e H u n g a r i a n s i n 9 3 7 .
outside of the ambulatory shows clearly that the
vaulted rectangular crypt enclosed by a half._ tact by way of the Sa6ne with the Empirc. In D u r i n g a s c h i s m i n t h e m o n a s t e r v ,t h e P h i l i b e r -
c o r r i d o r i t s e l f u a s n o t m e a n l y p r o p o r . i i o n e d .l t
oval corridor with four angular radiating chapels addition there was a cult of rclics, and, more tine monks went (q45 g) to Saint-Pourgain-sur-
opened towards the sanctuary on the axis. at
attached to its periphery.3 Each of the chapcls important, there was an active monastic de- Sioule in Auvergnc, when the ambulator,v of
was arranged as a crypt-shrine or conftssio.
97. Vignorl', priorl ghurgh,4. 1s5e While the form of the superstructure is not 98.Tournus,Saint-Philibert,.. g5o r I 20 and latcr, air r icw f rom the south-wcst
certain, critics follow Louis Br6hier in suppos_
i n g t h a t t h e a m b u l a t o r y w a s o n t w o l e v e l s ,a r r d
that each of the attached elements was in eflect
a little oblong church two storeys high, pr.o_
vided, like the main sanctuary, with an altlr
a b o v e i t s c r y p t . T h u s i t w a s m o r e e l a b o r a t et h , r n
the apse of' St Martin of 9o3- r 8 perhaps it r as
;
better integrated and more open. The work rirs
greatly praised for its beauty, and the name ol its
author is known Al6aume (Adelelmus). .r
cleric who was also skilled in the arts of soi(l-
I s m i t h i n g u n d s c u l p r u r e .H e m a d e a o r e c i , , r , .
i
reliquarv s(atue of rhe Virgin ro be ;er ,,n r
column behind the high altar, and seen wirh
wonderment fiom the ambulatorv. Obviousir'
thc upperambulatorr.openeo dn lhe sanctrr,,t.,.
Worth noring is rhe fact that at St Nlarrrn
only the apsesof Saint-Germain, Auxerre, wcr!
reproduced; at Clermont-Ferrand, onlv the ob-
long bars, omitting rhe rotunda. This exnlairn
(he cven number of radiatingchapels,
an urr-
I42 E A R L I E R R O M A N E S Q U ES T Y L E S

Saint-Philibert'fiom the south-east \ m b L r l a t o r r( ) ; ( r r o r { ) .l o \ \ ( r r l 2 0

gg ( t,porite1'I'ournus,
Saint-Philibert,narthex' r' rooo
roo.Tournus'

&j
;:
$ i-i
;1-

t
 FRA\CE:9oo lo5o 1.1.5

ol'Clermont-Ferrandwas still a nave, with intercsting parallel transverse tunnel

thecathedral ''l'he new church vaults on diaphragm arches, after ro66. Thc
new structure
lo-nrpi.uoutty
q5o' was raulted in Chapel of St Michael above the narthex, with
l]'ioutnu., begun about
primitive sculptures, hirs interesting quadrant
of the elercnthcentur) and linished
in..outt. vaults in the aisles, while the nave has a clerc-
,tro. l( containsir crlpt underthc high
"iour relicsol Sr Philibert and a plirceol- story above with a tunnel vault with transverse
ii^, fr, the
i n t h e c e n t r a lr a d i a t i n gc h a p e lo f ' a n arches, and the tie-beams still in position (about
tonour ro2o, or perhaps later). There is a strong im-
fbr the tomb of St
.n.foting ambulatory
honoured in the monastery print of the west of Francc on the plan and
Val6rien,who was
before the PhilibertinescameIrozl' structure, except in the Chapel of St Michael,
atTournus

fi.,'.r'
iirii:i!i
J:,",',,ii:

This plan, wirh irs fir'e radiating chapcls of' where the Lombard characterlstlcs are strong'
oblong plan, was repeated at the levcl of'the Pilaster strips and arched corbel tables decoratc
main church. 'I'he crvot was cledicated in 979, thc exterior therel the original bclfrics (now
and there is tenth-century work abo\e it, ex- augmentcd br a twelfih-cenlury to\1er iIt thc
tending past
the transept to the massive three- north) are Lombard First Romanesque in st1'le
bay narthex.'Ihe
vaults, howevcr, arc latcr in The quadrant vaults of the Chapel of St Michael
tht uppe.
ambulatory, alier a fire of roo7 or may be related to those of the trilbrium galler-v

ror lnd ro2. Tournus, Saint-Philibert, analvtical pcrspectivc

Ioo8 (dedication
r o r g ) ; i n t h e s a n c t u a r ya n d a t of Saint-B6nigne' Diion, whcre Lombards were
the crossing, a t w o r k l i o m l o o l , a s u ' e s h a l ls e cp r e s c n t l y '
and ( appositt) cross section ancl longitudinal section, r. 9io I r 20 about r r 20; the high vault o1'the
I4O EARLIER ROMANESQUE STYLES

The memory which goes deepest at Tournus
is that ofthe monks working tenaciously through
a c e n t u r y a n d a h a l f t o b u i l d a n a d v : r n c e dt y p e
of church while conditions were still primitive.
T h e s o p h i s t i c a t i o no f ' l a t e r b u i l d e r s l o s t s o m e -
(K
chanting, which was Abbot Odo's special lbr'11, r r ' n v . t h e m o n a s t e r \a si n I o 5 o J ' C )
ro5'"'*-'
An interestingcrypt ambulatorv with radiatiln
chapels at Saint-Pierrc-le-Vit, Sens. il;1s,.1
about g2o 4o, has also been connected with 5,
Nlartin thro ugh Odo's having'reformed' S',ri n1-
Chape I

thing of the simple nobility which is always Pierre-le-Vif in 938.b

evident in sincere early works of architecture.
In passinpl,reference should be made to in-
'lhe
teresting work in the ambient of Cluny.
priorv church of Charlieu (fbunded 872) ap'
pears to have been rebuilt about seventy years
later as a vaulted building with an ambulatorY
arcade and eastern absidiole, perhaps at the
suggestion of Abbot Odo of Cluny, who came
'I'hc
(iom St Martin at Tours. tunnel vault of
the nave doubtless improved the acoustics fbr
ro3. Cluny, secondabbel church, longitudinalsection
a s i n r . t o r o ( K . J . C .; p a r t l vh v p o t h c t i c a l )
At (,lunv; itself new problems of plan rrs1s
SOUTH.EA5T
u n d e r t a k e n i n a r e b u i l d i n g w h i c h s t r e t c h e do r e r YARD
nearlv a centurv after 955, perhaps alter a lilse
start on a round ambulator-v corridor in 94S. lt
may be said briefly (fbr we shall return to the
Cluniacs) that the Frankish vilia wherc the
monks installed themselves in qro, and theil
church (Cluny I, dedicated in gz7), provecl in-
sufficient within a generation. Construction {rfr
larger church was undertaken about 955 by
CHEF
F il
i?oF
i Lilabfr

COURT

1i i .-.._,,-,.
. '..&J,
_t.t
, fr:gt*&
,*
-3

;*q;^- ...::

ro,g. Clunl', rcstoration studl of the monastcr\ liom the east, rs in ro43 (K J-C.)

L
 FRANCE:gOo ro5o r49
I48 EARLIER ROMANESQUE STYLES

Mayeul, coadtutor (abbot 963 94) - and a sys- sized her cult.8 The Cluny plan also difleq,1
tematic rebuilding of the monastery began when from St Gall in placing the novitiate soLr15
"
the new church (Cluny II) had been dedicated t h e r e f e c t o r v .T h e b u i l d i n g s w e r e w e l l b t ' i l r 1 1 j
'l'1.,..
(98 r ), extended by a narthex, and finally tunnel- had a certain warm austerity of design.
vaulted (about roro) [to: 5]. were roofed in wood. Recurrence ofeven dins..
Typical Romanesque roofing, with vaults of s i o n s m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e c o n s f r u c t i o l l1 0 1 .
stone, remarkably enhances the beauty oImusi- lowed a consistent plan to accommodate a66u,
cal ellects in particular, the musical effects of roo monks, finally achieved about ro45 lvhsn,
the linear Gregorian chant and the massive poetic cloister with marble columns was finished
organum. The Cluniacs pref'erred tunnel vault- by Abbot Odilo (q94-ro48).
ing, which gives most felicitous acoustical re- Abbot Odilo built extensively throughout the
sults, and the fundamental irnportance ofchant- Cluniac group of monasteries, and it is impor-
ing in the services made it worth while to build tant to know something about his accomplish-
tunnel r auhing in spite ofthe grare engineering ment. Attentive study of a dimensional descrip-
problems which were encountered. Paul Henry tion (ro43) of a monastery in the Consuetudi-
'It
Ling writes: was this music which embodied nary' of Far('a, near Rome, which folbwed
the Romanesque religious ideal, without which Cluniac customs, together with excavations at
the art of these centuries presents mere samples Cluny by the Mediaeval Academy of America,
of architecture, sculpture, or literature.' have made it possible to reconstitute the plan
The chevet ofCluny II was based on the apse of tenth- and eleventh-century Clunr' Iro5],
'l'his SanGil' carvcdcapital
6chelon scheme; it had, however, a square sanc- is important because, in principlc. all ro6.Luna(Zarag'ozal'
ions'tt tltth cent urv
ii""i"g *.yr"*is' accomnrodat
tuary with flanking corridors for processions. Cluniac monks were professed at Clunl-; thus
Each ofthe corridors was flanked by a so-called the architecture ofthe mother house was knoun. to Clunv in
armarium lege, received him' ancl took him
' c r 1 p t '( r e a l l l v a u l ( e d
a s e c r e t a r i u m a pt a v e m e n l and presumably admired, throughout thc u hole northwalk of the cloister'with the he
The q8;. After a term as pnor at Saint-Saturnin
level). while at the head ol'each corridor there group of associatedhouses. for the library closeto the transeptdoor' re{brm the historic monasterl' of
large it"., .t or.r, to
rlas a horseshoe-shaped chapel, with thc half- At Clun-v some ranges of the buildings, z; f eet librrry at Cluny contained a relatively eft-ectivell.with.a
Saint-B6nigne, which he did
or,al main apse between, accessible from both in width, were laid out inside the basic aoo-Ibot numberof volumes- 57oin the twelith century' and rn
and group of chosen monks from Clunv'
corridors, and provided with three altals side s q u a r e ,a n d s o m e o u t s i d e . s o t h a t j 2 5 - l b o l J n d at a time when Durham reported 546 Abbot Wil-
i..u..l"n.. with Cluniac customs
bv side which were used in sequence for the 35o-(bot dimensions occur. The ancillarv build-
Montecassino 7o. still turther'
li"a ,pr.u,l thcse Cluniac customs
morrow mass. f'he narthex was arranged to ings prorided 3z places for sick and rttired The most spectacularof the Burgundtanac- bl him in personal
to ott *, monasterics held
receive the Sunday procession, which passed m o n k s . 3 o o r m o r e f o r n o r i c e s .r z l b r t h e a h h c r
'' complishments in the Earll'Romanesquestyte' houses (pertraps
union. He reformed monastic
round the cloister;it paused fbr a Galilee station pauleri or poor pensioners, about roo for Jutllillt a veryinstructireexampleuhich summedup including Nor-
ioo ,.u...ty) over a wicle area,
before returning to the church.
'l'here
were two forming the devoted service corps of the ntrtn-
theprogressofchurch architecturein the tenth this influ-
-rna,n. F.o- Nor-"n foundations
century,wasSaint-B6nignein Dijon lt wasthe
belfries above the fagade of the narthex, and astery; 40 places were provided for men ancl 30
,,.."-.d into England' where Clunv itselt'
p..to*i achievementof Willian-roi Volpiano
anothcr, ol tall proportions, over the crossing. l b r w o m e n g u e s t si n t h e g u e s th o u s e ; t h e h o * f i c c "r,.. (at Lewes) from to77
(nearIvrcaand N or ara).rn He is a goode'tample w a s r e p r e s e n t e dd i r c c t l l
This rrrrangement, no$' so common, \las a could take in about roo wayfarers, accolll- A thread of Cluniac influence ma-v be
ofthe nobleecclesiastic; for his godmotherwas. or,*ura.
novelty in the tenth century. modated perhaps as the delightful capital frttrn work'
the Emoress Adelaide, rvife successivelyof ir"..A i" Abbot William's architectural
1'he monastery layout was based on a square S a n G i l a l L u n a ( T , a r a g o z ai\n d i c a t e sl r o o j : r h c important for his action tn
Lothairil I andOtto thc Creati he uasa relatire but he is much more
3oo feet (of 34o millimctres) on a side. It differs g r o u p s h e l t e r e da b o u t 4 o o i n a l l .
launching the Lombardic First Romanesque
of variouserandccsof the Empire, with in-
lrom the St Gall plan in having a chapter-house Small, but worthy of notice, is the elemcnr pcrsonal abilities as
" fluentialcoin."ion, in ltalv, Burgundy, Lor- ,t1-1. in durg.,ndy' He had
(an important novelty) with a Lady Chapel i n d i c a t e d a sa g o l d s m i t h s ' a n d e n a m e l l e r 5 ' s h o p be certain that he
raine,and Normandl. William uas a monk at . .I.rig.,.., and it seems to
beyond, frequently visited in liturgical proces- I t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t a s p e c i a lr o o m r . r ' apsr o r i , l eJ perhaps also car-
brought Italian masons, and
'I'his San Michele de Loceclia' near Vcrcelli' but
sion. probably resulted from Abbot Odo's fbr the scriptorium in early eleventh-centtrrJ. but some of the wolk' tcchnicalll
AbbotMayeul,exercisingCluny'sspecialprivi- r,ers.to Diion ;
having vowed himself'to the Virgin and empha- Cluny. Space for it was availabie in or near the

L
 FRANCE:9OO-rO5O r5t

r e p r e s c n t sl o c a l m a s o n s B e t w c e n in church architecture. We cannot be in error

Burgundian' if we attribute its design to the favoured, alert,
, t . V produced an entirclv r aulted church
]r.t
brilliant. and widely travelled abbot himself'
l o n g . .b c g i n n i n g , i n t h e f i r s t l e a r o l . t h e 'zl
aoi f.., Raoul Glaber writes diximus, et praesto est
oor ) | ro7-o l Raoul Claber
lli, m;tl.nniu- 1r
t h e r e a t the time. and this building cernere, totius Galliae basilicismirabiliorem atque
*rr r to"f
of the
'uhite mantle ol churchcs' propria. positione incomparabilem perfcere dis-
ir, r p r . t
prtnchal'.\'
tn his lamous phrase' the world then 'l'he
What elements appeared here? main
" i t . no,n . f n . c h u r c h h a d a n o t a b l e p i l g r i m a g e t o
ou,
u n c i e n t a p o s t l co f B u r g u n d r ' . b u t church, dcdicated in Ior6 or IorT' was a highly
l , t o m b o i rh .
for much more than its size and elaborated basilica; the eastward portion, dedi-
*r, iapo.,"n,
and the lact rhat twu kinds ol cated in ror8, was a highll' elaborated rotunda;
oi.rur.rqu.n.tt'
i t . I t uas a rcal architectural epi- so that, in essence,the scheme was that of the
masons b u i l t
of what had thus fbr been created Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and consequent-
tofite,^silmmi
ly a bequest from Early Christian times' The
intermediate monument appears to have been
roor tll,
ro7to rog. Dijon, Saint-Bdnigne, Saint-Pierre, Geneva, as built (a funerary basil-
(K (
. i v p t ( t e b u i h r 8 5 d ) ': k c t c hr e s l o r i r l i o n J ) '
ica) about the year 6oo. Saint-B6nigne was
.estor.dplan ( \' S. \\ crhci ' K J C )
"nt
o 5 z5\!

o 20 80 IrT

r s::t'lliHi'ifl:i,:l::
;1,
n Knosn rhr,,uglrttudits ht
LJ Dr \1i.. SLrn,l.rlanJ \\crhtt. t9+6'
rvirh rerisitns b1 K.J C ' 1965
( lb some extent h!pothetical and
depcndent on analo8r)

s \l,,nrrnt building\. n"$ r mu\tunr

Ll ilhbcHrlinrrJ. ro:n lt't
Trans\erse scctnn ol nr\r
looking east
_
I rzthcenturJ
i Romanesque additions

.fi,>
r"ifJfi Plan at principrl loel

Longituclinrl sccri{)n

L.
 r52 E A R L I [ , RR O j \ l A N E S Q USET Y L E S
vaulted, which is Roman; it had nine towers and with a wall passage.Between the clerestorl, q passage of thc nalc com-
111. The clerestory
turrets, which is Carolingian. a tunnel vault was turned, reaching a height wirh rhc rool b1 t$o stair turrcls
0i nunicated
Work continued on the church and adjacent t b r t y - s i x f e e t .a n d w e l l : r h u t t e d b y r h e s r a t l i r r r x - apsc. thus bringing the number ot-
n rt ,f,. 'fhe
monastic buildings, and there was a gencral like construction stepping upward towards j1. ot turrets on thc-basilica to 6re
,o'*.r,
declication in r ro7. A Gothic reconstruction and s p r i n g . I n s p i t e o f r o u n c l p i e r s ,e r t r a s h a f t s i n 1 6 . into the rottrnda' and raas
Jrsrrg. .ontinued
Revolutionarv vandalism have destroved the gallery,different stonework,and wooden rxq11_ t h e r e l i o n r t h c t w o s u b s t a n t i a lr o t r n d
l....riUt.
building almost complerely. 'l'he rorunda was ing, the nave of Southwell Minster [rrol rr- which tbrmed the communication
lri, ,o*...
well studied by Dom Plancher and presented in sembles that which existed at Dijon. 'Ihe rri_ part ol thc design. A touer r'ras
s v s t e mo f t h a t
his Histoire glndrale et lalticuliire de la Bour- lbrium piers at Southwell somewhat rccall thosr t o thc (as1 ol thc rotunda' but
oiann.d iutr
gogne (r739); but we owe much ofour detailed at Saint-B6nigne, which were designed Moslem b u i l t a s a littlc church with a towcr
oltim.t.ly
knowledge of the building to a more recenr in- thc apse' Later
f'ashion with columnar shafts at the corncr5, ofits own perched illogicalll'on
vestigation which makes it possible to describe tluadrangulatim stutute, joincd bv a ,kind of other changes in thc tower svstem)
there were
t h e b u i l d i n g a si f i t s t i l l e x i s t e d . r 2 crown'(the upper vaulting?). A tower rosc xp it is diflrcult to makc out the original
so thxt
The entrancewav at the west of the basilican - prominent cen-
the crossing. For access to the tomb of Sr scheme but, ifone counts the
church was a porch with flanking stair towers, a
Bdnigne there was a dcscending stairwav, nelr tralwell ofthe rotunda, there were nlne towers
Germanic motif . The nave was double-aisled,
the main west door, ancla vast columnar crrpt on the church. It had a remarkably strong and
like the greatesr Early Christian basilicas, but it
extended under the navc, thc transept, and lhe bold silhouette, rather riotous; but all the same,
was built like a Roman stadium or circus; the sanctuary just beyond. here was an entirelv vaulted building rising to
nave arcadesresembled aqueducts. On cach side fhe transept was vaultcd, and the clcreslorr the challenge of mcdievrl fbrm in church archi-
the inner ofthe two vaulted aisles stepped up to passagecontinued round it into two remarkable. tecture as conceived br the designcrs of Saint-
a virulted gallery, and that to a clerestory wall well-buttressed quadrant-r'aulted chambers lt Riquier.
the gallery level, flanking rhc sanctuarv brrr. Of this strange and wonderlul ensemble onlv
l Io. Southwell NIinstcr, nave, r. r rto The aisles flanking thc sanctuarv had gr.,rin the nethermost parts of the eastern half have
v a u l t s , t h e a p s ea t t h e c a s t h a d a r c a d i n g ,a n n u l a r survived. The apse 6chelon of thc basilica, the
p a s s a g e sa, n d a g r o u p o f ' c h a p e l sb e 1 . o n d .I n t h r s ruined tomb in the apsidal space, a lbrest of
very intcresting part of the work we havc the stubby columns (some with extraordinarily
germ of thc great churches of the Pilgrinrrrgc energetic Early Romanesquc capitals) and the
Roads, that wondcrful inter-regional group of easternchapel were cleirred and restored in the
d e s i g n sw h i c h i s t h e f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a lm a n i f c s r - nineteenthcentury. It is possible to obtain onll
a t i o n o f t h e m a t u r e R o m a n e s q u e .S a i n t - B 6 n i g n c a hint of how curious thc rotuncla was, with its
thus makes the connexion between the Lonr- t w o s t a g e so f d o u b l e a n n u l a r a i s l e ss u p p o l t e d o n
bardo-Burgundian international Ifirst Romrn- a forest of columns, and its dome arrangied
esque stylc and grcat later projccts which trrr rbout a phenomenal arcaded cy'lindrical well
s u r p a s si t . opento the sky through an oculus. Basicalll', the
The systcm of apses at Saint-Bdnigne wit5 , rotunda went back to the Pantheon in Rome;
remarkable combination of the 6chelon, thc anr- Its stairways connectcd it with Saint-Riquicr;
the architectural
b u l a t o r v , a n d t h e r o t u n d a , o n t h r c e l e v e l s .' l ' h c cletail lvas mostl)- Lombardic,
out the uppcr
ambulatorv was rcduccd to a curving arcacletl cornicc ol the rotunda had
(though peri,.ps
corridor ol' gracelul proportions; the centr;rl nol in rorS) \4oorish lobcrl
soffitpanels
absidiole was represcntedby the rotunda (ll:0 and chisel-curl brackets. The open-
on threc ler,els) and the rotunda itself'hacl rrn
work arcaded
well ocldly recalled thc telescopic
oPen-work
apse echclon in the shape of a central square- spires of Saint-Riquicr. The small
vaulted
bavs on cvlindrical columns of the lower
ended projecting chapel rvirh a small apsc ,rt
stages
each side of'the entrancc,ar the principal lercl. of ih. ,oiu.r.lo recallcd f'amiliar Lom-
FRANCE:gOO rOSO I5-l
bardic crypts and Moslem vaulted construc-
tions. The quadrant or cove vaulting of the
upper stage came to bc most important in
Romanesque architecture ?rs its dcvelopment
continued.
Clearly then Abbot William had his rvish;
he made the church of Saint-B6nigne niru-
biliorent basilicistotius Galliae. But the building
was not a mature design, and, above all, the
basilica was impossibly ponderous. There were
twentv-fbur piers about sir bv six feet or largcr
in thc basilican part of thc church, which thus
u:rs nrlde fireprool br r,rulting et the cost ol-
s er i o u s l - vb l o c k i n g u p a l a r g c p a r t o f t h e i n t c r i o r
'lhe
area. thirty.-trvo sltpports ofnave and aisles
occupicd about one-tellth of the floor area west
of the crossing an intolerable proportion
llhich was apparentl]' not remedied b1. a Ro-
manesque reconstruction o1-thetwelfth ccntury :
h t e r a G o t h i c c h u r c h r c p l a c e dA b b o t W i l l i a m ' s
basilica.
Saint-B6nigne produced a f'erl architectural
echoes, though not of the first importance.
W u l f r i c ' s C ) c t a g o no f r o 5 o , i o i n i n g t w o m u c h
older Saxon buildings at the venerable abbev of
St Augustine in Canterbury, was inspired b1.
the rotunda at Diion.r|Becket's Crown' at
C-anterbury Cathedral is essentiallv a Gothic
rotunda, ultimately inspired from Scns and
Diion; the same mav be said of the rotunda o['
Trondheim Cathedralin Norway. Nearer home.
and in the Romanesquestyle, is the church of'
Charroux. more obviouslv derived from Willianr
of Dijon's dcsign. However, only the structural
a d r a n c es i g n a l i z e db l S , r i n t - B d n i g n cw a st ' f g e n -
archileclttrt.
c r a l s i g n i f ci a n c ei n R , r m l t t e s q u e
, t . H [ ,S P A C I O L I S
WOODEN-ROOFF-T)
BASILICAS
'lhe
high and ample nirve of Saint-Philibcrt at
Tournus wasfor a timc (about Ior9-66) covered
'l'here
by a wooden roof. were other elaborate
French churchcs of the time which also had

r5+ E A R L T E R O M A N E S Q USET Y L E S
wooden roofing, but all ofthem have now been
destroyed; indeed it is diflicult to present a
clear idea of these important
were influential in their period.
For the north of France, the church of NIon-
tier-en-Derr{ (q6o gz) deserves mention fbr its
tall nave with a high clerestory, carried on a
handsome arcaded false triforium, ruined in the
Second World War, but norv restored. The
sanctuar) rvas replaced by'a finc Gothic chevet
in the Middle.l,ges. ,
Saint-Remi at Reims had as its titular the
ancient churchman who brrptized Clovis the
F r a n k i s h k i n g . T h r o u g h t h i s a s s o c i a t i o nt h e
cafhedral of Reims became the French corona-
tion church. while St Remi was honoured in an
abbey near by. In roo5 thc monastery undcr-
r r r . Reims,Saint-Remi,I oo5 "+9;Gothic shaliing,
upper arcade,and i'ault (prc-19r7 photograph)
il
FRA\CL: 9Oo t O5o r5\
the present Gothic cathedraloi the dedication of Fulbert's cathedral until re-
structuresof
took what was intended to be the largest churclr
pairs were completed in Io37;moreover, Ful-
a vast basilica originally planned 16
'rrg4-r 260'
in Gaul
much bert's church sufi-ered again from iire in I r37,
designs, which have double aisles, a transept, and an apss th. ,nrin church ol lo2o was not
6chclon. Collapse due to enlbrced neglect, u hile than thc existing cathedral lt had a a n d t h e w h o l e o l ' t h e s u p e r s t r u c f u r eu a s r u i n e d
emaller 'wondcrful and
ridgebelfrl lts length in a memorable disaster' the
*..t*ort"nd probablya
the church was near the fiont line in the f"irst
the clearnare span miserable fire' of r rg-1' !-r'en the stone-\'aulted
World War, hls cost us most of the originnl
6f j45 teeron thc axis.and
navc, an interesting construction with bundltd ir notable for size'rnd il was n e w G o t h i c c a t h e d r a ll o s t i t s o u l e r u o o d e n r o o f
of i+ f..t' made 'Ihe
piers decorated in stucco, and a pretty gallcrl constructed' nave and aisles in r836. Clearlv, in more than a thousand 1'ears
nrty Uofafy its
enriched by arches paired under a serics <-rt'cn- only eighteen interior supports of successive fires, the wooden roof, fbr all
toglthet had C h a r t r e s'
a d v a n t a g e s ,h a s b e c n d i s c r e d i t e d a t
measuringabout
closing arches,somewhat as in the PilgrimLrgc
,U-out7 t""t squarein an area
churches. The tall clerestory wall above tire The supports occupiedabout At many other sitcs - St Martin at'fours among
,r"by
'l
gallery had semicircular exterior buttresses. he "o5l'eet.of this area,whereasat Salnt- them - the wooden-rool'ed basilica has had an
one twenty-fifth
'I'hc of the area equally sinister historv.
transept had returned aisles. early Ronrirn- B6nigne,as we havc seen'one-tenth
but Saint-B6nigne The issue ti'om the situation presented bv
esque building, somewhat curtailed from tl.re wesgiven up to suppot'ts cum-
Saint-B6nigne (fireproof' but impossibly
s c h e m eo f r o o 5 , w a s d e d i c a t e d i n r o 4 g b y l ) o p c in Diion was fireProol"
to bersome) ancl Chartres (seemly' but vulnerable
Leo IX.r5 In later times a Gothic vault \\as Chartres.with its woodenroof, continued
ro-1odela.ved to lire) was fbund ab<lut ro5o in improved
built over the navc [rrr]. A handsome [arh be visitedb1'the flames A lire of
Gothic apse, ambulatory. and radiating chaIels
which have survived, now terminate the build-
ing on the east, and the nave has been ucll r r z . A u x e r r eC a t h c d r a lc. r r P t " ro3o
restored.
'fhe
nert reallv conspicuous great woodcn-
roof'ed basilica was Bishop Fulbert's cathcdral
o f C h a r t r e s ,b e g u n i n r o z o [ 9 5 e ] .1 !T h e t r a d i t i o n
at Chartres was basilican. The church of 7-1.ire-
placed an older building which had a woo(len
lool'; a hre of'858 in the church of 74i ncccs-
sitated the Carolingian reconstruction ag.rin
llooden-rooled r,rhich has been mentiorr.d
previously. The latter building was burnt in
rozo, and was replaced b1' Fulbert's church'
also a wooden-roofed structurc. but unusuallJ
imposing and spacious. It so happens that tte
know the architect's name - B6ranger, whonr
the cathedral chapter ref'erred to as arIda,r hurttrt
whcn he died (ro5o). In thc new ([x1111. rrl
ro2o Bdranger took the theme of apse, an.rbu-
l a t o r r . a n d r a d i a r i n gc h a p e l sn e u l l e x e m p l i l r e J
'l'ours
it ( g g 7 r o r 4 1 ,a n d a p p l i e di t h a n d s o n r u l l
o n t h e c h u r c h l e v e l , a n d a l s o i n t h e c r y p t , * h e te
'l
i t e n v e l o p e d t h e o l d a m b u l a t o r y o 1 '8 5 8 . h e
t h r c c c r y p l c h a p e l so f r o z o s t i l l e x i s t u i r h t l r e i r
a m b u l a t o r y a n d a l o n g c o r r i d o r o f a c c e s s{ ) n
each side [96], Ibr they were built into the strh'
 r56 E A R L T E RR O N T A N E S Q U S
ETYLES

m a s o n r t ' t c c h n i q u e t h e i n c r e a s e du s e o f a s h l a r
man1,fine churches and conventual establisfi-
THREE
stonc, better stcreotomi-, berter fbunclltions. PART
ments on the Pilgrimage Road. In ro4g onc
bctter understanding o1'stresses,and better n{
the great builders of all time, Abbot Hugn
handling of vaulting problems. f'he first half ii
C l u n v , t o o k o v e r t h e d e s t i n i e so f t h e g r e a t
o f t h e e l e v e n t hc e n t u r v s a w t h e l e v e l o 1 ' t e c h n i c a l g u n d i a n
monasterv at a time when it was gy_
Ilu"- THE MATURE,ROMANESqUE AS INTER-REGIONAL
a c c o m p l i s h m e n tr i s e t h e c r v p t o l ' t h e c a r h e d r a l
o1' Auxerre (aboLrt ro3o) [r rz] shows this -
panding activelv and needed to rene\\
buildings everywhere.
its A N D I N T E R N A T I O N A L A R C HI T E C T U R E
and bv the middlc of the centurv the French 'l'he
ertraordinarv result achieved uithin
b u i l d e r s w s r e a s f u l l v s o p h i s t i c a t e da n d c o m _
t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n si s o u r b e s t w i t n e s s t r ,
pctent as their colleagues of the K(iserdoilte on 16,
excellence o1'the preparatory labours of
tftg
the Rhine. Increasing prosperitv and better
Early Romanesque. Paul Henry Ldng expr.esscs
cir,il order made greater resources ar.ailable,for
it verv well: 'Wherever we look we behold
thrt
c a t h e d r a l sa n d m o n a s t e r i e sa l i k e. T h e d e r . e l o n _
g r a L ^ i t d sa
, legacv from Rome's most glorious
ing pilgrimage ro.santirgo prrrricledrhr oc(.;-
rimes, which lends this period a trulr. arisro_
slon and the resources fbr the construction of
cratic majcsty . . . equalled bl an inner forcc . . CHAPTER 8
.,

.I'HE
THE GREAT CHURCHES OF PI I-GRIX,IAGE RO {DS

Lacarra, Jrran Uria Riu, Jesfs Calro Garcia

G E N E R AC
L ONSIDERATIONS
ThanlongenJblh to gottoil pilerinurs
And Tulnars.fitrIo sttkrnstraunli strotld(s
Piety and the open road wrought well lbr archi-
tecture in the second half of the eleventh ccn-
tury. There were many collections of relics in
western Europe by that time, and manl' \.cne-
rated burial places in the length and breadth of
thoselands. But
Jerusalem, Rome, and Santiago
de Compostela drew tides of devotecl pilgrims
trom far and wide, so much so rhat pror,ision
came to be made in hosoices and monastcries
along the road
most particularlv along the
road to Santiago,
wherc the palmers were so
numerous that a
sense ol fellowship der eloped.
The pilgrimages
indeed appear ro us as an
attracti\e social phenomenon
ol the time.
\m.ty Picaud. Fidel Fita. Joscph Bcdier.
r'reorgiana
Goddard King, \rrhur Kingsler'
torter'
Luis \ azqucz de Parga. Jose Maria
hale u'rittcn about its poetrv. its cnchanting
legend, its abounding life, and its beautilul
-I'he
architecture.r thought makes one envy
Chaucer's squire, en route, of' course, to
Canterburl
S r n g - - r n ghce w r s , o L f l o l t ) n g e .a l r h c t h r
I I c w i r sr s f i e s s h ei r si s t h c m o n e t ho 1\ l r r .
'Ilre
h e a r t l c a p s r e s p o n s i v e l y t' o w h a t K i n g s l e r '
'those long,
Porter called but tlclicious kilo-
'the m)riad human
metres' in f'ellowship with
beings who trudgcd unending leagues to la1'
t h c i r g r a t i t u d e a n d t h c ' i t 'r c m o r s c , t h e i r w e a l t h
a n d t h e i r s i n s a t t h e f ' e e to f t h e - { p o s t l c ' . W i t h
'the
real insight hc recognized and expressed
inncr vitalitv, whether postic or spiritual I know
nor, but still lbrcefulll living at Santiago,and
unquenchably bcautiful there'.r
The ancicnt monument which was recog-
nized in 8 r -j (on what basis, we do not know) as
t h c t o m b o f ' S t J a m es t h t ' s o n o f Z e b e d e c s o o n
attracted ir local pilgrimage, rvhich is heard of :ts
 I58 INTER-REGIoNALAND INTERNATIoNAL ARcHITEcTURE T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E R O A D S r59

earlv as 8++. Bf'' that time a Benedictine monas- the road of the saints', borrowed great names
,r?. Comparali\e
plans ot thc firc grcat ehurchcs T'|.
ter]' alread]'existed at Compostela. 81' 86o the tt Rc l['I . -+
to gir,e a show of authenticity to his work. ii"1hePilgrtmas' 'lr'i/
festival of Santiago, z5 Julv, was listed in the (HerseY)
- fours, St Martin
o\
Unfortunatelv the colophon has led to rhs {r
martvrologv of the cathedral of Mctz.3 This is a
most rmportant f'act, because ecclesiasticscame
quite general supposition that the pilgrimass
was dereloped b1 rhe abbel of Clunr. tbr ii,
l' t,lrog.t.
i. conqu"t'
Sainr-Martial
S:intc-l ot
(Roussirc)
fFt:::::::
flr r . | . . . . I ri
:l ilrt.,
a. o'....r\
fiom all over the Empire and from England to ] Toulouse,salnt-5ernrn
Metz in order to studv at the great school of'
own profit, and lovers of the old Burgundral
monasterv will be glad to learn that it is nori,
'lhere
l. S.nritgode
ComPostela(K J C )
r*:::::::::
Er+++++++
.<)
.+
tr
+..."'{'
+f1r\"
.\
Roman chant which had been established there. relier.ed ofthis onus. role in the Pilgrimage +(
'I'hus is a phrase in Chap_ With the Cluniac T +r
+...\
an intcrnational pilgrimage to Santiago ter xrrr of Book rv to the effect that in x it remains to be said that the
befferunderstood, !lrtJ
soon beg;anto develop. As earlv as 8g3 provision comparison between regular clergy, ,black, of M' Elie Lambert't have shown .ilrr
researches
lbr a hospice is reported. In g5r Godescalc, monks and abbots and 'white' canons regular. other than the Cluniac
very well that Orders
bishop o1'Le Puy', made thc pilgrimage from the last-named melioremsnnctlrum sectemtcil(,nl numbers of priories on the
haj considerable 'l'he
France, accompanied by nearlv zoo monks. - that is, imputing superiority whole ensembleof estab-
to the canons PilgrimageRoads.
At this time the little Kingdom of Le6n as_ over Cluniac and other Benedictine monks. 'l'he ofering hospitalit.v was rationall--v
lishments
pired to empire, and the bishop of Santiago, as phrase cannot have been written at Cluny. 'fhe setalong the routes, at intervals of some twenty
e a r l y ' a sg 7 9 , w a s s t v l e d ' B i s h o p o f t h e A p o s t o l i c Cluniacs were touch)' at this time; Ibr it ras a comfbrtable day's iourneying'
miles apart
See', though not in actual competition with not manv vears since St Bernard,s disobliging supposes an instinctivc or tacit under-
One
Rome. In 9g7 Sanriago was the object of an Apologia to William of Saint-Thierry had stig_ standing regarding this matter, such as there is
lmportant and damaging raid by the great matized the monks of Clunv ( r r z4) ; moreor cr, to-day among the principal suppliers of the
+r..t
f . ..'+r
Moorish warrior Almanzor. -fhe pilgrimage per- in r r 3z Abbot Perer the Venerable had rectifiecl roadsidecommodities of our own times. There 14aara + o r.al...
sisted and grew in spite of such dangers lrom was sufficient place fbr evervone - Cluniacs, I roor e + t.,...taa
Cluniac obserr,ances.l
the south; despite local war in the Christian The roads of pilgrimage were necessarilv thc Augustinians, Hospitallers, conf raternities, and ; "....+ ..,.:'.;'

l +ttl+tt rrtrr
lands, and piratical raids on the coast bv Mos- grand routes of communication, and would in individual doers of good.
lems and Northmen alike. any case have had monasteries and hosoices on In that devoted age, each of the Pilgrimage f+?
I'hcreis a thrill in seeing and handling t h e m . A 1 m e r 1 P i c a u di n d i c a r e so r h e r e s r a b l i s h - Roadswould naturally have developed a shrine
the classic manuscript of thc pilgrimage, the ments in a number of placeswhere Clunv had of some importance. The international and
twelfih-centur1. pseudo-Callistine codex. con- priories; Cluny itself was not located on an1- inter-regional character of the Pilgrimage is em-
aa
taining Avmerv Picaud's Pilgrim's Guide (Book one of the Roads, and the houses described as phasized by the f'act that the most notable
' ' ' ' ' ' r t ' ' | ' t"r
V) fbllowing a scries of books on the Offices of Cluniac in Spain were for the most part mercll shrines one on each road - had vert similar
the church at Compostela, the Miracles of'St associated with the Burgundian abbey through architectural form. These churches transcend **tt: i
James (attributed to Pope Calixtus II), the foundation, refbrm, customs, or ecclesiasticel the localism of their period Irr3, showing all ror
I
Chronicle of the Lif'e and Translation of St personages.Yet Clunv unquestionably favoured fivel. l+*
James, and the Chronicle of the Expedition of the Pilgrimage, and even more the Spanish St Martin at Tours on the Paris-Bordeaux o 3o\l

Charlemagne to Spain (attributed to Arch_ road, Saint-Martial at Limoges on the V6zela-v o roofT
crusade for the reconquest of the peninsuh. frr*{
bishop'furpin). P6rigueux road, Sainte-Foi at Conques on the + f'=aa +i
Cluny had influential fiiends in Spain
The attributions are f'alse,of course, as is the among them King Alfonso VI, one of whose
chicf'
L e P u y - M o i s s a cr o a d . a n d S a i n t - S e r n i n a t T o u - -;1r qt* t!

statement that it was first ,received' in Rome; q u e e n s( C o n s t a n c e )w a s a n i e c e o f A b b o t H u g h .

louse on the Arles
Jaca road, each r.rasa great
Hlo* *..* ".ii : :
but it mav, as the colophon says, have been Clunv supplied great churchmen for the refornr
church of the peculiar Pilgrimage t1''pc,with the '| a|.r .'"? . ' - t . . " . ."..
}+f
'written ttnestofthe group
in various places Rome, and cxpansion of the Church in Spain, as the at the goal ofthe pilgrimage,
Jerusalem, l :; *.r..f ++""i.rd
Gaul, Italv, Germany', Frisia, and especiallv at rn Santiago
Christian statesoriented themselves towards rhe itself. The buildings embody an
C l u n r ' . l t c o n t a i n sf i a u d u l e n rl e r r e r s o lC a l i x t u s accomplished
formula fbr ample, spacious
_ljgsrrrrrrrg1 . I f3J'.'
Latin centrcs ofcivilization while pushing their --aa..l.
II and one of Innocent II which datesit r r rg. churches r l*l
b o u n d a r i e ss o u t h w a r d . M u c h B u r g u n d i a n c h i r - of firenroof construction suitable for t'
'l southern { + + r -1r
h e a u r h o r . u h o s a r s h i m s e l fl b o o k r , c h . x r r r ; lighring and climare.'fhe1 all show
that
'all
kinds of iniquitl,' and fraud abound in
alry took part in this reconquest in Spain anrl
askill in
a . . i g n u i a a n a s s u r a n c ei n c o m p o s i t i o n
+nii+
Portugal both.

IOO
INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCIIITECTURE
which rvould have becn impossible previous to
'l'he
ro5o for structurcs of this classification.
statical problcms were well understood, and
the embellishment, particularly with
sculpture, was increasingly Iine in quality and
charactcr.
r r-1. Santiirgo de Compostcla, .. r o7-5 r 2 r r ,
anahticll isomctric pcrspcctirc (Braunwald)
ROADS IOI
THE GREAT CHURCHESOF TH[' PILGRIMAGE
'fours,
'l'1picall1' 'Pilgrimage sustained' 1\pically' on St Martin at forward-looking as
the church' is g'ran,1 '19
v e r s ea r c h c s 1tt
u s u a l .b u i l t t h e l e a d i n g o r
' p i l o t ' d e s i g n ,t h o u g h
rvith l o u r ittached shafts' onc of
in scale. It has a long nare rvith aislesan1 , ]"urr. pi.rt
u p t h e l a ( c o l lhe nare wall to currr through later rebuilding it departcd from the
gallerv, a widc transept, and a spacioussanl- Jinn ttt.t
a r c h o n the ground floor two ol- type which it had helped to crcate. Saint-
r el i e f tuarv arm, all covcred b!.tunnel vaulting carris6 Ll,.rnru..tt
c a r r ) l h e i r s h a r c o f t h c a r c h c sw h i c h Martial nt Limoges had not so spaclous a tran-
to a unifbrm height in the caseof'Santiago. A.o,tt.tt
'I'hcsc aisle bals' and rhe lburth sept as thc others. Beautifullv sct' Sainte-Foi at
s i x t y - e i g h t f ' e e tI r r 4 ] . vaults harc rr1n.r frrr. ,tt. rrdioining
a r c h b e t u q cn thc groin raults ol the Conques is the smallest and most rustic Ir r[l]'
.rrri.r rtt.
T h e c o r r e s ponding shali in thc gal- Saint-Sernin at Toulouse is exceptional among
fttt.
"irf. a diaphragm arch which separates the group in being partly brick-built. Saint-
l.ry.rrri..
quadrant vaulting so placed as to Scrnin was nevcr quitc linishecl, and it has
,*o Uryr of
thrust of'the high vault' In principle sufiercd both fionr mcdieval additions and mo-
absorbth"
and galleries surround the entire dern restorations; moreover, it has lost its sub-
the aisles
ambulatory about the urban sctting and its group of conventual
building. This means an
small gallerv above it, beneath the structures. Santiago has lost its canons' choir,
aose,and a
windows ofthe apse Elsewhcre therc and thr original Romanesquc exterior was
.l.r..,ory
the open- masked between 1658 and r75o by Baroquc
is no clerestory. To enrich the design,
construction(though without spoiling the
ings between the piers of the gallery were
building).
typically divided by pairccl archcs resting. in the
Santilgo has the most commanding situation ;
middle, on slender columns, and at the sides on
the lateral shafts of the piers, under an en- S a i n t e - l r o ih a s t h e m o s t p i c t u r e s q u cs u r r o u n d -
closingarch which corresponds to the aisle arch ings. Santiagoand Saint-Martial were built of
- a very prett!'arrangement. Light reaches the g r a n i t e : S : r n t i a g oa n d S a i n t - S e r n i n w e r c l b r t i -
nave,transept, and apsc directly lrom windows fied; Santiago, Saint-Sernin, and Sainte-Foi
in the end walls and r lantern lower o\er lhe have notable ligure sculpture. Santiago alone
c r o s s i n g ;i t a l s o f i l t c r s i n t i o m t h c w i n d o w s o l ' has a fully developed circuit o('aislesand gal-
the aislesand galleries. Since the churches were leries about the building. Santiago alone rvas
for canons or fbr monastic purposes' the naves planned tbr the full complement o('nine towers,
were blocked at the head by the choir fbr thc rcalizing the Carolingian ideal (three wcre large,
clergy.By the eleventh or twelfth century it was two werc of mcdium size, and four were corncr
customary to enclose thesc choirs with walls turrets). St Nlartin was planned with five towers'
which obstructed the view liom the lower part all large; Saint-Nlartial was planned with two
ofthe nave to the altar. The wide transepts were Iarge touers and two or more turretsi Sainlc-
designedto compensare for this, in view of the Iroi was planned with a large crossing towcr and
pilgrim thrones. For
rhe chant the acoustics of' a snraller stair tower, on the transept.
thesechurches are unexceDtionable. On the practical side, for comparison with thc
T h e g e n e r o u s l i n e s a n d c o n s i d e r a b l eh e i g h t church of Saint-B6nigne at Diion, we should
of these buildings,
emphasized b1' their bold note that the nave proper of the cathedral of
towers and turrets,
gave them a finc silhouette Santiago and its aisles, fulll-' vaulted, measure
and a handsome 'l'hose about 64 feet in rvidth and r43 feet in length,
presence. which remain
are, after eight with zo interior supports in the lbrm of piers,
hundred years, still among thc
n o b l e s tc h u r c h e s each melsuring about l5 squxrc feet in rrea'
o[ l;r,rnceand Spain, and the
qestruction
of rhe others (Sainr-\4arrial at This relationship would hold, roughly, for all
Llhoges
and Sr Martin ar Tours) is grcatty of thc typical buildings. The nave of Saint-
regretted.
86nigne, though dift'erently shaped, had almost
 r62 INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL
ARCHITECTURE
T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E R O A D S r63

"Lai!:5'*
30 FT
at Saint-\lartial was enriched fiom but opinion is unanimous that the church must
velopment
and by the impulse which came from have been finished about rrjo. The tall pro-
-cG
tGe rablel n
of Aurillac' later Pope Sllvester II, portions do not indicate tardy date, but the
we have seen at Ripoll in near-by Cata- bellry'over the crossing is clearly ofthe twellih
shorn
- also in one way or another by the mul- c e n t u r y , a n d t h e b o l d n e s so f c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e
lonia
of the Pilgrimage Road. Io apse - both internal and external - belongs to a
fple contacts
Saint-Martial had become Cluniac at the design of the period about ro8o. The unfortu-

I closeof Abbot Odo's

career (between 936 and
g4z) but had seceded from the Congregation.
After the abbey had suffered from a disastrous
firein ro53, it was sold (in ro6z) bv the Count of
l Limoges, who did not own it, to Cluny, and it
thus became Cluniac again under Abbot Hugh.
nate western towers date from the nineteenth
century. Before that time a plain front termi-
nating in a double slope (like a Lombardic
fagade) served as a backgJroundfor the entrance
portalIrr6].
This west portal at Conques, dated about

I When the new monks came, the old communitv

resisted,and the Cluniacs were obliged to resort
to force before they could establish themselves
(ro63).tt In happier years which lbllowed,
r rz4,rr is a most remarliable carr,ing, which still
(owing to the characteristic arched hood) retains
traces of its medieval polychromy, a circum-
stance which gives us the rare privilege ofseeing
Cluny gave the monks of Saint-Martial a new this composition of the Last Judgement as the
church of the Pilgrimage type; for Cluny was
'I'ours, not arbitrary or conformist in architecture. The
r r5. St \,Iartin, rcstorationstudv oftransept as rebuilr .. ro-5oIl. (Hcrsev) r r 6 . C o n q u e sS
, a i n t e - F o ir,. r o 5 o ( ? )r . r r 3 o ,
newchurch was nearing completion when it was
facadebefbrcrcstoration
dedicatedin rog5, though the nave, evidently
the same area as that of Santiago
; 3z piers aggrc_ Pilgrimage vaulting system might havc bcen still covered at least in part by wood, suffered
gating 8ro square feet were needed to sustain
extended to the nave, but plans werc changetl from fire in 1167 and evenrually had a Gothic
the r.ault. Two gcnerations of'technical progress af'ter a Iire of rtz3.1 vault.
account fbr the difference: thc piers ofthe nave The reconstructcd transept of St Martin rr:rs
of Santiago occupy onlr. 3oo square fect, littlc built according to the Pilgrimagc formula, bur
more than one-third of the area which was re_ S A I N T E - F o lA T c o N e u E s r l
without the inncr paired arches o1'the gallcri
quired at Saint-B6nigne.
bays Irr5l. Heavy tower porches were builr at T h e c h a n tt r a n s p o r t su s s p i r i r u a l l r t o t h e M i d d l e
the transept ends (in the trrrdition of'the Lrgrrlc A g e s .A t C n n q u e r , i n a n d
abour Sainre-Foi, we
ST MARTINAT TOUR56 tower of' 466 7o at St Martin); a lantern *ls are taken back visually
Ir r6 r8]. Sainte-Foi is
built at the crossing, and eventually A monu- very happily situated

I
on a rugged slope in a re-
The early tenth-century church of St Martin mental pair of towers at the lvest encl. 'Ihe ,rnr- mote valley with
a p r * r y r . i l l a g e n e a r . .w h i c h
which we have discussed was consumed bv fire t o o k sm u c h
'fhe bulatory of'g97 ror4, which we would so ghdll asir did in olden times.The presenr
in gg7. new construction afrerwartls hacl church,small,
s c e ,w a s r e p l a c e db y a n E a r l y G o t h i c a m b u l r r r o r J elegant in Iinc, and beautifullv
thc ideal Pilgrimage plan a long nave, a capa_ proportioned,

l
after a fire ol' rzoz, but that tbllowcd thc orhcrs *u, buit, slouly and progres-
cious rransept.and ths first typically arrangcd in the ruin and demolition *hi.h nr"r,onk ,h. ," replaceolder construction,
)t o
: Y- r according
apse, ambularorl,, and radiating chapels but b u i l d i n g l a t e i n t h e e i g h t e e n t hc e n r u r v . N b e a u t i f u lp l a n p u r
into erecution bv Abbot
it was wooden-roofed. About ro5o, when the - - * u r r r ca b o u t
l o 5 o . T h e n a v e . w h i c h a p p e a r st o
transept was rebuilt, groin vaulting was usedin uc-the
i the aislcs and quadrant vaulting in the gallcries, S - 4I N ? ' - A , { A R T I AA
LT L I N T O G E S ' ) 'orresponding
oldest parl. has bold proportions (
r :zj)
t o t h o s e i n t h e r r a n s e p t( r . r o 5 o )
l as had becn done, a little differentlv. at Saint_
B e n i g n e .D i j o n . i n r o o t r 7 . A r t h e h i g h c s rl e v e l
{ t S : r i n t - M a r r i a li n L i m o g e s , i r w a s t h t . r r r .,r, 1
music rvhich rvas most ellectirch, cultir rrred
"'*rarhn ar Tours
(* " i - j I 0 7 ) l r r j ( 3 ) 1 .. \ b b o t B 6 g o n
b u i h r h e c l o i s r e r ,a n d h i s r o m b i s
there was a ribbed tunnel vault. This tvoical wt against
O n c m a 1 f a i r l _ vs u r n r i s et h a r r h e m u s i e r l J c - certain older portions of the church,
 T H E G R E A T C I I U R C H E SO F T H E P I I , G R I M A G [ , R O A D S r65

IITand I r t l ( o p p r t s i t )e ( i o n q u e s , s a i n t c - l i o i , r . r o - 5 o ( ? )r . r r j o , i n r c r i o r l o o k i n g c a s t a n c l v i e w f r o m r h r e l l l

Middle Ages saw it, alive and warm with vivaci- grimage group of churches. It rightll'' stands fbr
ous movement. The influence of'the pilgrimage a great moment in thc civilization ol'Langue-
throngs may be felt in the choice and trcatment doc, rvhich had its capital in Toulouse. Except
of the subject more picturesque, and much fbr a short intcrludc, it was an Augustinian
more popular in appeal rhun rhe apocallptic houselrhen the church was being built. At the
vtstonwhich
was evoked f'or the morr intel- t i m e i t l a 1 ' o n t h e o u t s k i r t s o l t h c c i t l ' , a n d h a c la
lectual devotion
of the monks of Clunv. Sainte- considerable group of conventual structures,
F o i a t C o n qu e s
n e r e r h a d c l o s cc o n n e r i o n s w i t h arranged about a cloister, on thc northern
Cluny. ( s h a d e d )s i d c . B e f b r e t h e d a t e o f t h e r e b u i l d i n g
of Conques was suspectcd,the beginnings of
sAtNT-sERNrN Saint-Sernin wcre ascribedto the ro6os. Con-
AT TouLorrsr.
A N DP I L c R I M A c E servatire opinion now preftrs ro77, whcn the
scLrLpruRE
chapter of canons regular was institutcd, or
Saint-Sernin
at Toulouser+ is by filr the most ro8z-3, when Bishop Isarne of Toulouse tn-
ta&iliar
and the most ofien visited of the Pil- stalledCluniac monks at Saint-Sernin, because
 166 INTER-REGIoNAL AND INTERNATIoNAL ARcHITEcTURE

(restored in the nineteenth centttr-v),

-,tto r2r. Toulousc, Saint-Sernin, cheret
(with later additions)' and ambulatorv (looking west)' c' Iofio
*i.,u*f

the canons, claiming exemption, refused him
obedience.
The chevet of Saint-sernin
[rrg zr], of
tvpical fbrm, was complete when the later archi_
tect of the building, Raymond Gayrard, took
over about rog8. Meanwhile the high altar had
been consecratedon z4 N4ay r og6 by the Cluniac
pope Urban II in the presence offifteen French
and Spanish bishops. A gift fbr rhe nave is re-
ported in ro95, which means that the transeDt
uas well adrancedbr rhen, and in r r r8 when
Raymond Gayrard died, the splendid double-
aisled western arm of the church had been
carried up to include the height ofthe windows
o f t h e g a l l e r y ,b u t n o t v a u l t e d . p o p e C a l i x t u s I I ,
putative aurhor of the famous pilgrim codex,
dedicated an alrar (or perhaps the uncompleted
building) on rg July r r rg. The west front has
been finished off simph., and remains an awk-
ward bulk, bringing the exterior length of'the exquisite small ligures which is believed to be Martin, Tours; and at the Pante6n de los Reyes
church to a total of 359 feet. In order to support the high altar slab dedicated by Pope Urban II ofSan Isidoro, Le6n, still exist ; other important
the staged belfry (largely of Gothic date) abor,e i n r o 9 6 .T h e p l a q u e s a n d t h e a l t a r , w h i c h a r e i n e n s e m b l e s( t h e t o m b o f S t F r o n t , P 6 r i g u e u x ,
the lantern, the four crossing piers have been Pyrenean marble, make it easy ro trace the ro77, a,nd the carvings of San Facundo, Saha-
much enlarged, with resulting strangulation of sculptural development from French Catalonia grin, ro8o 96) have been lost. A re-study ofthe
the interior perspectives, but the exciting ex- (Saint-Genis-des-Fontaines, rozo r; Arles- material will show that Cluniac spirituality and
terior silhouette, as seen lrom the east, is a par- sur-Tech, ro46) bv wa1 of the ambulatory love ofthe arts did a great deal to give increasing
tial compensation. The picturesque medielal figuresand altar ( r oo6)
to the Ascension on rhc cogency to the sculptural themes in the late
fortifications and the old patina ol'the building P o r t ed e M i d g e v i l l e
a t S a i n t - S e r n i n( c . r r r o ) a n d eleventh century.
were lost in a restoration, otherrvise unfbrtunate so to Cluny (c.
trrz) and to the wonderful
also,dating from r855 and the lbllowing r.eers. P o r t a lo f M o i s s a c( r . r r r
s).rn
C o n s e r v x t i v eF r e n c h i v r i t e r s S A N T I A G OD E C O M P O S T E L A ,
While Saint-Sernin is most importanr as an claim a primacy
.
accomplished example of Pilgrimage archirec- lor Toulouse G O A LO F T H E P I L G R I M A G E
i n l h e r e - c r e a t i o no l m o n u m e n r a l
ture, its carvings figure prominently in the his- sculptute '-lhe
in stone. \'et the precious wreckage of modern pilgrim may come up the Via
t o r y o f R o m a n e s q u e s c u l p t u r e . l s A s e r i e s0 f o l t l e rs c u l p t u r e s
sho* s that monumenfal sculp- Francigena ('Frenchmen's WaJ'') to Santiago de
t u r ei n
m a r b l e p l a q u e si n a h e a v y s t y l e h a v e b e e n b u i l t s t o n ed i d n o r r e a l l v c e a s ew i r h A n t i q u i t v . Compostela as his predecessorshave done for a
'I'hel' r^heAnglian
into the ambulatory wall of Saint-Sernin. ancl Irish ..orr.r, lare Saxon re- thousand years and more. He will find a charn-
r r c l si n
are datable to ro96 or earlier [rzr]. At the England, figure sculprure dated abour ing city of rain-washed granite which has
roo5
crossing there is a marble altar slab bordercd b!' at St Emmiram, changed very little since the eighteenth century'
Regensburg; ar sr
 T H E G R E A T C H U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R I M A G T R O A D S r69

dc ('omqoltel,a'
r23.SantiaFo ,
stud-\u1ol lillnll s(ncmc'
r!storaaion
t. I Ioo' etc ll!.J-L- )
, tOj5.
buttrcsscsut rPsc
SmallflYing
r(l(l(d:lllcr I I | 7
4 r db a t t l e m c n t s

becausethe provincial government was long e l a b o r a t ef r o n t i s p i c c e o f t h e c h u r c h . T h e l v h o l e

agoinstalled at busv La Coruia, and indifl'erent great f'agade, 524 feet in width, gains greatl.v
communications have tliscouraged modern de- from the fact that the supposed tomb of' St
velopmentsat Santiago. Lt
James, the nucleus of all Santiago, is located
The splendid old cathedralr* frr3(.5), rr.1, within the building about twentv-five feet above
tzz-61 still dominates the whole ofthe city, as it thc levcl of the plaza, so that a high basement
h a sf r o m t h e v e r l b e e i n n i n e . I t w a s n o t e n t i r e l v storcv was necessarv bencath the western raneie
finishedrrntil rhe cnj ot the eighteenr h ..n, rr.,1. of buildings. The unfinished to$ers ol- the
by which rime fbqade were carried up in masterly. Churri-
i t s m e t l i e r a l l b r m s h . . r db e e n
disguisedon the
exterior and partlv on rhe in- gueresquc one for the bells, the other lbr the
t e r i o r .f o r to a height ofzjz feet;
harmonv wirh rhe grrn,lilr. :pirir ot' carlacaor Easterrattle
that gorgeous 'fh.
'obradoiro,) western faqacle (of the also. a hcar'-v tower of defence adioining the
"g".
f l r n t . d u 1 .t h e p r r l r r c eo f t h e l r c h _ transept $'as augmented in a similar wav, and
b i s h o po n
the north nn.l ,h. cloisler cdihce on provided with a clock.
tlt .outh,
is a magnifcent design in Chur- A Renaissance stairwav and platform give
rigueresque.
\{'ith tvpical Spanish rrr, rhe acccss to the church from the western plaza.
uanking
rzz. Santiago de Conrpostela, pucrta tle las platcrias,
s t r u c r u r e sn r . k . p , r c l a t i r e l r s i m p l e i n Once past the door, the r,isitor is surrounded by
rozg and later order to
give full tulue to the extraordinarilv Romanesque w'ork, and engulfbd in an atnro-
 17r
r70 t N T l - R - R E ( ; l O N A t ,A N D I N T E R N A I l O N A L A R C l t l r E c T r - i R E

s p h e r ef u l l o f ' w a r m t h a n d d i g n i t r ' . T h e w e s t e n d to 2qg f'eet, with a clear interior length of' u r.i
has an interesting crypt, which sustains the I'eet one of the finest of all Romanesque in-
main vestibule ancl uith it the triple P6rtico de teriors. Its altars (in chapels at the east), to-
l a G l o r i a , r i c h l l ' e m b e l l i s h e d b y ' c a r v i n g s .I t i s a gethcr with thosc of the ambulatory, were dedi-
late and beautilul florvcring of I']ilgrimage sculp- c a t e d i n r r o 5 ; o l d w o r k w a s c l e a r e do u t o l ' i t 1 1
ture, in arrangement, though not in subject, r r rz. and it was finished soon after. All of this
lieely inspired fiom the EircatCluniac poltal at work, and thc sanctuary too, is marked b1
V6zelay Ir24, r631. It was carved and installcd cusped and mitrcd archcs which savour of'
(rr68 tlS) b1,a master namcd Xlatthcw, shown Moorish influence.
in prayer on the base of thc mediln iamb. The scheme for the new cathedral was workcrl
Formerll' the outer archrvay-srvcre open, and out shortlv aftcr roTr by Diego Pcliez, bishop
the thrce great cloorwavs,erch with iamb figures, of Santiago; preliminary work had bccn donc
the sculptured great tympanum, and archivolts by rc77, when the propcrtv lines involved at tirc
all touched with colour, were seen trom the cast end of the church were scttled. On the
plazain the cavernous shadow ofthe vestibule. Puerta de las Platerias the ceremonial beginning
T h e v a u l t i n g o f t h c r e s t i b r . r l es u p p o r t s a t r i b u n e or the juridical fbundation of the church is lc-
which is carried up as thc central motif of the callcd bv a bold inscription of unusual form,
laqrde. Thercfbre at Santiago we have essen- giving thc date V Ides ofJuly, Era r r r6 ( r r Jtrlr
tially the old Carolingian rvestwork augmcnted ro78), but a good deal of the cxisting rvork on
b1 the portal sculpfures, and bJ the monu- the portal is later. Many carvings have the
-I'here
mental tower pair. general character ofsculptures of r ogo- 5.
'I'he
original scheme for the front called lbr i s a b e a u t i l u l s t a t u eo 1 ' S tJ a m es w h i c h w a s g i r c n
thesc same elements. but the carvings of the b y A l f b n s o V I ( d . r r o g ) t o e i e t h e rw i t h a t l e r s t Iz4. Santiagode ComPostela,
'I'ransfiguration resiorationitudyol lagadeas rernodelledr r6ll rzI t ;
portal were on the exterior wall, and there were one fine relief liom the Port;rl.
The fricze and jamb reliefs are somewhat dis- north tower finished later (K.J C )
two archcs corresponding to the nave. 1'he
s p a n d r e l so f t h e s e a r c h e sh a d a ' l - r a n s l i g u r a t i o n ordcred, and it is certain that the portal has bccn
s h o w i n g S t J a m e s o f ' c o u r s e c a r v e d i n r e l i e f. rebuilt once probably after a serious tonn
century. Works were still in progress at the by Baroque httings, and the vista is liamed b1'
This old scheme has been presclved at the tran- insurrection and cathedral fire of rr17, alrtl
west end of the church when Aymery Picaud two splendid Baroque organs at the head ofthe
sept portals, and that ilt thc south now contains latcr, when the west ancl north portals $crc
v i s i t e di t i n r r 3 r ( o r r r z o ? ) ; i t p r o m i s e d t o b c nave, all bright with gilding, silver, and colour;
carvings from the west portal and the north remade.
very handsome, as he says. nevertheless the interior is dominated by the
portal, as we know from the Pilgrim's Guide by Bishop Diego Pelfez was deposed in ro8S. -
The visitor entering the nave lrom Master old Romanesque work in brown granitc the
Aymery Picaud, where they are appreciatively accused of complicity in a plot to invite Williant t h e e l e g a n tpro-
'n Matthew's \estibule through the P6rtico dc la even rhythm ofthe nave bays,
ll d e s c r i b e d .T h e n o r t h l a g a d eo f ' t h e t r a n s e p t w r s ol \ormandl's intervenlion lhe disturlrcJ
portions of the aisle arches, the sophistication
Gloria seesthe entire length ofthe nave' cross-
entirel]' rebuilt between ry57 and r77o, but (as politics ol'the Kingdom. Diego Gelmirez tt,,,L
ing, and sanctuary without interruption - an of the gallery arches with thcir rounded tym-
r e m a r k e c i )i t s t i l l h a s i t s p a i r e d e n t r a n c e d o o r - o\rer as administrator (rog3), bishop (rtoo'
open axial vista of 25o feet, the total extcrior pana and slencler paired shafis' A flood oflight
wa1's and prcserves its medieval name, the r ror), and archbishop(r rzo). Repairing,vault-
length of the cathedral, including the present marks the crossing tower. An enormous censcr'
Puerta Francigena; the adfoining Plaza de la ing, and fortifying the existing parts of thc insidc
approach stairway, being 365 feet. the Botafumeiro, is swung tiom a support
Azabacheria still recalls the pilgrim souvenirs cathedral involved a considerable eflbrt for hinr at testival time, emitting great clouds of
It is a ereat moment for the lover of the this
of jet (a:ahacha) which used to be sold there. a f t e r t r r 7 . N c v e r t h e l e s s ,i n r t z 4 o r r t z 8 , t h c
'greater part' Middle Ag;s, when he finds himself within thc x r o m a r i c s m o k c a s i t d e s c r i b e sa l s o - f o o l a r c
The south fiagadeis still largely mediev:rl, and it of the church having then becn is but
soft light and shadou of that harmonious nare, above the hea<lsof the multitude' This
is named after the silversmiths' sltops(platerias) built, Archbishop Gelmircz recommcnded thc ofthe extraordinarily rich liturgical
gazing towards the high altar which has been one feature
which are even now in the old location near bv. cons(ruclion of,r cloister. It was douhtlcss 'rl -l'he present
the focus of pilgrim devotion for so long' tradition of Santiago, which dates in its
-I'he
I the magnificent
Bctween these I-agades.stretches
z4o-(bot transept, lengthened b-vthe clock tower
thc usual Romanesque tvpe, rather small irt
scale,and so it was rcplaced tn ,n. tt*,..nt"
altar and its surroundings have been enriched fbrm from Baroque times. popular aspects
 T H E G R E A T C } J U R C H E SO F T H E P I L G R T M A G L R O A D S
possessgreat interest - the
of the festival also
fireworks, the proccssion with gigan-
fiesta, the
two of which do a darice in the cathedral
t,fles,
great high mass of St James's
sanctuary after the
day, and the general outpouring of devotion
rnd spirits all are sweet with time and
memories.
From the early twelfth century'until quitc
'coro'
recently there was a walled-in at the east
end of the nave IIz5]. This monastic feature
was introduced by Diego Gelmirez, who orga-
nized the canons, to the number ofsercntv-two
(including seven with the privileged title of
cardinals) as a community under the Augus-
tinian regime. Santiago was apparently the first
cathedral to have such a coro, and set the fashion
in Spain. The opening up of the nave at San-
tiago has permitted excavations which are re-
vealing the old church of 879 96 built by
Alfonso III in the Asturian style, of which the
church of Lourosa in Portugal is perhaps the
best existing representative [54c].tt' The raised
area in the sanctuary rests in part on the
foundations of the tomb which the hermit
Pelayo brought to notice in 8ri.
riL-^.Jl
l;
t25 Qert).Santiago
de Compostela,
n a v ef r o m t h e u c s r , . . l o 7 5 | r 5 o .s h o u i n gr h c
traditionalmonastic
.o.o, io* tlesrrorcd
173
1'he Romanesque ambulatorl, and radiating
c h a p e l st o o k o v e r t h e s i t e o f t h e n i n t h - c e n t u r y
Benedictine church, as agreed in the negotia-
tions of ro77.
The charming and verv exceptional central
chapel has the inscription Regnante Adelimso
tempore Didaci in the time of Bishop Diego
Peldez(who undertook the building) and Alfbn-
so VI the King (who was gcnerous to Santiago
but even more so towards Clunv, to whose
prayers he believed he owed his life during the
preceding murderous dynastic struggle).
It was he who, under Cluniac influence
(ro7z), outlawed the N{ozarabic liturgv in
Spain; under him, as the Kingdom advanced
southward, man-v Burgundian knights and Clu-
niac ecclesiasticsaided in settling and organiz-
ing new territories. As a thank-olfering for the
capture of the old Visigothic capital o1'the
'foledo
peninsula, (25 iv'lay ro85), he gave im-
mense subsidies which paid fbr about one-hall'
of the abbel'' church of Clun)', as-$'c shall later
see. "I'his conjuncture, however, was unfortu-
nate fbr Santiago. Archbishop Diego Gelmirez
in the heroic agle wished to make the see pri-
ul
r z - 5 , tS. a i n t e sS, a i n t - E u t r o p cr,o 8 r 9 6 . R a i s c d
choir fbr monasticscrviceslr38l. Pilgrim
crypt Irjgl openedrvideon nale steppedfor
visibiliti' (destrolcd r8oz)
 I74 INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL
ARCHITECTURE
THE GREAT CHURCHESOF T}IE PILGRIMAGE ROADS t75

matial; he was a personal friend of Calixtus

II. vaulting supported by a median range 'l'ours,
ofslenql., complete enough bv Ir5z for thc sur- at supposed that the Pilgrimagc rype
and ir looked as if he might be successful,
hut and eleglnt piers; the upper room i, dral was
the Cluniac Bernardo, archbishop spl.n,i; of certain contingent revenucs; bllt at originated in Auvergne. Actualll, the Pilgrimage
of Toledo o p e n f e s t i r a l h a l l , i t s l a t e m e d i e r . a lu r u" t t . p r ; n o _ rclder
rrlier the recapture, kepr the ancient primarial time the P6rtico de la Gloria, the upper Roads ran through the area of six or seven
ing from corbels ornamented by r.ulptrr.s that
t h e w c s t e r n f o w e t ' s .a n d t w o g r i m b u t
c l i g n i r l l b r t h e o l d c a p i t a lc i r y .
the musicians and the instruments which
i; o 6 f i . so l regional schools of architecture to which we
Within the present extensive residence r,s[ tbrtified towers on thc east sidc ol' shall ref'cr in much more detail.
of the to be heard there hand.o*.
archbishop of Santiago, north of rhe cathedral. Irz6]. T.he uppermost panl transept remained to be constructed. Nlention should also be made of the accom-
of the palace have been rebuilt, Uut the
trn,,no
there are remains of the palace which
DieEo to hat'e been fortified, and connected by ".. Through all these and subsequent changes, thc modations rvhich were provided lbr pilgrims.rr
a bridg;
Gelmirez built./u Irs plan is in rhc shape
of ai with the upper works of the cathedrrl, beauty of the original building, the vitality of Abbeys and priories on thc road normallv re-
with the cross-bar a west rangiecontinuing nhiii the spirit which created it, and thc enchantmenr ceived pilgrims in their hospices or their guesr
the also bristled with crenellations, added
l i n e o t t h e c a r h e d r a l l a g a d e .T h e g u a r d in .,,n- of the Pilgrimage continue to be felt. houscs according ro the travellers' condition;
hall and sequenceof the dramatic town uprising
school were towards the plaza in r r r Before leaving the Pilgrimage, it ought to be there were also, from an early period, hospices
de la Azaba_ 7.
When the magnificent old battler of a
cheria. An interesting old liitchen bishop remarkedthat the great churches which we have which were built with the pilgrims especially in
and stairs died, in rr3g or rr4o, after fbrty_odd y.un
connect with two handsome halls in o'f seen served as sources for the design of many mind. The earliest hospice certainlv mentioned
the u,est command at Compostela, his palace
range. The lower one has two lines ancl the churcheson a smaller scale. No other buildings i s t h a t o f O r e n s e , n e a r S a n t i a g o ,8 8 6 ; o t h e r s a r e
of groin cloister were probablv complete, and the
carhe_ presented the full Pilgrimage formula, bur ex- mentioned in go5 (Tufron), roro (Antoiana),
cerpts from that formula. r'arying from region r o5z (Nijera), and afie r this the1. become
rz6' Santiagode compostera..{rchbishop'sparacc
Festi'ar Ha,, rargell.lburteenrhcenrurr to region and from building to building, are numerous. In general large opcn halls wcre
seenin much interesting twellth-century work. p r o v i d e c lf o r s l e e p i n g I r o 6 ] , s p e c i a lc h a p e l sh a d
Several conspicuous Aulergnat Romanesque divine serlice, and special charities took care
churchesso much resemble the Pilgrimage ty-pe of the needs o1'sickness,destitution, and death
that older historians, not aware ofthe significant rvhen the pilgrims encountered those misfbr-
role of Saint-Bdnigne at Diion and St \Iartin tunes in their pious journcvrng.
 9
CHAPTER

F R o \ { T H F ' ,P I L G R I X { A G E
REFLEX

ot the fire grcat churchcs ol-

The architecture
R o ads uas intcr-regional' inter-
,h. Pilg.itug.
in st1'le, and concerned with a great
nation"l
towards Spain' Nlention has alreadl-'
rou"a.n,
thc preceding chapter of archi-
been macle in
designs along the wa1' which arc de-
tectural
pendeno t n t h c P i l g r i m a g ct \ p c o f c h u r c h ' a n d
and
of ,h. fr.t that French master masons
worked on man.\ Spanish buildings'
sculptors
But it most not bc fbrgotten that most of the
pilgrims and artisans rcturned home; if there
was a genuine florl' of'Pilgrimage architccture
and sculpture, a counterflow should also be
discoverable.'
Emile Mile was discerning in the matter. He
sensedthat a veritable tide of influence fiom
Moslem Spain from thc mosque of C6rdoba
in particular flowed along the Pilgrimage
Roadsinto Francc, and added spice to number-
less Romanesque designs on or near these
routes.2
Le Puy presents a special case. It was con-
tinuously an important citv, and it has a long
recordofsignificant contacts with more southcr-
ly regions, including Nloslem Spain. Coins of
Moslem tenor minted at Le Pu1' and lbund in
the peninsula are proof.s of a livell' and con-
tinuing exchange. Le Puv was earlv awarc of r z 8 . L e l ) u i ( - a t h c d r a lf,a g a d c ,
twelfth ccntur\' (rcstored)
Santiago de Compostela; Bishop Godescalc o1'
Le Puy brought rhc first large rccordccl group
of pilgrims there, nearly'zoo monks, in Moorish influence is strong. It is the noblest
95r, as
we have seen. One building in the Auvergnat district of Velay,
of the two southern Pilgrim-
aBe Roads ran through Le Puy and N{oissac. w h i c h b e i n g r o l c a n i ch a s p r o r i d c d a s p e c t a c u l a r
Moslem influen..,.o.rf'..r.d by' striking cusped situation lbr the cathedral, and a fine but rathcr
t|ttt in grim granite,black and red, ofwhich to build it'
arches and doorwavs, appears in both
'l'he
Places. church, begun in the eleventh centurv, has
T h e c a t h e c l r a lo f L c P u y '
[r27, rz8l is thc a rather simplc crucitbrm plan. \t the headof
rz7. Lc Puv Clathcdral, cloister and tower, liom above; largch twelfih ccnturl
rnost notable t h e a x i s s t a n d s a h a n d s o m e s t a g e dt o w e r o f t h e
French monumcnt in which
 I7U I N T E R - R E G I O N A I -A N D I \ T E R N A T I O N A I ,
Limousin type, with arches, setbacks, and
gables like those at Saint-Nlartial in Limoges
and other churches ofthe region. The sanctuarv
a n d t r a n s e p t so f L e P u v a r e c o m p a r a t i v e l v p l a i n ,
though the crossing has a lantern with octagonal
vaulting. The old part of the nar,e consists of
two plain bays, with octagonal domical r,aults
on squinches. It is reached bv stairs from the
ascending slope below the church. In the
twelfth century the nave was extended out over
the slope, forming an imposing opcn porch a
sort of crypt which presents three cavernous
portals beneath the end wall of'thc nave and
a i s l e so f ' t h e c h u r c h . T h i s i s a v e r v h a n d s o m e
design, whether seen from a distance or at the
head of the stcep slope as one approachcs from
the west. The crvpt porch, gable, and wall
belfries recall Santiago, but the detail has manv
Moorish features, like zebra stripings in the
coursed ashlar and the voussoirs, pattern-work
masonrv panels, pointed arches, decorative
cusped archcs, and flatlv-carved wooden doors
'l'his
with Cufic inscriptions. lagade is clearlv a
twelfth-century conception likc the wesr parts
-I'he
ofthe nave. nave bays are stubbv oblongs
in plan, and divided from one another bt dia-
phragm arches. There are corbel tables on the
flank at the ler,el of these arches; abor,e, an
intermediate stage has columns, arches, and
nichc-head squinches which graccfully make
the transition to an octagon, on which an octa-
gonal domical vault is set. There are unmis-
takable N{oslem rcminiscences hcre. This is
also true of thc south porch of the church, and
to a lesser degree of the cloister, whcre parti-
c o l o u r e d m a s o n r v a p p e a r sa l s o . I n a l l t h e r e a r e
nearll- a hundred carved capitals of'Nloslem
'I'he
type at Le Puv. granitic hardness o1'the
material has gaincd suavity lrom its Roman-
csque and oricntal ambient without losing the
r,igour of'fbrm appropriate to a carhcdral design
on such a picturesque sitc.
'l'hc
decorative cusped arches and zebra work
are represcnted in Le Puv itself at thc portal of
ARCIIITECTURE
the chapel of'Saint-\,Iichel de I'Aiguilhc. 1n,1
d o u b t l e s s i t s s u c c e s s l u lu s e a t L c P u v e n c l 1 -
r a g c d i m i t a t i o n e l s c w h e i e .C . l u n i a cd c s i g n c r . lsr g _
came intcrestcd in these motif'.salso; the cus1.r.d
arches o1' the trifbrium of the great chLr1.111
( t o 8 8 l t . ) a n d o f ' t h e m a i n p o r t a l ( r r o ( r r ^ :r x 1
C,lunt' are wcll knorvn. The portal hacl tlli _ s,
b o r d e r c d s p a n d r e l p a n e l sl i k e a N , I o o r i s hm i h 1 1 6
o r c i t 1 .g a t e . A s u r p r i s i n g n u m b e r o f c h u r . c h e s
in the vicinitv of'Le Puy-, the Pilgrimage Ro;rtls.
a n d C l u n y , h a v e c u s p e d a r c h e sa t t h e p o r t r l :
L a S o u t e r r a i n e ,N , I o i s s a cM, o n t b r o n , a n d ( i r n z -
g o b i c b e i n g i m p o r t a n t C l u n i a c e x a m p l c s .r [ ) o l r . -
foil windows and trilbrium arches had rhrir
r,ogue also Saint-Etienne at Nevcrs, (.lLru.
I t S + , r 5 5 1 ,a n d S a i n t e - C r o i x a t L a C h a r i t d - s u r -
L o i r c b e i n g C l u n i a c e x a m p l e s .T h e z e b r a - s o r k
appears in the transr,erse arches o1' \'-dzelav
I r 4 o ] . L o b e d s o l l i t p a n e l sl i k e m i n i a t u r e _ \ l r o r -
ish lobed domes appear, togerhcr with chi:cl-
curl eaves brackets, at Notre-Damc-du-l)ort in
Clermont-l'errand, and were seen formcrlr in
S a i n t - B 6 n i g n ea t D i j o n . I n g e n e r a ls u c h f ' e a t u r e s
gave warmth and spice to thc stvle whererrr
thel, rvere used. By contrast thc rather rough
basilicas of the north seem \:crv Germanic. .rr.rd
t h e t r , p i c a lc h u r c h e s o f B u r g u n d r - a n d P r o r e n c c
vcrv Romln.
Thc transfbrmation of' Saint-Philibcrt ;rt
Tournus Iror, rozl into a fireproof buiJtling
broug;ht about the construction of transrrrsc
tunnel vaults which ma1' ha'r,e a \Ioslcnr or
A s t u r i a n c o n n e x i o n , a n d a n e l e p l a n td o m c o r e r
niche-head squinches rescmbling those ot [.c
Itur, earlr in the tuellih centur\. l so .tr.h
domes were built at about the samc timc ncrtr
the entranceofSaint-Front at Pdrigucur l::il
\ c o r r e s p o n d i n gp r o c c s su l t r l n s l o r r r r r t l i l l )
procluced an cvcn more remarkable conslrllc-
'l
tion at Saint-Hilaire, Poitiersr Irzg, rrol. he
t o m b o f ' S t H i l a i r e , t e a c h e ro f S t \ { a r t i n . l t t t c -
t .
t e c la p i l g r i m a g e , a n d a b o u t r o z 5 a v a s t c h L r f c h .
was undertaken, in which Queen Emnrrr.ol
England, Waltcr Coorland the Norman llci.rr-
I29. Poitiers,
Sainr-Hilaire, nave .. ro2-5 ;lg, r'aulted later (twelfih and nineteenth centurics)
r60
r3o. Poiticrs,Saint-IIilaire, aisle,
. . I O 2 54 9 ,
vaultedlater (twclfih and nincteenthccnturics)
tect, and perhaps Bishop Fulbert of Chartrrr
were concerned. Although the new nave ancl
aisles in their first state had only recently brcn
bcgun on an enlar.qed scheme which incr,r-
porated the fine old free-standing tower, rhe
building. wooden-roof'ed, was dedicated in thq
) e a r r o + 9 . I t s c o l o s s a lo p e n i n t e r i o r s p a c c ,r \ ' f -
minating in a hemicvcle about the altar, lrrs
quite Roman in its ample grandeur.
About rr3o 68 the church was rebuilt antl
v a u l t e d i n a s t r a n g ew a y ; t w o f i l e s o f p i e r s u e r c
contrived to divide the nave longitudinalll inro
three parts, of'equal height, leaving the midtllt
bays square in plan, and the lateral bays icn
narrow. The nave piers, strengthened by charni-
ing intcrior buttresses in the fbrm of littlc
arched bridges, were kept very slender ancl un-
obstructive, yet strong enough to sustain a series
ofoctagonal domical r aults on diaphragm archcs
a n d s q u i n c h e sw h i c h c o v e r e d t h e c e n t r a l p a r l o f
the nave.
Hele, as at Le Puv, the schemehas oriental
undertones even afier a nineteenth-centurr
rebuilding necessitated b-v a partial demolition
in the Revolutionary era. Oriental undertoncs
are f'elt in the aisles also, lor these are ofdoublc
width, and vaulted, bay by bay, with a pecr.rlirr
compound groin vault supported, some$'lut
like the vault of San Baudelio de Berlanga in
Spain [57|, by a tree-like central column and
trumpet^ The efl'ect, thor.rgh achieved $ith
Romanesque detail, has a strange Moorislt
clchct, and reminds onc oi the groping soltt-
tir-rnsof the Mozarabic architects two centurits
earlier.
. { t t h c h e a do l t h e n a r c i u s t d e s c r i b c dt h c r t r .
a spacious transept, also vaulted after it t'r,ts
f i r s t b u i l t . a n d b e l o n d t h a l a h a n d s o m ed , r r l '
a p s e w i t h a m b u l a t o r y a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,r t l l
o l -t u e l f t h - c e n t u r ) c o n s t r u c t i o ni.
'l
h c l \ l o s l e m t l p e o f r a u l t w h i c h a p p e a r ' >i r r
perfectcd fbrm at the mihrab of the mosqrtcoi
C 6 r d o b a ( 9 6 r ) [ r 3 r ] , h a s e x e r c i s e dm u c h 1 , t ' -
I3I. Mihrab of the mosque of C6rdoba' Moslem rihbed and lobed rirult' c16t
cinltion. It uas imitared in Snanish G,rrhic
L
 R E F I - E xF R o M T H E p t L G n t r u r a c r rgl

,' r, -O- * comes into the reflex architecture

.i vaults, and it esque work. N{oorish_looking interlaccd
ribs
'#., of the Pilgrimrge. The odd destroved church a n d l o b e d v a u l t i n g s e r . e r i e sc o n t i n u e
to appear
,'i*j of Saint-Pi-de-Bigorre" had such a vault in a cvcn in Earh. Gothic times, but
not in monu_
tall stagedtorver decorated rvith cusped arches; ments of importance.
the church of L'H6pital-Saint-Blaise near bv O r i e n t a l c o n n e x i o n s t h r o r . r g hS p a i n
by way
a l s oh a s s u c h a r a u l t u h i c h s r i l l e x i s r s ,a n t l a ol'thc Pilgrimage are, howevcr.
onlv a Dart of
6ore perfecf erample is to be found in Nar.arre, thc stor\.. North -{lrica and
Sicily had their
in the conventional but handsome octaRonal e l l e c t o n R o m a n e s q u c
architecturc also; the
church ol'thc Hol.r Sepulchre in Torrc* .l"l poinred arch and thc approxinrate
catenrr\
RioT[r32, tY]. shapr for tunncl raulting clmc
liom rhc \.ar
I t i s a n o p e n q u e s t i o n a l s o w h e t h e r t h e s q u a r e F,ast.Being
structLrral - rathcr than decorative,
d o m i c a l v a u l t s o t t o w e r s l i k e t h e R o m a n e s u u e like almost
all the refler architecture of.
belfryo[the cathedral of Or iedo (abour r roo). the
Pilgrinrrrgc rhesc Ncar Eastern
morif , por,rcr_
the transcptal lower ol sr Marrin at Tours fullr transfbrmed Romanesque
architecture, as
[rr5J, and one of'the lagadc rowers ofBaveux we shall see in Burgundv, Normandy,
( a b o u tr o T o )d o n o r r e p r e s e n ta r , j t l c x o f \ l o s l e n r nn,t ih.
Ile-de-France. T'he tide of structural
engineering; fbr the ribs support the middle influcnce
of Ncar Easr is a part ol'the prehistory
the vaulting panels in the \,Ioorish f'ashion, IrT lh. of
not Gothic architecture, ancl as such
t h e a n g l e s ,a s i n R o m a n a r r d r r . p i c a l R o m a n _ will be ana_
lysed in a later chapter.

r , 3 z ( u p f t ^ i t ( )a n d r 3 . 3 .I o r r c s d e l R i o ,
r h . H r , l _Sr c p r r l c h r nc c. l l i h c c n r u r r ,
:\ltlul lt_t . h , , f
a n dc \ t c r l o r

\:

e
 I O
CFAPTER

THE ROLEOF CLUNY

IN THE Hrs1'oR\-oli Ro\IANESQUE ARCHITEC-r'URE

T H E E A R L YA B B O T S ; quarters rcquired br, the agricultural exploita-

(6coLECLUNISI[.NNE' tion, which continuetl under thc new iuspices
THE
uith servants, peasants, anct serf-s, irs befbrc.
Clunyl lies in southern Burgundv, nearlv due L i t t l c c h a n g c r v a s m a d e i n t h c i r e x i s t e n c c ,e x -
w e s tf r o m G e n e r a a n d a b o u t s i x n n r i l e s n o r t h c c p l l h a l t h e i r l r t u n ( l ( r a m o n i l s l i cr e g i n r ew a s
of Lyon, in a region which was relativeh less probablv morc fbrtunate than under lar control-
disturbed during the invasions and local wars A rcmarkable fbundation charter had been
than most of France. Fronr the time of Cloris i s s u e d i n s o l e m n c o n c l a l e a t B o u r g i e s ,t h e e c -
onward it tendcd to graritate to$'ards lirancc, c l c s i a s t i c am
l etropolis of Aquitaine, on r r Sept-
but for a long time it was on the borders ol'the ember gro) rvhich in laving the groundrvork lbr
Empire, and maintained close lelationships the new institution placed it under tlitrute to
there. It had eas1. communications in both the Holv Sce. The Pope might intcrrene if'the
directions. housc becamc p;rarelv disordered, br,rtother-
Clzniacun, said to be a Rom:tn station, was 'erempt'
rviscit uas l i ' o m a n r e c c l c s i a s t i c aol r
a villa under the Franks, and a possessionof the lar interf'erence. The chartcr was conlirmed
family of Charlemagne. ,\t the beginning of the with this provision most important fbr the
t e n t hc e n t u r y i t w a s t h c l l r o u r i t c h u n t i n g l o d g c 'l'he
future b r , P o p e - J o h nX ( q r - + z 8 ) . monas-
of William Duke of Aquitaine and \'Iarquis of t c r v a c q u i r e d t h e r i g h t o f ' s a n c t u a r yi n 9 9 4 , a n d
Gothia, lying near the north-eastcrn extrcmit\.' its prir,ileges were further supplemented bv
o f h i s d o m i n i o n s .. { r r h c r n d o l a , i g o r r , , r . u n - Gregorl \' (997or ggii)and bv John XI\ ( ro.z4):
quiet life, he gave the domain to the noble I t s o h a p p e n e dt h a t C l u n 1 . ' sf i r s t a b b o t , B e r n o
Berno, abbot of Baume ancl Gienr. in the (gro z7), was at the sametimc abbot of-scveral
F r a n c h e - C o m t ed e B o u r g o g n e , i n o r i c , r h a r a o t h e r m o n a s t e r i c s ,e a c h o n e i n d e p c n d e n t . B u t
retormed monasterv misht be established. h i s s u c c e s s o rO d o ( g z Z , + 2 ) ,b ] ' v i r t u e o 1 ' ap a p a l
When the -onk, .u-" to Clunv thev fbund privilege issued bl John XI in g3I, began to
a rural villa of the Romrrn trpe u.hich haclpcr-
bring monasterics under thc rule of the abbot
sistedin the region,
and can be recognizecl er.en ol Clun1.a.r .vrri. This was a noveltv among the
to-day. In the
tenth cenrur\, the countrr.sicle B e n e d i c t i n c s ,s i n c e t h e R u l c e n v i s a g c ds e p a r a t e
was dotted, rhough
spitrsch. u.ith such cstab- and independent houses. Becauseof it, how-
r l s h m e n t s ,t r a d i r i o n a l l l
p o s s c s s i n ga c o u r t u i t h o c r , C l u n v w a s e n a b l e d t o b e c o m e b 1 ' 'f i r t h e
a master!s
dwelling, its immediate depen- most important of the carlier excmpt monas-
dencies,and a 'l'he
chapei. This part of the r.illa uas terics. d i s a d v l n t a g e so f t h c C l u n i a c s v s t e m
temporarily
used as the monastcrv, and soon lav in understandable local jealousy of, and
19r5-27?)the first monastic
church. Clunv I. r e s i s t a n c et o , t h e e v c r - i n c r e a s i n ge x e m p t i n s t i -
w a sb u i l t j u s t
ro thr norrhol ir.'l hcrewcrc rrlso, tution, and in the perennial faults o1'large-scalc
ot course,
the various barns, shops, ancl living c e n t r a l i z e da d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
 I86 I N T E R _ R E G I O N A LA I ' D I N l ' E R N A T I O N A L A R C H I T E C T U R F
C L U N \ ' I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C I I I T E C T U R E Id7

Odo's abbacy was decisive in this matter. Hc elchitectural hisrorr. wcrc not \.cr und(.t.\t(,rr{l tendenc]. to unitv bccausc of thc unifbrmitl' ot'
o l r h e m o n a s t e r ya t C l u n y p r e s e r r e d
was a saintly man, open-hearted, and of great s t r r c d h i s b e l i c lt h a r t h e C l u n i a cm o n l , l i l , description
rl,. Con suetudinarr of r o43 wit nesses the Customs; and wherever the)'are preserved,
warmth and personal charm. He left his position Cistercians wcre sent out with pazrrl.i .,,pi., ,'.irir'f
"tft the actual form ol'the mon- thel.breathe the same warm but austere spirit.
as prccentor for the canons of St lVlartin at l" tftir f..,, as does
that is, of master plans which could not In thc churches,built fbr divine worship, the
6,i SS' Peterand Paular Hirsau'
T o u r s t o s c e k a m o r c a u s t e r el i l c a t B a u m e . a n d m o d i f i c t l .C l u n i a c p r a c l i c c * a s o f c u u r . . , , , , , . i ,'-i t . t y o f
ro3o t second'grotrp'of Cluniac p r e d i s p o s i t i o no l ' t h e C l u n i a c s w a s , b 1 ' c o n t r a s t ,
came with a group of'serious monks to Clunv, n r o r c l i b e r a l . e s p e c i a l l r w i t h r e g : r r . Jt o c h r r r t . l r t r iho.tly tft.t
began to appear churches o1'sub- f b r m a g n i l i c e n c e .T h e l ' h a d a c o m m o n i d c a l o f
whcrc he became novice master. As a poet, I r a p p e a r sr h a r t h c r e u a s a n a r c h i r r o l p l . r , r , church"t
nj $ i t h . a generous use ol' h a n d s o m ep h n n i n g , s o l i d , e n d u r i n g f a b r i c , a n d
musician, and prcceptor in music he was a lovcr C l u n 1 , u s c l u l . e s p e c i a l h .l b r t h e l a r o u r , r t p y , - irnrirt .ontrruction- 'l'his
were planncd with aisled nares' of masonry vaulting. unitl'transcends to a
ashlar. T h e y
of the arts. Under him the abiding spiritual li1-e o r i e s . V i o l l e t - l e - D u c w a s a c c u s e do f i n r c n r i n E
transepts' ambulatories with large degree the variations in gcneral form, sil-
of (,luny was so greirtlv cnriched that it became an eittle clunisienne.l
'l'he iid., to*.t.d
phrase was ill_1irrcl. (or apse 6chelonsl in less am- houette, lighting, colour, and decoration. It
possible to send colonies of Cluniac monks to radiating chapels
b c c a u s el a t c r F r e n c h a r t h i s t o r i a n s h a r e c o r n g three apses), substantial necds to be reiteratcd that the f.luniac psalmodl',
reform other monasteries, some of' which be- bitious examples'
to use the term ltole fbr such groups as tarh admired and imitated throughout westcrn
grouped piers, capitals carved rvith leafage ancl
came depcndent on Clunv, and the group was C i s t e r c i a nm o n a s t i ca r c h i r e c t u r e .w h i c h h , r . l vaults with transverse Europe, was most beautiful whcn sung in
lirrther extendcd b1' the fbundation of new
a Lo,arquat, stout tunnel
remarkable inter-regional unity during the lirst level, groin vaults over the r , a u l t e d . e s p e c i a l l vt u n n e l - \ ' a u l t e d c h u r c h e s .
'I-he irch", at the highest
Cluniac priories. wonderful Cluniac chant c e n t u r y o f t h a t O r d e r ' s e x i s t e n c e .B v t h e i r c o n _
aisles,u s u a l l y a l o w c l e r e stor\' sometimes a Thence, a generrl stimulus fbr vaulting
went with them evcrvwhere. In principle, all s t a n t r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e s t a t e m e n tt h a t t h c r t , j s n o
gallery; often portal carvings of some interest,
monks were prof'essedat (,luny.itself . tltole clunisienne,these writers have obscuretl thc
and decorative arcading. The examples witll A B B O ' TH U G H O F S E N l U R
This process continuod, and so produced a lact that unified groups do exist among,^rhe
spreading nctwork of monasterics which is a p s e6 c h e l o n i n c l u d e C h a r l i e u I I ( r . t o 3 o 9 4 )
buildings which were constructed bv the (.lu- (r' ro4o r roo) Abbot Hugh was onc ofthe great buildcrs ofall
propcrly called the Congregation of Clunv, lt$, t+4. 164, r651,Palerne
n i a e sd u r i n g t h e t w o R o m a n e s q u ec e n tu r i e s time. He had an earlv and deep location to the
under the rule of Aymard (942 c. 96j), Mayeul Ir35], and various parish churches near Clun,v,
The situation has been clarified b1' thc dc- monastic life, rvhich led him to Cluny in ro4r,
a f t e r r o 4 o ; t h e e x a m p l e sw i t h a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v ,
(t. gb| 94, and Odilo (994 ro.18).rThere was voted labours of'DrJoan Evans.Over thc reers 'l'here
and radiating chapels come later. u'ere r g e d s e r e n t e e n .o r p e l h a p s i n r o . 1 3 .I n r o - 1 8 ,a t
an increasinp;group-consciousncss. resembling s h e h r s c a r e l u l l l i d e n r i f i e d ,i n r . . , . . u n , , . , . , various reductions of this general t.vpe also the death ot Abbot Odilo, he was alread.vgrand
t h a t o f a n ' O r d e r ' i n t h e m o d e r n s e n s c .S t H u g h visited, Cluniac works ofarchitecture, antl has some without clerestor-vin the naYe, some with prior of the mother housc; early in ro49 hc
(ro49 rrog) had a strong centralizing policv p u b l i s h e d t h e m a s s u c h . 5I t w a s a m a t t e r o l s u r - quadrant vaults over the aisles. was elected abbot, at the age of twentl.-fir'e. He
which preparcd the way' for strictll.-organized priseeven to her that aficr all that hashappcncd 'groups' just men-
In addition to the two ruled a constantlv expanding Congregation and
i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e t h e C i s t e r c i a na n d l a t e r O r d e r s . i n 8 o o r - e a r ss i n c e t h c f u l l f l o w e r i n g o f ( . l u n i , t i o n e d ,t h e r e a r e , d u r i n g t h e a b b a c v o f H u g h o f O r d e r o f C l u n r l b r s i x t l 1 e a t . .u n i i l h i s d e a t hi n
At its zenith Cluny controllecl about r45o t h c r e a r e s t i l l r e r n a i n s( g r c a t e r o r l e s s i n c r r c n t ) Semur and later, three other groups which ma1' r rog. His triendll' dignitl' gained the affection
houses,of which about 2oo had some impor- o l . 1 , 2 5C l u n i a c e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .r e p r e s e n r i r r e be distinguished.. The third group is relatcd to of the people, ecclesiastics,ancl princes alike.
tance. nearlv a quarter of the whole number, ancl all Sainte-Madeleine, V6zelay, the Jb ur t h to thc new M o n a s t i cc h r o n i c l e r s ,w i t h r h ei r a c c o u n l so l '
There can be no doubt that the Congregation the areaswhere the Order did its work. chapel of St Ntary near the Infirmarv at Clun]., puerile miracles, hardl-v help us to judge Hugh's
and Order of Clunv constituted a cultural unit 'l'o
avoid confusion, we lbllow rhe Frcnch and thell/l to rhe great church there. true abilitiesand accomplishment'What he did
within thc bountlaricsof Wcstern churchman- alrthors, and rel'er to these builclings as .grotrps', The Cluniacs were more zealous fbr uni- r v a st o b u i l d a r e a l m o n a s t i c e m p i r e w h i c h f i t t e d
ship. It would be easicrto recognizc this if its livc in number. formity in customs, discipline , and liturgy than admirablf into the f'eudal p:rttern of-the age a
art had not not becn scattered, fbrgottcn, lost. First of all rhere was a widclv diliused group tn architecture. 'I'hereforc in addition to the consolidated, centralized intelnationalmonastic
The distinguished career of thc Cluniacs as based on the church called Clunv II (r..q;5 'series 'exempt' houscs
designs' noted above thcre are other organism, ideally made up of
b u i l d e r s h a s b e e n o b s c u r e db y t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e . . r o o o ) a n d t h e a d j o i n i n g m o n a s t e r . v( r . 9 9 5 specialgroups representati\re of'the local archi- like Cluny itst:lf-.Houses of the Ordcr multiplied
(rnore than two centuries) or.er which their Io4.5)[ro3-5], which har.e becn relirrcd to in tecture, which varied from region to region. In l i t h i n i t s o l d a r e a si n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e S a 6 n e ,
m e d i e v a l b u i l c t i n g c a m p a i g n s c x t e n c l e d ,a n d b y . our chaptcr orr BurgundranDerclopmcnr. in the conventual structures which the monks built Loire, Garonne, and their tributaries; cxpan-
the f-actthat their achievements camc into archi- l-rancc betwcen 9oo and ro5o. Thesc constrLrc- for their own habitation. local variation was lcss sion took place in the regions of the Seine, the
tectural history without being recognized as tions, with the great cxpansion of thc Clunirc likely to occur.
Such structures among the Clu- Somme. and in thc Germanic lands, and to a
Cluniac. m o n a s t e r i c s ( s u b j c c t a n d a s s o c i a t e d ) .b e c a n r c , niacs of the Romanesque period were wooden- lesserextent in England, Itall', and Spain.
\iiollet-le-Duc, rvriting more than a centurv so to speak, paradignrs somerimes closel), roofed and Hugh's famc' as a builder echocs in the Clu-
almost uniformlr- simple and un-
a g o , a t a t i m e w h e n m a n , l . e x a c tr e l a t i o n s h i p si n s o n r c l i n r e sl o o s e l vl i r l l o n e d . ' l ' h e . l i m c , r r i , , ' , . J a s s u m i n g t, h o u g h niac antiphon lbr z9 April, his annirersary and
w e l l - b u i l t . T ' h e 1 ' h a da n a t u r a l
 IIITI INTER-REGIoNAL AND INTERNATIoNAL ARCHITECTURE C L U N Y I \ ] T H E I I I S T O R Y O F R O N , I A N E S Q UA
ER C H I T E C T U R I rttg

'cr!'pts' 'I'he
f'estilal dav Quomodo umplifitt'tttusillum, qui in reteined or regaincd its indepenclenc,.. to colonizeCltrnr in qlo' Cign\ cast,like the at Cluny II. atrium,
n^,. r o d q o n ef b r t h
diehus sttisuedifitai:it domum e/ t.r'altu,-itteilti)lunl b u i l d i n g sw e r e l i k e l r . r ob e b u i l t a r r h . b " - i , "*ittti" the Order when the handsome new the paired towers, and the basilican narthex
n;"1 1.".1
sdttilunt D"nin,t, uhich was srrng in m:rnr o l - t h en c w r e g i m c , w h e n C l u n i a c i n l l , , . n , , came in latcr' {t La appear also, in somcwhat Cluniac form. Ap-
,,,,l *tt
maiestic nar.es which hc himself had built. ir,urrtt 9 " i 1 t ' l " l , T test da u ght cr ol' Cl u n parently, fbr examplc, thc old church of St
s t r o n g e s ti i n a d d i t i o n l a r g c n u m b e r s ...1.u- 1
During three-score vears ofiourneving on r,isit_ "t Ii-rrire-tut-l-oire''eld
tstical works (some ol' them parish clrrrr..hn. b u i l t ' ' r o 5 q t r o 7" ' Aurclius at Hirsau (ro5g 7r) was made over
a t i o n s , h e m u s t h a \ , e s e e nn e a r l v a l l t h e l a m o u s i.iur.rtofsimilarplan,nas
o w n e d b r t h c O r d e r ) w o u l d b e a f f e c t e . lr , , near La Charit6' thc choel, about r r zo. somcwhirt increasing its rcsem-
,,,1",. li-chrrpuou*.
structures some of them Roman tlren exist_ e x t e n r b v n o r a b l e C l u n i a c d e s i g n sb u i l t i n r o 6 o ' c l o s e l l , r e c a l l sC l u n - r I I ' blancc in plan to Clunv II.
their irrra.Uor,
ing in wesrern Europc. Abbor llugh himsclf Otlilo strrr- Bv that time the important abbev church of
vicinitv. A t P a y e r n ei n S w i t z e r l a n d ; I r 1 5 ]
nust ha\e approt,cd (personallv or bv direc_ C h u r c h d c s i g n sb a s e do n C l u n y I I c o n r i n u c d but the church as wc nos' have it SS. Peter and Paul at Hirsau had been built by'
ted to rebuild,
t i r e s ) t h e p l a n s l b r s o m e r h o u s a n c l so t ' i n c l i v i c l u a l Abbot William. It was closcr to the pattern of
to mulripll'uncler -{bbot Hugh. Of'smrrllqIxr- ( v e r yw e l t r e s t o r e d 'a n d s u r e l v t h c f i n c s t R o n r i t n -
b u i l d i n g s . 1 ' h e i r h i g h q u a l i n ' c a n l e a rc n o d o u b r ches around Clunr-a st]'le related to (_lunr.ll i n S w i t z e r l l n d ) t l a t e st i o m a h o u t Clunl II, though much later in date (ro8z gr),
esque c h u r c h
ttrat -{bbot Hugh had an intclligent inrerest in is. almost cnlirel\ from thc more finished in its t'abric, and larger in scale,
a p p e a r sm o d e s t l r .a t t h e f o r m e r p r i o r l . o f ' l l l a n o t r o + ot o r l o o , t h a t
building, and lar.oured good building. This lact (r. ro5o) or more importantly at Chapaizc, H u g h. It is tunnel-raultcd, as the axial length being 3zo feet over all. Excava-
(r. time of Abbot
rn turn had a fivourable ef1'ecton the buildine tions indicate three recessesin the cast wall o1-
Io5o and later) [r34]. Cluny II came to be Romainmirtier near bv, a
i n d r r s t r r i n g e n e r a lo r e r a l a r g e a r e a o f r . c s t e r n the sanctuar-vfbr the thrce matutinal altars of
Among the relatcd buildings of consequencc good example of the First Rom:lnesque str.lc
Europe, where monastic architecture still ranked the Cluniac use which stood side by side, as in
a t a d i s t a n c ef i o m C l u n y a r e G i g n v ( l a t cc l c r en t h on a plan resembling that of Clrtnl' II, was
highest in ordcr ofimportancc. Even wherc the t h e r o u n d a p s e o f C l u n y I I . U n l i k e C l u n 1 , ' ,t h e
centurv) and Baume (probably twelfth ccntLrn.) carried forward with tunnel vaulting r. ro8o.t
(,luniac monks rcformcd a monrsterr. church had two such recesses in cach of the
rvhich f r o m w h i c h m o n a s r e r i e sB e r n o a n d h i s f b l l o w e r s This period saw considerable influence in
Switzerland of the sister Congregation of Hir-
r . i . 1C
. . h a p a i z ceh, u r c h( n o t C . l u n i a c ) , sau,where the life and the liturgv rvere closely
r-j-5.l)avcrne,priorr. church. r36. Schaflhusen \'linster (.{llcrhciligen),
. . r o - 5 o i r n tdu c j l i h c c n t u r t , f r o m f h e c l s t m o d e l l e do n t h a t o f C l u n y ; a n d t h i s l a c t m a v
. . l O - l O/ . I I O O . n a \ C r o T l la n d l l t c r
be traced to a certain extent in architecture.
Abbot Wiltiam of Hirsau is cloubtless respon-
sible for certain resemblances bcnveen Cluny I I
and Allerheiligen (ro78 I{.) [r-i6] at Schaff-
hausen, for example, and Ulrich of Zcll for
those at Rueggisberg and elseuhere. Ulrich,
formerly Abbot Hugh's secretarv, had trans-
mitted the customs to Hirsau.
Buildings of the Hirsau Congregation have a
certain unity ofcharacter, and rightlv or rvrong- I
ly they go by the name of 'Hirsar.rer Schulc'."
T h e r e i s a l w a y sa m a r k e d G e r m a n c a c h e t e v e n
at Hirsau itsell. where the olan is closer to that
of Cluny II than orr. ,nould expect from the
mere fact of similar Customs. Substantial mas-
onry' heavy mouldings, and (ordinarill) simplo
ornament characterize their buildings. Colum-
nar shafts of slightly conical rather than cylind-
rlcal form and
block capitals are used. The rool-.s,
a so r i g i n a l t yi n
t h e n a r c o f C l u n 1 I I . a r e w o o d e ni
the corridors
flanking thc sanctuurr, though
opening inward
t h r o u g h a r c a d e s ,r s i r l ( . l u n \
Il' arclrequentlv
t.r-iirr..l br a llat wall at t he
 IOO INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
lateral conrpartments; the latter opened on the
sanctuary through three arches and this was
as at Cluny. The atrium was built and rebuilt
b e t r v e e n r o g - 5a n d r r z o , b y - w h i c h t i m e i t h a d
been covercd or,er to form a narthex fronted bJ'
two western towers with doorways between,
likc that ofClunv Il. The church and monastery
were ruined in r69z, leaving little beyond one
o f t h e w e s t e r n t o r v c r s( t h e E u l c n t u r m ) a n d l i n e s
of old wall-work to represent the Romanesque
cra.
A s u g g e s t i o no f ' C l u n y - I I i s a l s o f o u n d a t S a n
Juan cle l:r Peia, thc national pantheon of
Aragon, where the monastcry was relbrmed by
C l u n v a s e x r l y a s r o r 4 ( o r r o . z . z ) t, h e c h u r c h
being dedicated in rog.1.r" Celtain other mon-
a s t er i e s f b l l o w e d t h e C l u n i a c r u l e . b u t t h e S p a n -
iards were then, as nolv, jealous of their inde-
penclence, and most of such monasteries were
r37. Levre, San Sallador,dedicatcdro57;
t h e n a r ev a u l tG o t h i c .n o t ( - l u r r r a c
associated with, rather than submitte d
,n
Clun-r-.It is impossible now to study the crpni
sion of Cluniac architecture in Spain bccaq5o
the major abbev churches hare been derrr,,,,1j
- O f r a ( r o 3 3 ) , N d j e r a ( r o 5 6 ) , S a h a g i r n( r . .
rogo_
qq). anclCarrion de los Condes (ro7b. rs,,-1.
I l o u e r e r . S a n S a l ra d o r a t L c y r e r e m a i n . . a ; d
it is a Spanish version of the Lady Chape I ngn,.
the infirmarl', finished in ro85, at Clunl I r371.
San Pons de Corbeira also remains, a hanclsomg
building in the Lombardo-Catalan Firsr Ro-
'fhe
m a n e s q u es t v l e ( t h o u g h d a t e d a b o u t r o 8 o ) .
prettv niches in the interior ofits apse mar have
b e e n s u g g e s t e df r o m S o u v i g n v , n !x r C l u n r . r r
W c m u s t s u p p o s et h a t t h e C l u n i a c a r c l i i r e c -
ture of Lombardy was local in type.lr Sixty-
three possessionsin north Italy were confirmed
to Clunv by Pope Ulban II in rog5, at thc rime
when the Lombard rib-vaulting was being rlcle-
loped. Obviouslv the Cluniac order musl have
had something to do with the spread ol rib- ro96' and cr1'pt' rotlr q6
<leclicatcd
Saint-L'utrope'upper part ofchoir'
r38and r39. S',rintes,
vrrulting westrvard from Italy, for deriirttive
lbrms appear in the remarkable crypt at Saint-
Gilles (after rrlo) [1891, and perhaps in the
e\en more remarkable west tower, with upper
chamber, of Moissac, dated about rr3o Ir6ll].
But, most unlbrtunately, reconstructions he\e
all but obliterated the Cluniac buildings in
Lombardv. This is true e\en at the prineipal
house, San Benedetto Po, where we would be
h a p p y t o s e et h e b u i l d i n g s r a i s e d b y i t s i a m o u s
patroness the Countess Matilda friend t() l)ope
Gregorr \'l l. to AbborHugh and to the ahlrot's
godson, Emperor Henry IV. She was hostess
to them all when thev met, as historv recorrls.lt
C a n o s s ai n r o 7 7 .
In France, as in Spain and Italy, the phcno-
menon ol locaiism appears in Cluniac archi-
t e c t u r e S a i n t - E u r r o p ea t S a i n t e s ( r o 8 r , 1 6 )
l r . z . ; t . r - ; l { .r 3 9 l a n d I l o n t i e r n e u f , n e a r P o i l i ( r ' :
( r o 7 6 9 6 ) , b e i n g r e d o l e n t o f t h e P i l g r i m a g ea n d
of the west of France, Chitel-N{ontagne (,
rroo) of the Auvergne, Layr'ac (ro7z.8-5) ;rrrc1
Nloirar (i. rogo) of the south of France.
 CLUNY IN THE HISTORY
O F R O N T A N E S Q U EA R C H I
^ u n r r Ll L' E
t LCl K
T tLrI R E I93

Norable fbr its local Burgundian character is

pilgrimage church of'the N{adeleinc ccnrur\. or'rheCluniac priorv
the famous lll.:1.'.:,1:
cnurctrol Charlieuor
lronr that ol .l,nz1Je_
* y t z e l a y f r 4 o , r 4 r , r 5 8 , r 6 z , r 6 r J , I o c a t e da t Duc, dependenron Saint_lIartin,
the head of the Limoges
pdrigueux
road to
Autun. For._
It was builr Burgundian .half-_Gorhic,,
Compostela. during an cphemeral :::::.
tne.na\.e "t ll:.1":rl
of V6zelar.is r,er.1, handsome,.mural;
(luniac regime ( I o96- r r j7). An altar was con-
rn character.Thereis no triforium
secratedin a new east end (r ro_1).,{bout r r I q a ; thegenerous
clerestorl.windowscorne
. W e s t e r ne x t e n s i o n \ i l s s t a r t c d : t h e n t h c underrampinglateral
oltl n e n e t r a l . i o inns t h e g r o i n . r a u l to { .t h e
Carolingian church burned out, betwccn (r r zo), n a r e .,
r_nearchrtectur.al Iine ol.tlcscenllrom \.t:zclat
rnd was replaced before thc dedication (t,32;., i
u l t i m a r e llre a < Jt .srh ei n r c r n a r i o n a l
The church wirs the lirst one built on u g.n.rou, G; h;;r;;l;
o f r h e( . i s r e r c i a n us h
. ich
scalein France where the nar.e and aisles U..on,ii.rJ'in
arc a laterchapter. ";ff
covered by groin r.aults dir.ided ba-v
b_v bal. -{s hisroricalstucliesaccumulate,
with transverse archcs. The design ma-v _ the role of
ilerire Cluny' in the creation of the
from the o.lder portions, clatctl near the mature ,,rlf.
end of. Romanesque archire*urc becumes.1.;;;;. "i
;
r4oand r4r. tr,izcla1,Sainte_\Iadeleine,
intcrior
o f n a v er, . t r o l 3 2 ,a n d a i t . r i e l r
 C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E I95

r.+2. Clunl', the monasterv plan which Abbot Hugh undoub- Church designs for the priories of Saint-
in r r57 (K.J.C.)
"=-+-++-_ veriousproiects
dear. I.argeness of conceptionand Fortunat at Charlieu, Saint-Pierre at Souvigny,
iedly held
of scalecharacterizetheseworks' and Saint-Etienne at Nevers also show the in-
nobility
The differencebetweenearly Romanesque creasing scale of Cluniac architecture.
Romanesquescaleis at once ap- At Charlieu.l6 the little tenth-century church
and mature
in Abbot Hugh's enlargementof the was replaced after ro3o more or less on the lines
Darent
lateron in Clunv of Cluny- II. Hower,er, it surpassed its proto-
monkr'quttt".s Clunv.and
at
monastery all type, being substantially built with generous
III, the definitivechurch ofthe
to an impressive general plan Ir4z]' use ofashlar stone, and planned from the begin-

'[::,;,;,',{:
according
ln ro4z there were about seventy professed ning for heavy tunnel vaulting over a clerestory.

,-${h." monks at Cluny, a fairlv usual number, but The faqade,under way bv the time of the dedica-

,fi.i,",,.?ry-[ underAbbot Hugh the number had increased tion (rog4), was embellished by a fine portal.
h; ;d \,,,," :i;
to 2ooby ro85, and there wasa further increase To iudge by its handsome lines, elegant pro-
to about 3oo in rrog, at the death of Abbot portions, and other similarities, the fagade at
Hugh. Vast new constructionswere therefore Charlieu was designed by one of the architects

{-Y{: : t,i""Dt}'};li,;ilri needed,not only in the monks'own part ofthe

convent,but in accessorybuildings fbr agri-
who worked on the new abbey church begun
in ro88 at Clunyl; It+1, t4+l.
. o o
?' o ' - a t f- f f i v - P
i
cultural exploitation, for storage,for menial
. o ..? I l J f

nl i
a " - ' ? e i (

services, and especiallyin thosefor visitors.ls

. o o oI . = . F . s tl ] cLorsrER r43. Charlieu,Saint-Fortunat,dcdicatedro94, inner
A part of the hospicebuilt by Abbot Hugh, portal ofnarthex (main door ofnave), r. Iotl8 9o
aooo
aaoo
in the great forecourt of the monastery' still
ooaQ
Porra
survives.The upper storeyofit is largeenough
oooa to serveas the municipal theatre of modern
oooo Cluny. Originally it was 49 feet wide and ryg
ooao feet long, substantially but plainly built, in
oo90 ro77-g;it had a stableat leastroo feetlong; the
oo4o
dormitory above it had an impressiveunob-
q..,p
Great

structedinterior space3r feet high from the

o o #t floorto the eaves,or 48 feetto the ridge.Another
N A R T H E XI I I
o o (tl indicationof grand scaleat Cluny comesabout
!";'"J{$i the year ro8o, when the refector]'ofthe monks
.?H'i,.$
sm i wastrebled in size and decoratedwith an im-
rnensefrescopainting of the Last Judgement;
furthermore,under Abbot Hugh the monks'
dormitory was extendedby one-third in area.
It remaineda plain room. When further aug-
mentedby Abbot Peter the Venerablein the
twelfthcentury,it measured
A PPROACH COU RT 34by zzo f'eet,and
z6 feet in height to the eaves.The capacious

lt* Ltdy Chapeo l f r o 8 i 5 - r j o f e e tl o n g

nas been mentioned;the infirmarl was also
El
considerablv enlarqed.(Dimensionsherearein
English6easure.t

Iq6 INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNA'I'IONALARCHITECTURE
r44. Charlieu, Saint-Fortunat, dedicated ro94,
section o{-nar e and
elevation of original f'agadc(Sunderland)
tq5 (bclon,, rgil7. Nelers, Saint-Etienne,
largel1.,. Ioll-1 97, nare
| + 6 t , , p p , , s i tl .t \ o e r s , S a i n t - F . t i c n n c .
largel1r. rofi.397, casl r icw, with the
towers rcstorcd according to an old drawing
(' 5 roil
ffi---T1..
'l'he
same incrcasing scale is exemplificcl in
the succcssile churches at the important prior]'
of Souvignv. The old church of'92o, rebuilt
a b o u t r o 3 4 , w a s I 2 0 f e e t l o n g a n d z o f ' e e tr v i d e .
Thc new one, dcdicated complete in lo6-i, was
27o f'eetlong j and f rom I oqo onu ard this was in-
crcased to about 3 ro f-ect;the imposing definitivc
ROMANESQUE ARCHITF-CTLIRE r9'7
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF
church possesseda double-aisled nave 8o tegl
rvide overall, double transepts, and o{'corr15.
a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r y , a n d r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s . r 8
The works at the Cluniac priory o1' Sli11-
Etienne, Neversl" [r45, 146], are a clear siqn 'J
that Romanesque architecture had indeed achie- d. i'
tl
ved maturitv. The beautifullv articulated plal
of Saint-Etienne, with apse, ambulatorl'' and
iq
radiating chapels, transept, and nave gracclullv
disposed, was carried up in a superstructurt of
fine ashlar masonry, which made it possible to
diminish the bulk of the interior supports and
carr]' the naYeto a considerable height, with rrrc-
markable ribbed semicircular tunnel vault trrcr
a clerestory. Elegant arcaded screensstrengthen
the transept near the crossinpJtower. In plan,
the church is a reduction of'the Pilgrimagetr pc,
ro63
did not venture a clerestory'under the high built, the cl^urch was taken in hand about
ancl resemblesworks crf near-b]' Aurergnc. tn under the stimulus of large gifis, and it is re-
vault. At the Revolution the three handsome
sectionalso the nave is like that ofa Pilgrirrrge a s c o m p l e t e u i t h i t s l o w e r s a l thc time
towersofsaint-Etienne, disposedafter the pat- ported
t h u r c h i n t h i r tt h c g a l l e r i e sh i r r cq u a t l r l n t i r t L t l t - o f i t s d e d i c a t i o n( r 5 D e c e m b e r I o q T ) '
ternof Cluny II, weredemolished,lnd thus the
ing, but the galler.r arches do not hat, tl'' an Earll'
churchlost the airy silhouettewhich it had had A Roman Imperial architect and
p r e t l ] p a i r c d c o l u m n s w h i c h g r a c et h c l ' i l r : r r - would both respect this buil-
for 7ooyears.Saint-EtiennebecameCluniacin Christian architect
m l g e c h u r c l r g a l l c r i e s .O n r h e o t h e r h a n . l t " ' Ibr it has all the advantages which either
ro68. After the monasticofliceshad bcen re- dine.
P i l g r i m a g e - t 1 ' p en a v e s , i m p o s i n g a s t h e v \ r e r t '
a
 r98 INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Roman or Earlv Christian architecture could
give to church construction. At the same time
the designer showed perfect command of what
the Carolingian age had created. He brought all
these elements to a new and self-consistent
canon of expression and proportion which is
lull of energv, confidence, and serenity - a
mature new sty'le worthy to take its place on a
par with the older styles. There is no trace of
archaism here, and no problem posed by the
d e s i g n e rr e m a i n s u n s o l v e d .
Though Saint-Etiennc at Nevers provided a
complete 'statement' of mature Romanesque
architecture, more was required at Cluny itself,
because the church building there had a rraDs-
cendent role to play. To the monks whose devo-
tion centred there, it was an earthly represent-
r47. (ilunr'. rcstorationofthe abbel church as in r798, drawn in on a contemporarVair'iew
t18 (o|?ositc).(,lunl Abbel', restorationstudr: bird's-eveview from rhe sourh-eastas in rr57 (K.J.C.)
C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E r99
a t i v e o f t h e c e l e s t i a lJ e r u s a l e m . a p l a c e r r [ s 1 u monks. Even at a late period one
'talents'
as a thank-ofl'ering for the capture of
aeoh61r,ofthe 'l'oledo
the dwellers on high would tread, if it coultl f o r . M a b i l l o n r +r i t e s ( I 6 8 2 ) : on z5 Ntay ro85.22
b"
b e l i e r e d t h a t h u m a n a b i d i n g - p l a c e so t r h i s . , r r r i..il rt ir "d.it"tion,
i 1 6 y o us e ei t s m a j e s t v a h u n d r e d t i m e s ' y o u a r e Preparations for the building of Cluny III
are pleasing to rhem'. When rhe grear ncw probably'began in that year or in ro86. As the
on each occasion' the classic
overwhelmed
church and its monastery were fully shaped 11d r _ ) + lr 5 5 ' r 5 7 ' r 6 7 l ' monastery had been building almost continu-
R o m a n e s q u lct + 7 5 2 ,
walled, after rr8o, the group with its cluster ously fbr decades, no new crew had to be
of C l u n y l l l r e p r e s e n t e dt h e m o n a s t i c a c h i e v e -
fifteen towers on and about the church aouallv better than any other edifice. fbrmed, nor any new arrangements improvised
ment in building
looked like medieral symbolic drawings ot rhe it could have held the entire member- for rnaterials and transport. One suspects a new
Actually
Holy City. One thinks of Bernard de Morlaas, of the Cluniac Order. had thc direction in the works from about ro75 onward,
ship, standing,
of Cluny, who gained here his vision of b e e n a s s e m b l c d . ' rT h e g r e a t c h u r c h becausethe 34o-millimetre foot of Abbot Odilo s
Jcru_ Orderever
salem the Golden - be understood in these terms, as a focus time was then given up in favour of the zg5-
must
L'rhs Sion il.ureu,pat/ia laclea, ciae decrtra. . . for the devotion of the whole Order, and logical- millimetre Roman fbot.
ly a more splendid building than any which Influence from Desiderius's N'{ontecassino
The Ecclesia N1afor, Cluny III,20 was the
Abbot Hugh had seen in fbrty years ofiourney- (ro66-75) is practically certain. The 295-milli-
hearth of the whole spiritual household ol the
ing throughout western Europe. It was planned metre fbot is basic there, along with unusual
Cluniac Order. It made a great sensation when
as early as ro85, and its 6rst great patron was pointed arches and vaults, a strict mathematical
it was built; 'indeed they celebrate as if at layout, and exceptionally exact setting-out, all
Alfonso VI of Spain, whom Abbot Hugh saw
Easter every day, because they have merited to
in Burgos at Eastertide ro9o. Even before rogo of which reappear in Cluny III (see below,
go into that Galilee' savs Abbot Hugh's bio- pp. 302 3).
Alfonso had sent Abbot Hugh ten thousand
; r" ^i^
^,:';r ti'
,,'1
2OO INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
Careful study of the existing remains above
and below the surface has revealed a rather strict
mathematical layout and a modular system in
the design of Cluny III. Relationships of this
kind are well known in medieval churches, and
Viollet-le-Duc has a good deal to say about
them,rr but the inlbrmation which we have in
respect to Cluny III is unusually clear and con-
vincing becauseofcopious exact measurements
taken in the excavations.
The architect was a monk of Cluny - Gunzo,
a retired abbot of Baume and a musician Qpsal-
nista ptaecipuus). [Ie probably settled the gen-
eral scheme. His gifted collaborator H6zelon
(d. r rz3) is reported as a mathematician, and as
'labouring
long'to achieve the work. The great
design exemplilies both the prll)ortio and the
symmetria of Vitruvius, whose De Architectura
was in the Abbey library. Proportio plstulates a
principal dimensiouin orderly relotionship nith its
components.At Cluny III the fundamental stem
of the church, 53 r feet long, was portioned offin
'perfect
numbers', 6 (centre to chord of the
apse), r, plus z8 (the sanctuar-v bay), and 496
(the choral and processional part ofthe church,
extending to the western foundation bench).
Simple fractions of 496 determined the pro-
jection of all salient elements in the plan (248,
t z 4 , 6 2 , 3 r , r 5 j f e e t ) . I n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r et h e
6oo-foot length was so divided that the various
parts made up 4oo, 3oo, 25o, 2oo, r50, roo, 50,
and zq-foot sections. Again, the high vault of
the nave. roo feet to the point, was slstematic-
ally related to the interior impost levels (at 8o,
6 6 ' i , - 1 o ,a n d z 5 f e e t ) . V i t r u v i a n s y m m e r r i ap u s -
tulates a minor unit, repeated in building up the
design. Chny IIl, in this sense, had modules
o f 5 , 7 ( s y m b o l i c ) , 8 J , 2 5 , a n d 3 t f e e t . 2 aT o l e r -
ances never exceed lbur inches.
The plan of Cluny III was the first to have
full-scale double transepts in the chevet. This
arrangement made it possible to transfer the
choir (iom Clun-r'' II as early as Io98, and to
accommodate, near the high altar, the great
ARCHITECTURE
a s s e m b l i e s o f t h eC h a p t e r sG e n e r a l ( r z r z m o n l o
in r r3z). Through Lewes Priory after rotyo t[.
double transept passed to England, and thr:re-
after, with Canterbury (c. rogT ff.), to English
Gothic.
Construction ofthe church, once begun, n c11
'an
forward with unusual speed,on admirable
'which
plan', as Peter the Venerable savs, dis-
tinguishes the church {rom all others on rhe
globe'. H6zelon probably managed the building
enterprise. The official Jim.datio of the church
dates from 3o September ro88. Five altars in
t h e c h e v e t w e r e d e d i c a t e do n z q O c t o b e r r o g 5 ,
when the Cluniac Pope Urban II, a refugee f rom
the activities of the antipope Clement III in
Rome, was on his way to Le Puy and Clermont-
Ferrand to preach the First Crusade. Thc trvo
transepts had been finished by 14 March r roo,
when Pedro de Roda, bishop ofPamplona and
one ol' the active French reforming clergr in
Spain, consecrated the chapel of St Gabriel in
the existing stair tower attached to thc great
transept. The west front of the main nave f r 57]
w a s b u i l t ( r r 0 7 - r 5 ) b e f b r e t h e a d j o i n i n g i n t er i o r
bays, but these were complete and vaulted b1
r r zr, according to the original scheme of Abbot
Hugh's architects.
N{eanwhile Pope Gelasius II. driven ftom
Rome by partisans of the Emperor Henrr' \',
hrd taken refuge in Cluny ( r r rg). He died there'
and the six cardinals of his suite, still at Clunt,
had met and chosen Guy de Bourgogne, arch-
bishop ofVienne, to be GelasiusII's successor,
He took the name of (.alixtus II. \['e hate herltl
of him before: the Pilgrimage Codex of C:rlirtus
was ascribed to him. After an interval he rc-
turned ro Cluny, where he canonized Abbot
Hugh in r rzo. In the great church a partial firll
of vaulting in the nave, rI25, was quicklv rc-
paired. The gencral dedication ot the churclr
a n d t h e v a s t n e w m o n a s t i c g r o u p w ; r sp e r f o r n r e, l
by Pope Innocent II on z5 October rr3o.-'
'l'he
bold massing of Cluny III ."as ..tt
I49 Cluny, third abbcy church, cast view ofnrodel
expressive Ir49]. Chapels rnd stepped fornrs
 C L U N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O M A N E S Q U TA R C H I T E C T U R E 203

'I'he
l i k e a n e n o r _ m o u s l la u g m e n t e d G e r - western towers. scheme was thus a combi-
built up,
in the minor transept: lour nation of the central t-ype, the double-transept
6igny-des-Pres'
t n a four lowers ga\t \ erticalmo\ ement t y p c , a n d t h e b a s i l i c a nt v p e o f c h u r c h . I n d e s i g n
clapatr
| These aspiringforms the building brought together the grandeur of
,orh. gt.t,,t.nsept I 50l
i n t h e p a r t o f the building which Roman work, thc abounding vigour of Caro-
w e r ec l u s t e r e d 'l'he
q , a sd e v o t e d d o p r a l e r . nare' with thc lingian work, and a dynamic quality which
usetl lbr processions' gate a makes it an authentic fbrerunner of Gothic
'r:r .
narthex beyond.
:.. . contrasting horizontal to thc com- architecture in certain particulars.
remendous
'
position, which brought up at the massive The masonry walls at Cluny have substantial
i..t , ..
r."rr dimcnsions. Curved and screen walls in various
:,. :, ,.:: :).:'
*'
.. ) . l u n r ' t h i r d a b h c rc h u r c h '
r 5 o ( u p p l s i t cC
parts of the design wcrc ncarly lbur f'eet in
,.]
---l
thickness; the outer wall of thc nave aislcs was
eiterioo r f e r t a n t s o u t ha r m o l g r e a ll r r n s ( P l '
.' , . r o g 5 - rI o o six f'eet, and the nave clerestory wall (pierced
by many windows) eight feet Ir5r]. The piers,
I r 5 r . C l u n y ,t h i r d a b b e l ' c h u r c hr, o f S {rl ' I I z r , of which there were sixt1. in the main church,
restorationstud-vof transversesectionol'
J. nave(K.J.C.).Thc three-archedba.vat the right
measured about eight f'eet on the axis.
'l'he

vaulting, however, was very light - the cells

s t i l le x i s t sa, n d a p p e a r si n i l l u s t r a t i o nr 5 o
20+
r52. Cllun\, third abbel church, capitals and shafis
li'orl the sanctuar\
(as placed in the fbrmer abbel granarr), r. Iotl-5
being from thirteen to eighteen inclres in thick-
ness, and slightl,-vpinched or pointed in shape,
like oriental vaults, as a means of diminishing
thcir thrust Ir5r]. This functional application
is a step to$irrds Gothic vaulting, as is the
ingenious inward corbelling of the walls undcr
the high vault (mentioned below), which clever-
l v i n c r e a s e d t h e r v a l l ' s r e s i s t a n c et o v a u l t i n g
thrusts. Thus it was possible lbr the architect
to \enture a nave vault with its crown liom roo
to ncarly' r03 Roman feet above the pavement
o\er a spanof thirtr -fir c; the proportion is ver.r
closc to the pcrfect Gothic proportion ol the
cathedral of Reims, with dimensions about one-
'l'he
sixth less. tunnel vault rvas inclecd a ven-
ture, at this great height, and above a many'-
windowed clerestory, but it is known to harq
produced the rvonderful acoustical effects which
were dcsired.
T h e s i r n c t u a r l 'o f C l u n - v I I I head, centrq.
focus of allw a s t h e b o l d e s t ,m o s t i n t c r e s t i n q ,
and most beautilul part ofthe church Ir5r, rq2,
r 538, r 54]. The apse was tall, and slender in pro-
portion, not quite as high as the main vault. Fir q
elcgant r:rdiating chap!ls looked in upon thc
a m b u l a t o r y , w h i c h h a d c l e r e s t o r yw i n d o w s o n
the outer side to correspond with the tall gracr-
f u l a r c h e so p e n i n g i n t o t h e s a n c t u a r v .I n t e r c s l -
ing small sculptures of the Vices and Psrcho-
machia on the outer wall contrasted with larger
motifi on the column capitals, where an allegolr
o1'the monastic lif'e, virtues, and divine prarse
lbrmed a beautiful semicircle about thc tlrr
chief altars. This enclosing arcade had eight
tiee-standing columns.zn
The ends of the apse arcaderested on tuo
capitals which were placed to the left and right,
respectivel!', of the two altars in the sanctuilr\.
These altars themselves were included lvith thc
capitals in another allegory. The Fall was repre-
sented to thc leli. and the Sacrifice of Abrahanr
(prefiguring the eucharistic sacrilice) at thc
right. Incense rose, s-vmbolicalll, fiom the alt',rrs
past the allegorical carvings o[ the arcade to a
rast liesco of Christ in glorl with the cclesti,rL
c h o i r s o n t h e a p s ev a u l t . T h i s p a i n t i n g , l i k c t h e
mosaic figures at Celalir and \lonreale l.:;; .
dominated the rvhole nave of the church. rtn
open length of 425 Roman or 4II'3 English
I ' e e t .T h e s u b i e c t i n v e s t e d t h e n a v e w i t h a g r r t e
d i g n i t l ' w h i c h w e m a y s e n s ei n t h e c o n t e m p o r r l r \
fresco of the monks' chapel at Berz6-la-\'ille
I r 53e], where Abbot Hugh loved to go for reposc
at the end of his life.r;
T h e a p s c w h i c h h a s j u s t b e e n d e s c r i b e ds t t s
remarkably light and ingenious in constructtorr.
'I'hc
,td miraculum su.fulta, as Mabillon says.
dcsign of the tvpical interior bars oecurteJ
s i n g l v i n t h e a d j o i n i n g s a n c t u a r \ ' ,p a i r e d r n t l t e
) c r z d - l a - \ ' i l l c . a p s i c l a lf i e s c o . r . r r o o : ( t r ) ( ' l u n r I I I ' a n a l r t i c l l s e c t x ) n . o l n 1 tn 0 l t r t n s c l ) t .
153('cB
shoring altars
ot thc sanctuarr rnd all thr tlcrcu rbsidiolus of the eheret
(K .l ( )
 CLL'NY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESeUE ARCHITECTURE 2o7

the two transepts' and in a noblc

\1
!.i,n
I 'i 1
r\ ll choir between
nnge of eleven
bays in the great nave Ir541.
Ft, .11",r .I.
lr I'l The capitals.
t o i u d g e b y t h e s c v e n t y - f i r ' ee x -
I *\{*
til
jll amples w h i c h still exist. were almosl all Corin-

\r d-$ t h i a n e s q u e ,w i t h
hardly any figure sculpture
, ,,1
,
,r11i\, rnd very
obviously
few grotesques.
confined,
Figure sculpture was
by programme, almost en-

L-;f,\r tirely to the allegorical ensembles in the apse

and at the west Portals.
Throughout the church the picrs weregroup-
ed piers, reduced in the upper storey ofthe nave
(through ingenious wall corbelling) to a single
engaged shaft under the vaulting arch. The
aisle bays had pointed arches, here used, it is
believed, under oriental influence transmitted
through Montecassino, and presenting the
pointed arch for the first time in large numbers
in a Western church design [r54, r55, 167].
The pointed arch facilitated vault construction
in the aisles. Another indication of oriental in-
fluence was the decorative use of horseshoe
lobes on the arches ofthe triforium Ir55]. The
pilasters of the trifbrium and the arcade of the
clerestory (resting on pretty paired colonnettes)
l-, aided in inching the wall outward to receive the
thrusts ofthe vaults. The beautiful efi'ectofthis
interior design led to its being reproduced with
greater or less fidelity at Parar'-le-Nlonial r 5 5 .C l u n 1 ,t h i r d a b b e l c h u r c h ,
Ir561
(a 'pocket edition' of Clunv, dated roughly i n l c r i u ro l ' ( \ l r n l s u u l ha r m u l g r c a tl r J n s c p t .
a. ro(,)-5r roo
about rrro), Autun Cathedral (rlzo and later)
1-'
II6r], La Charit6-sur-Loire (about r rz5) [r66],
and Beaune (about rr5o). All these inreriors teries. However, the gencral development of
are strictly Romanesquc in its classic phase, but trade, with profitable f'airs, syndicates, and ex-
they are alreadv of Gothic proportions, and changes, togcthcr with the growth in urban
aPProachthe Gothic aestheric.:" population and civic consciousnesseverywhere,
The conditions which caused Gothic archi- the granting o1' civic charters which I'avoured
t e c t u r el o d c r c l o p w e r e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t a 1 t h c organizt:d urban progrcss, and the transf-er of
;.j closeof Abbor HuEh's career. Rcstriction ol' eflictir,e intellectual activity to the urban centres
L,i local war, increasing
competence in the acl- to cathedral schools and incipient universities
llt
ministrative cadres of the great f'eudal oflicers, tended to leave the abbeys in a backwater
the remedying wherethcy'could prosper quietly to be sure, but
of precarious economic concli-
tlons' the
improvement of communications, where henccfbrth thcv had only a minor or
were beneficent
to all, including the monas- conservativc role to olav in the creation of the
r-54.Clunl', third abbei'church,strictlv archaeological
rcstorationol'navc interior, r. ro$tl i r3o
 2O8 INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE 209

priorv church, r' r roo, lrom the south-west

(upplsite).Paray-le-Monial,
$6
... Cluny, third abbeychdrch,restorationstudy of the f'agade
of the main nave,latcr masked,r. r r07 r 5.
((.Ir06-08 ro)inspiredthegreatworksatVdzelay,Moissac,andAutun
?il"..i"po.,rt

t . , , t l t : r r l l t f , ,! t

later medieval Europe. I'he Europc which de-
pendcd on the monasteries, and had a monastic
i d e a l , p a s s e da w a v w i t h i n a g c n c r a t i o n o f A b b o t
Hugh.
A B B O TP O N S ,O R P O N T I U S ID E M L L G U E I L
T h e s u c c c s s o ro f A b b o t H u g h i n r r o g w a s a
flashing young Provengal, Pons de N,Iclgucil, a
n e a r r c l a t i v e o f P o p e P a s c h a lI I w i t h o t h e r l i n e
connexions, who had attractcd the abbot. and
was required to pass only a single day in thc
novitiate when hc cntered Cluny monastery.
'l'hough
hc was a postulant at rhe old Cluniac
house of' Saint-Pons-de-Thomidrcs. and was
prior at Saint-I,Iartial, Linoges,
he does not
b e l o n g t o t h e s p i r i t u a l l i n e o f O d o , \ l a r eu l , one ofthe sculptors worked in both places, the
Odilo, and Hugh; he was forced out b)'relorm carving was more mature in character much
s e n t i m e n t i n t h e m o n a s t e r y .Y e t t h e c u m u l . t t i l e bolder in composition, with very slen<lerfigures
achievcment of the older men ga\.e (,lunl a nearly free-standing in relief. Thc portal, deeply
g l i t t e r i n g m o m e n l b e l b r e t h e a h d i c : r t i o r .rr n J embrasured, had nook shafts, and a Moorish
disgrace (rrzz), intrusive return to his litnc- alfizborder about the recessedarches. The ttetit
t i o n s , d e f i a n c e ,a n d d c a t h ( l r o m R o m a n l c t c r . matbre, a soft mortled limestone used in the
excommunicate and in prison, rrz6) of -\bltot eastern parts of
the building, the flat, almost
Pons. stucco-like calligraphic
modelling of'the figural
H e c a r r i c d t h e m a g n i f i c e n tp o r l a l s a t ( l t r n r sculpture there,
and the accompanying classical
'l'her acanthus gave
to completion about r r r3 [r57]. st,rttit way, as the building advanced
westward, to
t h r e e i n l i n e . b u t t h c c e n t r a lo n e . l b r t r I c c l $ r ( l r harder stone, stronger relief, and
hore medieval
and sixty-two fcet high, was much larger' .r:.tn leaf'aEe.:,,
Th. G..r, Portal
more imposing than the o,h..r. Thou*h ,,llt ^ at Cluny is a capital loss,
tor its indicared
sork comcsonll ten rearsalter the alltg,,rreitt date makes ir rhc firsr ot the
allegorical
capitals o1'the sanctuary, and though rrt lerst porrals on a reallt grand scale.
Between them, the portals of V6zelay 1158,
r631, Perrecy-les-Forges, and Bellenaves sug-
gest what the great composition was like.
In the thickness of the wall at the top of the
Great Portal there was lodged a charming little
chapel of St Michael, warder of doors, most
cleverly constructed (like the main apse), and
its tiny round sanctuary proiected like an oriel
into the main nave Ir671. It was the reduction,
almost to the dimensions of a delightful archi-
tectural tor, of the Chapel of thc Saviour at
Saint-Riquier; indccd the deep embrasuring
made the portal itself project outward from the
f'aqadclike a flat oblong chapcl. Above the chapel
were big windows which lighted the nave until
the narthex was built, and beyond the lateral
 2IO INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
portals wcre buttresses built in rat-tail so that
the narthex walls might later be firmly joined.
The flowering o1'sculpture was general within
the Order ofCluny-under Abbot Pons. It brings
us again to one ofthe most beloved and beautiful
of the medieval sites V6zelav, set on its hill
above a wonderful panorama of opulent Bur-
gundian countrvside. In design, the church
I r 4 o , r 4 r , r 5 8 , r 6 2 , r 6 3 ] r e p r e s e n t sB u r g u n d i a n
localism in the time of Abbot Hugh. As already'
reported, the church received its nave largely
after Pontius's abbacy, being carried forward
after a fire of r rzo to completion and dedication
in ri3z. The ponderous Romanesque groin
r,aults over the new naye were not well built or
well abutted, and gar.e much trouble. In con-
t r a s t w i t h C l u n v t h e c a p i t a l si n t h e n a v e o f ' t h e
church are enriched br. ligure sculptures.'I'hese
are in the stvle of Clunv, and it is consiclered
certain that designers and carr,ers wcnt from
Cluny- to V6zelal- when the two major sculpr urnl
e n s e m b l e sa t C l u n \ , h a d b e e n f i n i s h e d . A r t h i s
time (rrr5 zo) the 'ordo' of Vdzelar.uls 1n
c h a r g eo l ' P i e r r e d c \ l o n r b o i s s i c r ,x g r e a l l r r r q l
of'the arts, latcr (rrzz) abbot ofClunv.
The manv picturesque capitals in the nar c at
V6zelal- have a popular appeal which is fitting in
a church of pilgrimage. The west portals are
more rheological. T'hey are to be dated a litrle
befbre the fire of r rzo, and consequenth, cume
near the end of Pontius's abbacy. Thrce door_
wavs give entrance lrom the narthex to thc nar e
a n d a i s l e s .T h e c e n t r a l p o r t a l I r 5 8 ] i s a d o r n c d
w i t h o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s tm a s t e r p i e c e so f m c d i -
eval relief' sculpture a singularly arresrins
conception of the role of the Sar,iour in trans-
mitting his redeeming grace and the er.ang;clttr
all the world. St John the Baptist on the mechin
jamb and the Apostles set above the lrtcr;rl
columns, though perf-ectly Romanesque, girc .t I 5 8 , qa n d u .
\'czelar, Sainte-\latlcleinc. main portal,,. r t tR
 CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQUE ARCHI'I'T,CTURF
zr3

jamb figureswill assume

hint of the role which At first (about r rr5 zo?) the inrention was,
in Gothic times, beginning at Chartres and perhaps, to place it at the front of the olcl nirve
Saint-Deniswithin half a gencration. built b1' Abbot Hugh (ro63) - a Provensal affiir
We have alreadv seen,in the P6rtico de la with three parallel tunnel vaults, now replaced.

,u?-: r.tt I
Gloria of Santiagode Compostela(rr68-88) Almost immediatelv (about rrzo 3o) an in-
this portal which was in-
frz4f, a derivtive of teresting rib-\'aulted porch with an upper ch:rpel
..'.",'.,; tended (as Cluny and V6zelay were not) to was built in front of the church an interpre-
ti l: i participatein the external articulation of the tation of the Saint-Riquier motif. At that time
building. The change is adumbrated in the the great carvings were located on the flank of
;.-. fagade designedfor La Charit6-sur-Loireabout the porch with some lateral arcading and minor
o l l' '
rr3o-5 [166], and it comesin the still half: reliefs added. The work was completed during
Romanesqueportals of Saint-Denis built lor the abbacy of'Peter the \renerable of Clunr,,
A b b o t S u g e r{ r o m a b o u t r r 3 5 t o r r 4 o [ r 5 9 ] . before the death of Abbot Roeer of Moissac.
Meanwhilea wholeseriesof the twelveApostles
(an 'apostolado') had been created as pier
A B B O TP E T E RT H E V E N E R A B L E
sculptureslbr the chapter-houseofthe cathed-
ralofSaint-Etienne at Toulouse(aboutr r r7). Pierre de Nlontboissier, the gentle-spirited and
More important still, the memorableportal beloved successor of the r.rnfortunate Pontius,
4t at the priorv of MoissacIr6o] had beenbuilt. ruled from rr22 to r156. and he was the last
:i;l
*g
-:n
ii" i- 16o-Moissac,priorl'church,flank,wirhportal,
d';" &i {r{ ,. rrr5 30andlater

..' !.i
,#t'i
i ,;;

,;&,* ,,T:rt.,-;$
r'i .'t.,.;".+:ii
i lj

{,i:... . .-i4.re{F,,-ap*-a;:,,*ri4!d*e6ffie,**:r*lt:*i*',yryo{irlli**tiiili..,"
t59 Saint-l)enis, abbel church, rcstoration stud'offagade, with intended nortrr tower, r. r r1-5 .1q ((..1.(
 CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQUEARCHITECTURE 215

'l'he
\\ ith dilicultl he main- ruin which fell in later times on Cluniac
,reat abbot of Cluny
, t t . Order against intcrnal disaffcction. architecture may be secn equally at La Daurade,
lrin.a
competition' and the general shift of at Saint-Gilles, and at Ganagobie.rn
Cistercian
times which diminished the rolc of monas- Rich and beautiful work was done in Bur-
the
under him the Order vet served gundl' also. l'he cathedral of Autun3' [16I],
ticism. But
and sculPture well' c 0 n i u n . t Lot f ' C l u n v , w a s r c b u i l t b c g i n n i n g a b o u t
architecture
r r 20 on a simple plan, but with an interior ele-
Works of great beaut.v wcrc carried out in his
France portals at vation derived fiom Cluny III. The first dedi-
time in middle and southern
( i n t h e C o r r d z e , a bout Irz5 jo), at c a t i o no c c u r r e di n I r 3 o . ' I ' h e b u i l d i n g h a ss c u l p -
Beaulieu
(about r r also a cloister), and (liom tures of' quite exceptional importance and
Qrennac 3o ;
the im- beautf in the capitals of the nave and the west
about rr4o onward), at the lagade of
portal. The latter is by Gislebertus,who can be
portant church of Saint-Gilles, thc imposing
one of the traced from Clunl' r,ia V6zelav to Autun, and it
triple portal hnished about rrTo
noblest works which the late Romanesque has dates lrom about r r35. The strange exaggera-

bequeathed to us [r87, r88]. Other notable t i o n s a n d p o p u l a r a p p e a lo f t h i s w o r k , a s w e l l a s

works in the Ntidi are series of'capitals at La its dramatic placing above a flight of steps in an
Daurade in Toulouse, Saint-Pons, and Mozac, open narthex (of r I78 and later), make it a not-
and at Ganagobie where there are a portal and able example of' Baroque tendencies in the
considerable conventual remains (r. rrro 5o). R o m a n e s q u ep c r i o d .

C,hapelof-St Xlichael(narthex),r. rr35(?)

fiz.Y6.zelay,Sainte-N{adclcine,

r6r. Autun Cathedral,with apsewindows redrawnin hi'potheticaloriginal fbrm

(detailssubjectto rc-studr,and rcvision),r. r r20 3o
 2It} INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIoNAL
Turning once more to the monasteries, we
find that the main church at Vdzelav was
f i n i s h e d ,a n d a n a r r h e x a d d e d r 6 z I rh c r e w a sa
I ]
dedication in rr3z.i2'Ihe narthex had an ex_
terior portal (replaced by a modern one)
[r63],
and two towers were planned, so that, with its
bay ofrib-r,aulting, it is an interesting Burgun-
dian contemporary of Saint-Denis, on the verge
of Cothicar-chirecture..\t the n.iorv nf
Charlieu" also a narrhex was buih in fr,,nr ol
Abbot Hugh's church f'aq:rdeand adorned with a
remarkable lateral portal dated about r r35 which
is unsurpassed as an example of the Baroque
spirit in Romanesque art Ir64, r65]. At Saint_
Lazare, Avallon,rl the portal of' about rr.5o
(partly rebuilt) even afier much damage to the
figure sculpture, still shows the same resrlcss
spirit. The highly elaboratc tletail and involved
composition here and in other late portals indi_
cate very clearlv that the Burgundian Roman_
csque arr had run througSh:r complete stl.listic
cycle from primitive at Saint-B6nigne, Dilon, to
ARcHITECTURE C L L ] N Y I N T H E H I S T O R Y O F R O N { A N E S Q U EA R C H I T E C T U R E 2r7
t63 ( uhou,leli). \tzelay , Sainte-Nladeleinc, classicat Cluny, and then, b1. r r40 or r r50, ro a s c h c m eo f p a i r e d t o w e r s a n d r i c h e x t e r i o r s c u l p -
extcrlorportal (u.ith modern carvings)and intcrior style which depended on exaggeration and tured portirls. In consequence the older chevet
portal (r. I r r8) of'narthex
movement for its effectiveness.The main archi- of 6chelon-type was rebuilt with a handsome
tectural lines of the narthex at Charlieu show
t 6 q ( a h t z ' )e a n d r 6 - 5(.l h a r l i e u ,S a i n r - F o r r u n r r . a m b u l a t o r y a n d f i v e r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ;t h e n : r v e
Baroque tendencies in their rathcr wilful asym-
outer portalof narthcr was lengthened,a fine big antcchurch was un-
and narthcx from thc wesa,r. I r.l5 metries, and the search fbr piquant patterns of dertaken. rnd a great f'agadewas begun. If it had
light, half light,
and shadow, been completed it would have had two breath-
The great priory of La Charitd-sur-Loire, taking towers, each with a spire, each with two
calledthe eldest
daughter ol'Cluny', had a large sculptured portals, flanking a largcr portal on
f i l i a t i o no f p r i o r i e s
o f " i r so w n , a n l i c i p a t i n g s o m e t h e a x i s o f t h e c h u r c h . T h i s f ' a q a d es c h e m e w i t h
of the features
of'the Cistcrcian filiations. The Iive sculpturcd portals in line Ir66] beneath
lmportance
o t t h e p r i o r y l e t l r o a g r a n d i o s ep r o - paired torvcrs was the fbrerunner of the huge
, e c to f r e b u i l d i n g
begunabout r rz5.r. with rhe Gothic f rontispiece of Bourges.r{'
lntention
of ttr*tbrl.ing the oldcr church (an However, the Order ol'(,luny wasnorv liltcr-
enriched
version of Cluiv II. as has been re- i n g . O n l l ' o n e o f t h e f ' a g a d et o r v e r sa t L a C h a r i t d
rnarked)
into a motliFed re.si,,n of Clunv Itl was built; most of the irreaof the antechurch
lncorporating
the monumental nc* fa,;,r,le remained open, as a sort of atrium, and the
2r8 INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHIT[,CTURE
n o r t h a i s l eo f t h e a n t e c h u r c h , t h e o n l y o n c
built, servcd as narthex and parish chtryci'
Partial ruin in thc re ligious wars and long
have been the lot of this splendid Ur.,ifa;n,t-
Vdzelay it was the same rhe west lront
church was never finished. At Cluny ,rr,,
ofthc narthex were built, beginning abour r
b u t t h e r e s t d r a g g e d o n f o r a c e n t u r y ( t or 2 2 0
a n d a n o r h e r c e n t u r y p a s s e db e f o r e t o t h , , t
western towers were completed (between r.i:l+
and r34z); even then one was rcbuilt anJ
painted wooden porch was placeclbetwccn tlrcq
a c e n t u r y l a t e r s t i l l ( b e t w e e n r , 1 2 4a n d r 4 ; 7 ) .
Abbot Peter the Venerable's work on
great church is interesting as shou.ing
premonitionsofthe Gothicsty.leIr49, r5r.
After the f'all of a part of the navc vault in r ruj.
massive picrced buttresses, like very hear r fli.
i n g h u t t r e s s e sr.r e r e a d c l e d a t t h . . l . r c r t o r ,1 . , . 1 .
r66 ( lLli) . I-a (lhariri-sur-Loirc, projectctlfrar,.rcle
fbr priorv nirrrhcx,c. r r-to-5 (Flilberrl.)
t67 ( fulon) . Cllunv,third abbe1.church,
re.storltionstudv of longitudinalsectiono1 ucst cntl
ol nave,and of narther,
e l o c n t h a n d m . r l f t h c c n r u r i c s( K . J . ( , . )
I-r
!r'-i!:ii it4affi : r-qr::n
2r9
t, bu have occurred as early as r r3o. It is r6li. NIoissac,priorv church,
This may
t o n o t e t h a t f l 1 i n g b u t t r e s s e sw e r e scctionof wcsterntowcr, .. r t-lo
interesting
n"gie,ri
q u i t eg e n e r a l l yu s e di n a s p e c i a lm a n n e r . o r w h e n
ir in the vaulting. until about
trouble developed
of the when the vault of Sens Cathedral was
rhe time
lr.r,
built, from t. II55 on. By that time the new
r 22-
Gothic vaulting had shown that it needed but-
5), Eessing even more than the older and heavier
ti,.
Romanesque vaults. Peter the Venerable, pos-
sibly as early as rIjz, built vaults orer two
x easternbays ofthe narthex, without flying but-
-
tresses.The type ofthese vaults rib vaults with
high, ramping, scoop-shaped lateral penetra-
the tions - was much used in Early Gothic archi-
carly tecture. These ribs made it easier to build neat,
rfr7]. well-shaped cells or individual vaulting arcas;
they made it possible easily to build a thinner,
lighter vault; and they warped the vaulting
stressesdown to the wall and spur buttresses
between the windows of successive bays. At
Cluny the narthex was completed with such
vaults about r22o; the thirteenth-century win-
dows were larger and fly'ing buttresses were
added, but the effect was still rather Romanes-
que. Details of the west fiont show rhar rhe
architect was aware of the gorgeous new High
Gothic which was being createdin rhe ile_de_
j::.*--T=-!
France - at the cathedrais ol Chartres, Soissons.
Reims, and Amiens but that he pref-erred
the relatively early in date, the1.are not progressiye
lessevolved local Burgundian version
ofGothic. in conception.rT
The expansion of Clunv inro the ile-de-
Moissac had possessions in Spain and was
F r a n c e ,w h e r e t h e
a d m i r a b l y o r g a n i ca n d a r t i c u - well placed lbr conracts with I-ombardy; in the
l a t e dG o t h i c
s t y l e a r o s e . r r r a sr h e w o r k o l A b b o t porch we find a somcwhat Lombardic-looking
nugh. but the interesting
buildings datc trom rib vault carried out about r r2o 5 in iine Clu-
t i m . o f P e t e rt h e \ e n e r a b l e .
lft Whar role prc- nrac stone masonryt whilc in the chapel above
c t s e l yC l u n y
played in the crcrrion ol the new there is a rather Moorish-looking radiate vault
s t Y l ei s d i m c u l r
ro decide. built about rr25,3o with trvelve heavy ribs,
Th. most famous
_- Cluniac rrb-rauhed con- c q u a l l v F ' r e n c hi n i t s f ! b r i c . T h e c r v p t o l ' S a i n t -
srructions
are in the south. Altcr rhc oddll Gilles-du-Gard (r r r6 7o) has a logical succes-
crypt of Sainr-Eurrope. Sainres sion o1'heavv groin vaults on substantial ribs
1,r^eyonitorv
::":j 96) [r3el. rherc lbllow thc ro$er porch which mav be related to contemporarl' rib-
. .u. - GI ra6r o
ls, rj ltltoetsr -. d , 168] and the crlpr ot saint- v aulting in Lombarcl-v.The conclusion is in-
d
l r 8 g l . W n i t e a s r a u l r s r h c \ a r e e s c a p a b l et h a t t h e r i b s a t N { o i s s a c a n d S a i n t -

22O I N T E R - R E ( ; I O N A LA N D I N T E R N A T I O N A L A R C H I T E C T U R E
Gilles were Romanesque in conception - intro-
duced fbr cxtra bulk and strcngth - not, like the
convincingly Gothic vaults of the north at the
time (r rzo 4o), to lacilitate a light, articulated
constructlon.
The vaults at the east end of the narthex at
Cluny probablv owe something to a knowledge
of Moslem ribbcd and lobed vaulting, but it is
not certain that this was transmitted by Cluniac
contacts. It is usual in the earlv Gothic works
of the ile-dc-France. Among therc rhere are
numbered the churches of several Cluniac
priories: Airaines (Somme), about r r zo 35 ;
N { a r o l l e s - e n - B r i e ,r r z 5 o r a l i t t l e l a t e r ; S a i n t -
Martin-des-Champs, Paris, r r3z 4o (nave later)
lr69J; No6l-Saint-\,Iartin (a prior.v attached to
Saint-Martin-des-Champs), where there was a
s e r i e so f c o n s t r u c t i o n s b e t w e e n r r o o a n d r r 5 o ;
Saint-Leu-d'Esserent, dated about rr5o
r69. Paris,Saint-NIartin-des-Champs,
interior, r. r r-124o
CLUNY IN THE HISTORY OF ROMANESQU[, ARCHITECTUF.E 221
r r 7 o . 3 8O n t h i s E a r l v G o t h i c s e r i e so f ( . l u n i a c made Cothic possible u crc p l e a s i n gt o t h e B u r g u n d i a n s , a s t o t h e i r R h e n i s h
pedients whic.h
buildings the Norman chevron ornamenr otien in Cluniac architecture' ln their use cousins.
ir.i.or.
appears a clear sign of influence lront the a t N l o i s s a c .S a i n t - G i l l e s ' a n d i n The Burgundian half--Gothic attrlcted the
oflhe rib-tault
f o r m s c o n l e s st h e r e g i o n s attcntion of Bernard o1' Clairvaux (himsell' a
reg;ion which prepared the rib vault lbr thc ile_
ii. i t . - d . - F t " n c e . the
de-France. t h e i d c a c a m e i n t o t h c a r c h i t c c tu r e Burgundian, born within sight of Diion) be-
i.om *hi.h
The test probably comes in Saint-N{artin_ a n d a l s o . i n t oG o t h i c a r c h i t e c t u r e c a u s eo f i t s a u s t e r e a n d p r a c t i c a l c h a r a c t e r . H e
of ,h. Otd.t.
des-Champs, Paris, given by Philip I of lir.ance t h e C l u n i a c monls did nor dcsireto hurc made a sober version of it the standard archi-
But
to Cluny in ro7g. Its lovaltl'to Clunr.is shor.n Gothic form, and as fir as we t e c t u r c l b r C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e sa l l o v e r E u -
.hur.h.t of novel
in a curious wa1' b1-the architecture: thc church never did an1. Gothic vaulting of- rope. Citcaux lrTrl and Clairvaux themsclves,
know they 'f
p l a n ( r r 3 z ) i s a n i n g e n i o u s r e d u c t i o n b a s c t lo n importance. he-vnever built a building, the lost major (,istercian churches in Burgundl'
crucial
which vast and noble constructionswhich began to
various elements of the church and chapcls at except perhaps Saint-Leu-d'Esscrent,
that thev cared lbr thc new take delinitir c lbrm near the end of'the period
Clunv, which seems to show that the designer'5 would really show
heart was at the mother house, and not in the In Cluniac e]'es the Gothic was for some dominated b1-B . ernard ol (.lairvaux (d. tt5r)
idea.
progressive buildings of hrs contemporarics in time merely a local and regional st1''lclike an1' and Peter the enerablc ol Clunl'(d. tr56)
V
the Ile-de-France. other. If the architect of' Saint-\{artin-des- cry' aloud lbr such a studv as hirs bcen possiblc
The axial absidiole at Saint-N,lartin-des- Champs had been reall.r' inte rested in rib- fbr the N{ediaeval Academv o1' America at
Champs is a trelbil, of which the lateral apscs vaulting, his building instead o1' Saint-Denis Clunl'. It will be impossible to do iustice t<r
sug!iesta minor transept. Its vault is a scriesof might have been the hrst o1'all recognizablv Burgundian architecture until Citeaur and
to ramping scoop-shaped cells on ribs, rathcr like Gothic churches. Clairvaux arc lullv known. Yet the lover o1'
t h o s eo f t h e e a s t e r nb a y so f t h e n a r t h e x a t C . l u n r , Burgundians, partl]' from temperament, had Burgund-v f'eels suddenly. warm and at home
An ambulatorl'' with radiating chapels leatls ro a a rooted preference for their grand old monastic in places as I'ar fiom Burgundl. and from ttnc
projection resembling a second transept, in ob- Romanesque.The'half'-Gothic' which we have another as Beirut, Bellapais, AlcobaEa, Poblet,
r i o u s r e m i n i s c e n c eo l ' t h e m a i o r t r a n s ( t , t x t seenin several ofthe Cluniac buildings was also Fountains, Linkirping, Nlaulbronn, and liossa-
Clunv. In this part of the building therc arc usedelsewhere.It gained bv the aesthetic el{'ccts n o v a , w h c r e t h e s u a v eB u r g u n d i a n a r c h i t e c t u r e
peaked groin vaults without ribs, like thosc in which were worked out in the ile-dc-Francc brought b1' the C-istercians stands, beautifulll'
the aislesat Cluny. Tne ribbed apsc vault at without giving up the substantial mural values cxemplilied.
Saint-I,Iartin is normal for the region about thc
middle of the centurl', but the nave is opcn,
single, and wooden-roofed, like that of \b-
bot Hugh's Lad.v Chapel, Notre-Dame-tle-
I'Infirmerie, at Cluny (ro8-5) [r4z]. Srint-
Martin-des-Champs was under construction
at the ver\ same time as Suger's new lvork at
S a i n t - D e n i s ,w h i c h w a s c o n c e i r e da s a C u t i r i e
building, and intended to have novcl lirrlts
(about r r35 to r r44).3e
O n t h e t h c eo f t h i s s h o n i n g ( t o s p e a kn , , u i n
general terms) it would appear that the Clun i;rcs
h a t l r e a l l r s o l v e dt h c i r o w n a r c h i t e c t u r a p
l r',,1'-
lem b1' the earlv trvellth centur]''. This inr olr cd
pushing their developed pattern 01' a q' cttt
Romanesque church far towards the gcncrll
form which the great Gothic churches \1cre
to takc, and consequently' the structural cr-
 II
CHAPTER
T H E C I S ' I ' E R C , I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C T U R E
The years which sarv the growth of the Pilgrim-
age to Santiago and the development of the
Order of Clun.v witnessed a general spiritual
revival in the monastic world. Scvcral other
orders of importance werc fbunded at the time
Grandmont b.v Etienne de Muret in ro7.1;
Molesme by its first abbot, Robert, in ro7-5I
'I'he
both founders were canonized. Carthusiln
Order was founded bv St Bruno in Io84, Fonte-
vrault by Robert d'-\rbrissel in ro96, and
'I'he
Citeaux by Robert of- Molcsme in ro98.
Premonstratensians followed in rrzo, founded
by St Norbert, and linketl with the Cistercians.
Molesme, though indepenclent, lbllowed the
r u l e o f C l u n y . I t h a d m a n l , o u t s i d e c o n t a c t sa n d
became the centre of a group of about sixtl-
priories, and so lost the other-worldly atmo-
spherewhich its founder abbot desired. There-
fore, in rog8, at the age of sevent1., he fared
forth with twenty-onc devoted companions.
They established themselr es about filteen miles
south of Dijon at Citeaux, a rvooded swamp!
solitude given by' Renaud, r'iscounr of Beaune.
In rogg Abbot Robert, though the papal legate
had given him permission to leave Molesme,
was requested, in terms which he could hardll
refuse, to return to Ntolesme. Therc, after re-
forming the monastery, hc clie<lin r r r r.
From rogg to r rog the'New Monasterv' was
.
led by Albdric, the first
c i r n o n i c a la b b o t , w h o
tormed its spiritual
temper. Afier Albdric it
was led for a quarrcr
of a centurl. (r rog 34) b1
a saintly Englishman
ot great spirirual poucr,
Abbot Stephen
Hardine.-Both men wcre in thc
original group
which uent ro Citeaux. Thc
oeginnings
were \ery tlitficulr, but rhe protec-
tton of the
Holy See (l roo) and generosityon
the part ofthe Burgundian ducal houseenrrbled
the monks to continue.
In r r rz or r r r3 Bernard, a ver-vreligiouslv in-
clined youth of twentv-two, offered himsell'and
thirty companions, including several ol' his
r e l a t i v e s .I n r r r 5 h e b e c a m ef b u n d e r a n d a b b o t
o f C l a i r v a u x , a C i s t e r c i a n d a u g ; h t e rh o u s e a b o u t
fiftl'-five miles northcrly from Dijon. Nlcan-
while other Cisterciirn houses had been tbunded
a t L a F e r t 6 ( r r r r ) a n d P o n t i g n y -( r r r 4 ) ; N l o r i -
mond (rrr5) completed the original group of
daughter houses. Pope Calixtus II confirmed
the constitution ol' Chnrtu Caritatis Monustcrii
C i sterciensis rn t t t 11.
Evcn while Abbot Stephen Harding ruled
Citeaux. the fclrccful character ot Bernard of'
Clairvaux projected thc latter into ecclesiastical
and international politics, and greatly aided the
growth of the Cistercian Order, which, while it
'against'
was not founded Cluny, drew the rnore
austerelydcvoted spirits, and thus accelerated
the decline of the eltler Order. There were -lo
Cistercian monasteriesat the death ol {.bbot
Stephen (t t34), l+.1 at the death ot Bernard of
Clairvaux (rr53), and 694 by the year r2ool
including many monasteries which associated
themselves by accepting utter submission in the
n e w O r d e r . T h e t o t a l r e a c h e d7 4 2 a t o n e t i m e . l
Undcr Bernard's influence the Cistercian
Orcler became unilormitarian. with all details
of cxistcncc rigidh prescribed in so far as was
p o s s i b l e ; w i t h a t i g h t o r g a n i z a t i o na n d t r e q u e n t
inspcctorial visits. Each Cistercian house was
dependent on thc onc which founded it, and
'filiations'. This
there wcre fbur chicf schcme of
control proved superior to the Cluniac system
of centring all rcsponsibilitv for the wholo Order'
 221 INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCIIITECTURE AND THETR ARCHITECTURE
THE CTSTERCTANS 225

in the one abbot o1' Clunl
confbrmism of the Cistercian houses made it
easv to allow them considerable autonomy, with
the Chapter Gcneral at Citeaux legislating for
the entire Ordcr. Cistercian policl'(again in con-
trast to Cluniac) called for harmony. with the
local episcopate, and much gootl camc of the
cordial relations between the two.
'fhe
C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e sw e r e s i t u a t e d i n
rernote places. They sufl'ered theretbre less than
t 7 o .l r o n r c n r r \ h b o . r r . i 9 . 1 7
f*r+
itself'. The strong
uniformly dedicated to thc Virgin) had no crr ptr
or towers, and were rather angular in plan, u rth
out arbitrarilv, but according to the characrrr to the church, rvhere thev occupied d'Ainail Achardl Gdrard. brother of St Ber-
which led 'l'hcir
of'the terrain. I'hese overriding principles r\_ end of the nave. No pror ision was made nard. orderll planning and their austere
the west
plain irregular orientation in the churches antl public in Cistercian church plans. The interpretation ol' the Burgundian half'-Gothic,
for the
the lrequent occurrence of' cloistcrs in 111" thrt women and children were never ad- unadorned, became, through Bernard's pref'er-
'I'he fact
north. b a s i cp a t t e r n o f t h e p l a n w a s t h a r o f the monasterv enclosures led to the ence. the architecture of the Order. In con-
mitted to
St Gall and Cluny, but certain details difierrd of a chapel and accommodations fbr sequence thc stllc spread radiallv, with the
'l'he orovision
[ry, ryo]. Cistcrcian churchcs (afier r r.1-1 and for other guests at thc gate. The Order, in ererl clircction as f'ar as French in-
,h.11
to the British Isles, Scan-
Cistercians did not relish intrusions in the carlv lluence reached
o e r i o d ,t h o u g h v i s i t o r s o f ' m a r k l v e r c c l r e c l
fbr.r dinavia, Poland, ccntrill Europe, Ibcria' Ital1,
t h e n i g h t s t a i r r o r h c t l o r n r i r o r vs r a r t i n gi n t l r ( a n c l P a l e s t i n e b u t i n a s o m e l v h a ti m m o b i l i z c d
The Cistercian monastic groups were otien
long under construction' At llrst the monks fbrm which pcrsistoduntil the High Gothic of'
w o u l d l i r e i n s t r u c t u r e so f t e m p o r a r v c h i r a c t e r , thc ile-dc-Irance was adopted in its stead. In
,it p e r h a p si n t e n d e d l b r m e n i a l u s e l a t e r o n . O u t - manv regions the international Cistercian half--

f*{F
+
r* + .,,.*r r::
I rf
{
side builders were emploved, but the monks
becameindependent (or nearll'so) of'the outside
world at the earliest possible moment. NIuch of'
Gothic prepared the wa1' lbr Gothic architec-
ture somewhat as the pervading Lombardic
Irirst Romanesque had done in fbrmer times
oI t h e a c t u a l d e s i g n i n g a n d b u i l d i n g r v a sd o n e i n fbr the Second or Great Romanesque st1.le.
\ -I'he

t *""'*" the communitics themselves. The aim rvas to e a r l y .p c r i o t l o f ' C i s t e r c i a n b u i l d i n g w a s

h a v et h e c o m m u n i t ) ' a b l e b 1 ' c r a ft s m a n s h i p a n d i n d e e d s c v e r e .S c u l p t u r i r l e m b e l l i s h m e n t s w e r c

"' * husbandry to suppll' all its or.n nee<ls. Thc lbrbidden in rIz-1, in rvhich l.ear also it was
*'.
f * * choir hours, much lengthencd since Charle- decided to omit illuminltions from the manu-
m a g n e J st i m e , $ e r e s l t o r t c n e d o r r c - s c h c d u l e d s c r i p t s . I n d u m e n t i r r i a , s c u l p t u r e s ,a n d l i t u r g i c a l
fi+ * for this purpose . Numerous lav brethren (up to objects came under verv austere regulations'

fi*'* 3oo in large monasteries) were rccruited for larm Bold or an-rbitiousproportions and architectural

fi *' +' and shop work. Close contact with the soil madc bravura o1'anv kind were not tolcratcd in the
buildings. Stone towers rvere forbiddcn in r r 57
f + *
the Cistercians cxcellent farmers; improved
on the churchcs, $hich at most had small func-

fr**
'EE A E:J
VN
other monastic architecture from Revolutionarv
demolitions, and it is still possible to grin a
f i i r l v c o m p l e t c i d e a o f w h a t a C i s t e r c i a nm o n -
a s t c r \ ' $ a s l i k e . r T h e s t . r n d a r d i z e t la n d r e p c t i -
t i o u s c h a r a c t e ro f e a r l y C i s t e r c i i r nl r c h i t e c t u r e i s
immediately evident evervuhere. Almost all
works datcd befbre rzoo may be understood
liom trvo or thrce ofthc early French cxamples.
Cistercian sitcs werc invariablv secluded,
well watercd, and so set that the waters could
bc impounded above the area chosen lbr the
convcntual buildings. 1'hc church uas placed
'I'he
on the highest ground. other srructures,
though uniform in their workings, wcre not laid
methods were widely'propagatcd through the
Order, and thereby accrued to the advantag^e tional belfiy-pinnacles.In II8z it was directed
'I'hey
2:;2tz-tLW r:ft, a . r 1 r R . . ( , J , - \ r , r i ,j , . , ,
of all western E,uropc. devcloped an t h a t a n ! ' e x i s t i n g u i n d o w s o 1 ' c o l o u r e dg l a s si n
organized s].stem lbr the sale of f)rm produce Cistcrcian churchcs should be removed within
'l'he
adiacent transcpt. g r o u n d s t o r e y ' so f t h c and animals which aided in the commercial three y'cars.Ornanrental pavements were fiown-
conventual buildings wcrc reg;ularly vaultctl. d e v e l o p m e n to 1 ' t h ea g e , b u t a l s o p f t re N { a m m o n e d o n , a n d i n m a n l c t s e sr e m o v e d b y o r d e r . B u t
P a v i l i o n - l i k c f b u n t a i n h o u s e sc o v e r e d t h c l a r r r - his opportunitl., so that lr'hen the \lendicant a l l t h e m o n a s t e r i e sl v e r e c r c e l l e n t l y b u i l t , a n d
b o s i n t h e c l o i s t e r s .a n d t h e r e f e c t o r i e sl r c r c \ r ' l Orders began to drirrv manl of'the most devo- though the cll'ects are rather hea\']., quite gene-
w i t h t h e a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o t h a t o f t h e c h r - r l c i r tional vocations in the thirtccnth centur!, thc r a l l y t h e l ' h a v e a l i l y - l i k e a t m o s p h e r e o 1 's i m -
i n s t e a d o i ' p a r a l l e l . N o v i c e s w e r c r e g u l a tl r Cistercian monastcries came to be verl- much plicitl.which has verv grcat charms. The small
lodged at the end ol the east rangc ofthc cloistcr'. like all the rest. original churches were perl-ectly forthright; the
Professed monks were not allowed to entcr thcrt' C o n f o r m i t y . w i t h t h e c s t a b l i s h e dn o r m s w a s later ones(befbre thc High Gothic), even when
quarters, which occupied the traditional pl'rc.' required in the Cistercian buildings of'the great they. lrcrc of great size, showed their derivation
'l'he epoch. A monk f rom anywhere in the C,istercian
of the camera. traditional public court ir(l- fiom the simple prototypes and did not use an1
joining the west rangc of'the cloister buildirr3s world would f'eelhimself entirelv at homc within dcvices conceivcd fbr picturesque or dramatic
was reduccd to a p.rssirge-wa1.(open to thc sk\ ) h a l l a n h o u r a t a C i s t e r c i a nh o t - t r . appeal.
'l'heir e l s e .T h e r e "n,*h.r.
lbr the lal brcthren ('conversi'). buildtn9 w e r e s e v e r a le x c e l l e n t r r c h i t e c t s i n T h e e a r l i c s t c h t t r c l t c s\ \ c r e \ e r \ p l l i n . { t
the Order Citeaux a small wooden church was succeedcd
had its traditional place lvcst of the passrtgc. during its fbrmative pcriod Gcoflroi
 226 INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERN,{TIONAL ARCHITECTURE T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C ' I ' U R E 2 2 7

in rro6 by a rectangular tunnel-vaulted stone
church lbout sixteen feet wide and fift1 f'eet
'fhis
long. simple tvpe of plan rvassoon au!i-
menled b1' angular lateral chapels making a
dwarf transept, or b\, a transcpt with such
c h a p e l s .C l a i r v a u x , j u s t a f t e r r r r 5 , h a d a s q u a r e
church with stone walls divided into nar,e and
aisles br, wooden posts supporting a u'ooden
roof. I-ater the churches rvere regularly r.aulted,
and rvooden roofing lvas conlined to the con-
v e n t u a l s t r u c t u r e s . B o t h r h e a i s l c l e s sa n d r h e
aisled plans persisted.The Ourscamp of'rr3,1
(aisleless)had transepts and a round apse. An-
gular chapels collected about both of'these lattcr
e l e m e n t s i n l a t e r p l a n s , w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r va m -
'l'here
bulatories. are numerous cases rvlrcre
local tradition has affected manv cletailsof'[q16 corner of the transept gave the church a clerestory, a Gothic ribbed
except at the south-west
p l a n a n d e l c r . i r t i o nw i t h o u t d e s t r o y ' i n gt h e ( . i \ - west front and at th! north end high vault, and a range of flfing buttresses, as
.nd also at the
t e r c i a n a i r o l t h e b u i l d i n g s , b e c a u s er h e m a s o n y , was replaced by well as a polygonal apse and ambulatorv sur-
6fthe Eansept, where the aisle
( f i n c a s h i ; r r ) h : r s a n u n m i s t i t L a b l cC i s r t . r i' .t 1 n rounded by angular radiating chapels inside a
porches. The sanctuary was angular. and ils
'Ihc
character. by angular polygonal periphery wall. The sanctuary at Pon-
fact that the Cistercians Ibrb111 a n g u l a ra m b u l a t o r y w a s s u r r o u n d e d
their masters to work outside the Ordcr tcntlg4 tigny was rebuilt in somewhat similar form
chapels. The church was destroyed at the
to accentuate this special character. about rr85-rzro. Thus Pontigny has a special
Revolution.
At CiteauxIr7rl and Clairraux'the conrL,1l- claim to be esteemed as the best existing repre-
At Clairvaux the original monasterv was en-
tual churchcs rverc :r barometer of rhe groltl-1 sentirtive of the great church at Clairvaux, des-
tirely insufficient by Ir33,, and new buildings
of the Ortle r. The great church irt Citeaux .nrr5x tro)'ed at the Revolution.s
of immense extent were undertaken near by.
part of the gencral rebuilding rhere, carrie{ FIowever, the'Bernardian' plan, which stands
The church plan provided a rather shallow an-
through betwecn rrz5 and rr5o. The church for St Bernard's own preference, is that which
gular sanctuary with three shallow rectangular
underwent a consecration of somc sort about was built at Fontenay6 [r7o] in rr3g 47.1 The
c h a p e l sa t e a c h s i d e , a l l o p e n i n g i n t o a t r a n s e p t .
r r48 and anorher in r rg3, by which time it ri rrs church at Fontenay, with the adjoining (and
Five more rectangular chapels and thc bay'de-
completed with I much enlargedslncruarr. Ir somervhatlater) cloister and monastic buildings,
voted to the night stair occupied the other side
was crucilbrm with an aisle'carried all round. is thc oldest Cistercian ensemble in existence
ofthe transept, with a tunnel-r'aulted nave and

r 7 r . ( , i t e a u r ,m o n a s t c r \ , r7z. FontenayAbbel-,
l i o m a d r a u i n gm r d c b c f o r ed ( s t r u c l i o n foundedin r t rg, from the air

aisles axially placed. This plan, augmented bv
chapels along the ends ofthe transept, rvasuscd
l,!l I Jri f;
a t P o n t i g n ) 1 r y 6 , t 7 7 l i n r r - 1 of f . , b u t t h e l a t t e r
church was finished with a rib-r'aulted nave
about rr7o. Rebuilding at Clairvaux bctwccn
t t 5 3 a n d t h e d e f i n i t i r e c o n s e c r a t i o no f t t 7 1
Itlz 5]. The site is girdled b1'woodedhills in a
l o r e l 1 's e t t i n g , a n d t h e v a r i o u s e d i l i c e sa r e r o o m -
ilr sct within an cnclosure wall. A bcautilulll
proportioned I'agadepresents the church, with
a s h l a r s t o n e a n d a n a u s t e r ep o r t a l ; e l s c w h e l c i n
t h e c h u r c h a n d c o n v e n t u a l b u i l d i n g s a s h l a rs p u r

.l-
 228 INTER-REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ARCHITECTURE
T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T t T E I R A R C H I T I _ C T U R F . 2 2 o

r 7 j a n d l 7 + . I r o n r e n i l ,a b b e r . c h u r c h ,
r r c r r l r o r r rt h c n o r t h - r c : t r n t l i l t t c r i o r ,r r . i r 1- 1 7 same way. The nal'e continues into the squarc-
ended principal sanctuary. Acousticall.v the
r7S ( |pf asire.).Fontcnal,Abbe1,
church is remarkable, like a Cluniac church, on
r i o v l i o m t h c c h a p t c r - h o u si cn t o t h e c l o i s t t r ,r . r
r47 accountofits tunnel vault, and in this connec-
tion we note that St Bernard lor,ed music.
The stone night stair leads as usual from the
buttresses, with rougher srone wall_work be_ south transept of the church to the adjoining
tween, are the rule. Bishop Everard of Norwich monks' dormitory, now blocked up but ori-
was the patron of'Irontenay. ginally open, under a fine open arched truss
Thc chur-ch gains most ol'its lighr liom the roof. The refectory was placed in the customarl
faEade rvindows and the corresponding ones Cistercian position opposite a fountain house on
at
thc crossing and in the sanctuary, since thcre is the south side of the cloister, with its axis per-
no clcrestor]'; but lbr-rhe windows at thc ends, pendicular to that ofthe church. Other parts of'
thc nave would be like a carern. An admirable the monastic ensemble are arranged in tracli-
pointed tunnel vault with transvcrse arches tional ways; this is true of the forge building at
covers it, irreproachably abuttecl bv pointed Fontenay a handsome affair by the rivulet
transversetunnel Iaults ()\.er the aislcs. .I.he placed to the south-east of the cloister, as it
transept is lower and narrower than the nave, mighr hare been in earlier times.
and coversd by a pointed tunncl r,ault in the In contrast to the dark and heavv church, the
n o b l e r o u n d - a r c h e d , t u n n e l - r ' a u l t e dc l o i s t e r .t h e
chapter-house, and the camcra (a *'ork room
beneath the dormitory) seem r,ery light and
open, though the latter are substantially vaulted
b1' squrre bays o{ rib-vaulting with columnar
s u p p o r t s I r 7 5 ] . T h e r e p e a t i n g s q u a r e b a y ' so f
this construction are as ty'pically Cistcrcian as
the angularity o('the church plans.These ba1's,
m a r k c d b y ' u n i f b r m s p u r b u t t r e s s e so n w a l l a ft e r
wall throughout the scheme, have a curious look
of being mass-produced.
Repetitive bays had of course been used bc-
fore in architecture, but it was a new thing to
u s er e p e a t e db a v so f r i b - r ' a u l t i n g w i t h t h e l o g i c a l
i n s i s t e n c ew h i c h w a s l a t e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z eG o t h i c
design. But austere ideals and conserr,atism pre-
vented the Cistercian architects from develop-
ing thc l-ull potentialitics of thc new n'pe of
'half-Gothic'
vault. Their designs are called
b e c a u s et h i s t v p e o f v a u l t c o u l d b e s o m u c h
morc effectivelr applicd (as intlectl it was with

\
 23O INTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL
ARCHITECTURE
T H E C I S T E R C I A N SA N D T H E I R A R C H I T E C T U R E
23t

bravura in the full Gothic ofthe ile_de_France)

came thin membranes, bowed
to highly evolved types of plan up slightly lor
a dwarf transept and an angular east
and elevation. ease in building and extra strength, built with exemplify' the Cisrercian taste. There are tvoical
Individual bays were 1reely made bet*.ccn into a verl handsome nave,
square, ob_ end, and continucd r n d b e a u t i l u l p a r r c r n si n r h e l e a d i n g .* i i h t h .
over-arching ri bs. Full rrptoitrtiurr
long, triangular, or trapezoiclal :].."d..1 t,r generous rn proportion, and lightcd by'
in shape, tall or light rib systems, the developmen, sirnple, usual plain glass that is, exccpr tbr a sprinkling
short in elevation, as the most of .fr.lf_,f_,i"
elaborate com_ raulting cells of ashlar, and , clerestory ol er lower and narrolver aisles with of small jewels of colour, which was permissible.
positions required. For example, th. ...rtion ot 'lhe
the Cister_ I t 1 ' r n g b u t t r e s s e st o s u s t a i n r . a u l t s concealedflying buttresses. Delicate and f'asti- whole ell-ectof the interior is of extraordin_
cians, requiring clear glass in set high un
their church slender piers, pur rhe builders dious proportioning, deft handling of the ary calm and religious serenity, virginal in sweet_
windows, did not have reason of tn. ii._j.-
'I'he to make them France ahead ol'the Cistercian grouped piers and simple rib-r,aulting makc the n e s sa n d p u r i t y . 8
large. Gothic stained_glasswin<lows, builders br.
lrom r r 75, if not before. church at once impressive, alive, and serene. I'he fagade, sparingly adorned with Gothic
Suger's time (lr4o) for more
than a centurv. The. church of pontigny The typically Cistercian nave is happilv com- arcading, is pleasant to look upon. yet no one
were so dark that er.enopenings [176 gl is a good
of maximum example of the Cistercian use bined with an austere chevct which rcplaced can fully understand Pontignv and the Cister_
srze !iavea barell'suflrcient light of Gothic betorc, 'l'here
for the church the overwhelming achievements the original one about r r85 rzro. is an cians without seeing the building liom the
interiors. f'hus the Gothic walls of the Hieh with
became sheets ambulatorv trapezoidal radiating chapels, o p u l e n r s u r r o u n d i n g f i e l d s a h a n d s o m ew a r m _
Gothic made the Cistercian style
of glass stretching between and seem ol,l_
supported by tashioned and provincial. Begun sosimply laid out that onlv rhc moulding pro- h u e d b u l k w h i c h r e a l l y s e e m sr o b e l o n g t o t h e
slender picrs, just as rhe cells about r r40 on
of'the vault be_ a variant of the usual plan, files betray its late date. soil; no towered or cathedralshapecould har.e
the church rrrs
At Pontigny the windows, though moclern. such union u'ith the earth
[176, r j /-1.
r76. Pontignv,abbey
abbtv church,
chrrrch lbunded
lhrrn.t-j in
;- -r -r t4
-.
r77.Pontignv,abbcl' church, f'ar;ade.
r. r r qo

ls..
 INTER-REGIONAL AND IN'TERNATIONAL ARCHITEC'I'URF
rl
l-.1
j b u t t h c R o m a n e s q u es p i r i t l i r e s o n i n a l n r o s rr t l l
'l
d;INE
r 7 l l . P o n t i g n r ,a b h e t . c h u r c hi ,n t e r i o r ,r . r r 1 0 r 2 r o
For all its unitt, Cistercian architecture is
subtlv difl'erentiatcd region br, region. In rhc
south, the heritage ol' Roman largeness com_
bines beautilullv with the Cistercian theme ol
simplicitl, fbrthrightncss, and good construc-
tlon.
A t S i l v a c a n e , "f b u n d e d i n t t 4 7 , w e I ' c e l t h e
s o u t h o f ' F r a n c e . T h e a b b e y b u i l d i n g s s u r v i r . ea s
a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l l . c o m p l e t e a n d i m p r e s s i re
g r o u p . T h e s o u t h - F r e n c h l o r c f o r c o u r s e db l o c k
masonrl is manifest here, lvherc, in a designof
quite Roman amplitude, the ashlaris unusualll.
f i n e t h r o u g h o u t . a n d g i r e s c h a r a c f e rt o c r e r r .
rista ot the interior.Thc church, begun abour
r r 7 o , h a s r h e v e r ) . s a m ed i g n i t y w h i c h o n e f i e l s
in the Pont du Gard. It is extraorclinarily fine in
a c o u s t i c s ,a s i s u s u a l w h e r e t h e n a v e i s t u n n e l _
vaulted.
Las Huelgas, near Burgos in Castile, is an_
othcr good examplc of Cistercian stonework.
THF. CISTI.RCIANS AND TTIF.IR ARCTUt.ECTURE 2..t1
t h o u g h o f ' r a r h e r m e d i o c r e d e s i g n . r ,p , oblet r111
S a n t a sC r c u s i n C a t a l o n i ah a r . ee r c c l l e n t ( , i s t g . -
c i a n q u a l i t i c s . . \ t P o b l e t ( f b u n c l e d r r . 5r ) , m r r c h
t h e l a r g e r a n t l m o r c p r o s p c r o u s , t h e s eq u a l i t j c 5
continued to influence the gencral design of sur_
c e s s i v el v o r k s u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e \ l i d d l e { s c ,
'I'he
e a r l v a r c h i t e c t so 1 ' P o b l e th a d g i v e n t h e e r _
amplc fbr this in the main church, uhich urrs
built about rr8o 96. 'I'here is a perfccrlr
R o m r n e s q u el ) o i n t e dl u n n e l r : r u l t u i t h l r r r r r . _
v e r s ca r c h c so r e r t h e n a r . e ,d e s p i t c i t s b c i n g c o r r -
temporarr wirh the nare of' Notre_Damc in
Paris.Nlanv parts of'the monastic huildings irrc
i n a v e r v m u c h s i m p l i f i c d a n d s u n b u r n et l G o t h r c .
'l'here
thc work. is excellent r.aulting in rlrc
c h a p t e r - h o u s c . t h e r e f ' e c t o r 1I,r 7 9 1 , t h e l i b n r r ,
and the ccllar; and rhe grsat dormitories riirh
pointed diaphrag;m arches supporring lvooclcn
roofing are cxtraordinarily' impressive
Irgoi.
T h e c s t a b l i s h m e n t w a s l o n g d e s o l a t ea l i e r t h c
s o c i a lu p r i s i n g s o f ' r 8 z z j 5 . I t i s v e r l i m p r e s s i r c
as now resrored and re-peopled. r'et it satisficd r79 and r8o. Poblet,monasterr.,
ref'cctorr
the requirement set lbrth in the epig.ram,name lr anddormitorv,thirtecnth ccnturr'
that it takcs a rcally' good building to make a fine i s s t a b l c .L a r g e w i n d o w s p l a c e dh i g h i n t h e w a l l s
ruin.rl 'I'he
light these churches. piels are grouped, and
Alcobagain Portugal has one ol'thc best. as with the ribs branching out :rbovethem, look
rvell as one ol the most remote. Cisterciirn
l i k e l i n e s u l l r e e s .T h i s a r r a n g e m c n tg i r e s g r e a t
churches. T'hc building was bey,^r.rn
on a grantl prominence to the windolvs in thc apse,lvhich
s c a l ei n r r 5 8 a n d f i n i s h e d i n r z : - i . I t s i n t e r i o r . a r e t h e o n h w i n d o w s v i s i b l c i n : r n e a s t w a r dy i e r v .
s p a c i o u sa n d b e a u t i l u l l v p r o p o r t i o n e d , h a s a r e - S a n ( i a l g a n o , r i n e a r S i e n a ,m a 1 , b ec i t e d . T h e
markable combination of classicserenitv, Cister- church there is the ruin ofa constructionbegun
cian simplicit\', Romanesque lbrthrightncss. in rzrS s t i l l i n t h e B u r g r . r n d i a nh a l f - G o t h i c
a n d b u d d i n g G o t h i c r . e r v e .C o m p a r e d r v i t h t h t stvle at a time when the cathedral design ol'
contemporarl rrork in Paris fbr it is roughlr Amiens (the boldestHigh Gothic church which
c o n t e m p o r a r l w i t h N o t r e - D a m e A l c o b a g ar c - p r o v e d t o b e s t a b l ea s o r i g i n a l l l b u i l t ) w a s o n h
presents an archaic scheme, the ,threc-narctl'
two vcars in the future.
church, ofien called the hall church.I Fosslnova, another of the Cistercian sitesin
This church type results fiom the use of'the Itall'(it is prettill' set near Romc), also suft'ered
repetitivc rib-\'aulted bay, in sucha \\,a].rhat hc l r o m a b a n c l o n m e n t( I 8 r 2 ) , b u t i t r v a sr e p o s s c s -
n a v e r . a u l t i s a b u t t e d b l a i s l ev a u l t s o n l v l l i t r l c sedbl monks in rgr5, and is norv happilf in usc
n a r r o w e r a n c l l o w e r t h a n i t s e l f. T h e a i s l e v a u l t t ilgrin a s a n a b b e r . I l i i \ c f \ B u l g t t n t l i : r ni n
in thcir turn lre abutted bv spur buttresses. 'l l.rc I e e l i n ga n d d e t a i l . A t t h c c r o s s i n gt h c r e i s a n o c l t l
engineeringproblems arc simple, and the n pe staged towcr, partl]' of Renaissancc datc, rvhicl.r
 234
r8r. ChiaravallcN{ilancsc,abbeychurch, dedicatcdin r r g b
would seem to represent, in morc permanent
fbrm, the lost wooden belfiy turrets which
C i s t e r c i a n c h u r c h e s u s u a l l l . p o s s e s s e d .T h e
church at Fossanoya dates fiom the vears r r79
t o r z o 8 . rJ
In Lombardr,, where brick has been a basic
matsrial sincc Anriquitl., thc Cistcrcians o1'
Chiaravalle Milanese used brick, like thcir
neighbours. Shortly after thc fbundation of' r r q(r
a church was started, ofwhich the transepts re-
main, though in altered fbrm. Ultimatelv a huge
and unattractivc octagonal lantern and belliy
w a s r a i s e da t t h e c r o s s i n g ,p e r h a p se v e n a f t e r t h e
d e d i c a t i o n w h i c h w a s c c l e b r a t e di n r r 9 6 [ r 8 r I .
In the nar,ebig domed-up rib-r.aults of Lonr-
b a r d t y p e w e r e b u i l t , b e g i n n i n g p e r h a p sa s c a r l l
as r r6o.
Bv this timc Lombard brick architecturc ha(1
reachednorthern Gcrmanv,l +in Prcmonstraten-
sian work (Jerichow, dated perhaps after r r-5o.
being thc carliestexample) [r82, r83], perhaps
under Cistercian influcncc. The rcgion lacks
stone, but the clays burn to cxcellent brick of r
d e c p r e d o r w i n e c o l o u r . T h e s e r . e r i t yo f l i n c a n d
the exccllent workmanship continued as rhc
brick style spread (B ack steingoli&), and acquired
$
'l'he
more and more affrrmative local f'eeling.
abbey church ofChorin (about rzoo) is a Cister-
cian example.
The church buildings of the earliest Cistcr-
cian monasterics in German1.15 almost all of
them of the filiation of Morimond were often
local in t1.pe, although the first (Kamp, ncar
Kref'eld, rrzj) appears to hare had the earlv
simpleplan used b1'the Order, but N'Iarienthal
( r r 3 8 - a 6 ) h a s a c o l u m n a r b a s i l i c a .H e i l s b r o n n ,
foundedin r r32, Cistercianin r r4r,hasachurch
belonging to the School of Hirsau; Georgen-
thal, dated about rr5o, has an apse 6chelon;
.JJ
r8z and rll3. Jerichow,abbel church,
.. r r50, restorcd
Walderbach ( r r 43 7o and later) has a hall
c h u r c h ; a n d a l l t h e s e s c h e m e sa r e r e p r e s e n t e d
b 1 ' s c r r : r a lo t h c r e x a m p l a s .
T ' h e i m p o r t a n t a b b e y 'o f N l a u l b r o n n l ' ' I I 8 . 1 1
markcd a new dcparture in the buildings crccted
betwecn r146 and I178, and carried fbrward
'l'he
later on. whole group is rerv wcll con-
structcd in stone, and has giYen a good account
of itself . With the I'ears and progressive rccon-
s t r u c t i o n st h e m o n a s t i c b u i l d i n g s h a r c a c q u i r e d
a p t - r n d c r o u sC c r m a n l o o L , b u t t h e o l t l c s t l r o r l
( r r 4 6 7 8 ) i s s t r o n g l y B u r g u n d i a n i n f ' e c l i n g .A
G o t h i c e a s tw i n d o w a n d G o t h i c v a u l t i n g s o m e -
 23o rNTER-REGIONALAND INTERNATIONAL ARCHI'IECTURE
t84. \Iaulbronn -{bbc1,lbrecourt,r r46 78 rnd later
w h a t d i l u t e t h e R o m a n e s q u eo f ' t h e c h u r c h , b u t
it retainsits old plan with an altar-ofthe Cross
in the nar,e.an arched stone choir enclosure,
s t a l l s ,a n d a n a n g u l a r s a n c u a r r . T h e f a q a d eh a s
a m a r k e d B u r g u n d i a n l l a r o u r , a n d l r a sp r e s e r v e d
a l o w e x t e r i o r p o r c h a c r o s st h e f i o n t , t h i s e l e -
ment being fairlv common in Cistercianbuild-
i n g s . 1 7T h e r e a r e t w o t y p i c a l b e l f r v p i n n a c l e s .
Cistcrcian lbrms with a German weightiness
in mass and detail are we ll represented bv manv
e x a m p l e s .A m o n g t h e m E b e r b a c h ( b v e x c e p t i o n
fountled liom (iiteaux) is particularlr.well pre-
servedand imposing. It is dated r. rr.5o 8o.
In lear,ing German Cistercian work, it is
w o r t h w h i l e t o r e p e a tw h a t h a s b c e n s a i d r e g a r d -
ing the imprint which the Burgundian half_
Gothic left in the minds of local architects. f'he
brarura of'French designers,with wonderfll
T H E C I S T E R C I A N S A N D T } I F , I RA R C I T I T } - C T U R E
s
I
,,'f,
I
r85. FountainsAbber',church,r. r r35 50 irncllatcr
flair, exploited the Gothic svstem to the ulti- fully in it, and transmitted some of-its artracti\,e
mate, but fbr a long time few German designcrs q u a l i t i e st o t h e s u c c e e d i n gE a r l v E n g l i s h G o t h i c
or clients really cared fbr the novel effects. 'l hc style. Details about it belong to another volume
G c r m a n s , i n t h e i r l o r , e o f s u b s t a n t i a lm a s o n r r , in this series.le It must sufficc here to mention
w h i c h w a r m s t h e m a s s i v el v a l l so l ' s p e y e r C a t h e - Waverley Abbev, fbunded in rrz8, irs an cx-
dral and the rosy clilt's of the Backstein1ottl, ampleof the simplest form of Cistercianplan
clung to the tradition of the half-Gothic. 'lraccs an aislelessnave and square-ended sanctuary) a
of this lceling are easv to find in their inrc:- short transept, and a simple square-ended
pretation of the more mature French Gothie. chapel opening upon the rransept to eithcr side
which comcs first at the new cathedral ,rr' of the sanctuarv Tintern, (bunded in r r j r, as
;
- N l a g d e b u r gi n r z o g . an example of the same plan with trvo chapels to
E n g l i s h c o n n e x i o n sw i t h t h e C i s t e r c i a nO r d e r e i t h e r s i d e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l va l o n g e r r r a n s e p ri
go back to the beginning.l8 Abbot Stephen a n d F o u n t a i n s a st h e r u i n o f a l a r s c a b b e v o a r t l r '
Harding of Citeaux and Bishop Everard ol Norman and partly Burgundianiaff-Cu*lc ln
N o r r v i c h , w h o b u i l t F o n t e n a y , h a r ' eb e e n m c n - style. -I-he church was built about r r
ii ,5o. Its
tioned. The Cistercian style appealed to the original sanctuarv was replaced bl the lbmous
English, as it did to the Germans; rhe Engli:h Chapel of the Nine Altars, rzo.1
47, a pnme
h a d a f i n e r f l a i r l b r t h i s a r c h i t e c lu r e . b u i l l b e a u tj - example of the Early English
Gothic style.
.L-
'l'herc
a r c v e r l e x t e n s i v er e m a i n s , a d j o i n i n g t h e
church, of the nronks' quarters, bcautilullr'
m a i n t r i n e d I r 8 . sl . F i n a l l l r $ o r d m u s t b e s a i d
about Bucklast Abbe v asrebuilt in tgoT zz, t'or
this rebuilding has l.ielded much infbrmation
r c g a r d i n g m e d i ev a l c o n d i t i o n s . : \ t B u c k t i r s to n e
o r l s o m e n u i t h s i m p l et r a i n i n gi n c o n s l r u c l i o n
lbrmed a cre w and ultimatcll'erected an elabor-
ate church on the surliring n)edic\alfbunda-
tions. In like manncr a group of mcdier al monks
i n t e n d i n g t o b L r i l da n a b b c l - m i g h t b r i n g t o t h e
s i t e a p l a n l b r t h e r v h o l c f u t u r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t ;a
lew monks *'ith experiencc could trlin a crerv
of monks and brethren during the ercction of
t h c s i m p l e b u i l d i n g s r e q u i r e d i n t h e b e- c i n n i n g ,
and then proceed to the more diflicult works,
with occasional help fiom sistcr nonasterrcs
and trar ellins artisans.
 PART FOLIR
THE MATURE ROMANESQUE
OF M IDDLI, AND SOUTI]ERN trR.\NCE
CHAPTER I2
il G E N E R A L C O N SI D E R A l ' I O N S
'I'O ,IHF,
IN REGARD REGIONAT- SCHOOI,S
T h e R o m a n e s q u e i s a s n l e o f l . a s c i n a t i n gb t -
'I'his
w a y sa n d l o c a l s c h o o l s . has bccn its charm
for many lor,ers o1'the arts, and, in conscquence,
the historians havc generalh anallsed it as a
series of' quasi-independcnt rcgional phcno-
mena. Yet thc great mo\,emcnts and the chief
institutions o1' Romanesque timcs with their
architecture nere intcr-rcgional, as u,e have
s e e n ;o u r e x p o s i t i o n h a s i n d c c d b c e n p l a n n e c lt o
emphasize this fhct. In monuments of' morc
t h a n r e g i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c ew e h a l e a l r c a d l ' e n -
countered all, or ncarll all, rhe alchitecturll
motifs which we shall find, Iarioush combinctl,
in the architectural b1'-wa1's which we now
u n d e r t a k et o e x p l o r c .
'.fhe
larious local 'schools'tliRer liom onc
a n o t h e r i n t h e b a s i c b u i l d i n g r n a t e r i a l s ,i n t h c
choices which the practical men and decorators
m a d e i n h a n d l i n g t h o s c m a t e r i r r l s .a n d i n t h e
e m p h a s i sg i r c n t o r h c r a r i o u s a s p e c t so f ' t h c t l e -
'I'hese
sign. variablcs introduce more difl'erenccs
than might, ar hrsr sight, be supposed.
For examnle. Roman elements occur in all
the regional schc,ol, but thc Roman elements
may be structlrral, tunctional, compositionll,
decorative. C)riental elements, Bvzantine ele-
.l-
mcnts, Northern elements almost inrariirblv
appear, in the same i aried tva\.s,and with dilier-
ing emphasis.
I t i s r r s u r lt o f i n r l i r r c a t h r t g i o n s o m c p r i n c i -
p a l m o n u m c n t r . h i c h h a sb e e ni m i t a t e d t h r o u g h -
o u t t h c a r c a ,t h u s c r e a t i n ga s o r t o l a r c h i t e c t u r a l
lamih and a certrirr regional unitt. Horverer.
ccrtlin areas hl\.e more thrrn one such source
monunlcnt) and the result is a compound locrl
school.
A s \ s t e m o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o nf b r t h e s c h o o l s o f
m a t u r e R o n r a n e s q u ea l c h i f e c t u r c n t u s t r e s t o D
unitics of rarious sorts. It is genelally true that
in thc northern rcgion, where thc population
lvas prcrlominantlr Germanic, the buildings
c h u r c h e s a n d a l l c o n t i n u c c lr o b e e r e c f e d u i t h
r el a t i r c l r s i m p l e p l l n s a n d d c c o r a t i o n ,u i t h b o l d
massing ancl articulation of rclatirclr simple
s h a p e s ;i r c t i \ e s i l h o u c t t e b r o k c n b \ t o \ \ e l ' i l n ( l
pinnacle lirms; steep loofing (natural tr> rhe
North), hcar'\ stclnc rvall-uork, and, lvhcrc it
occurs, hcavv vaulting. In thc Romance area
the prefi'rencc rvaslbr more sophisticated build-
i n g s , r v i t h a u , i d e r b a c k g ' r o u n di n a r t i s t i c h i s t o r r .
In thc Scruth therc rvere manl derelopments
a l o n g f u n c t i o n a l l i n c s r v h i c h a r e i n t c r c s t i l . l g r, n d
 2 ; I O M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C T ,
T I I [ , R E ( ; I O N A L S C H O O I , S :G E N E R A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S 2:II

t h c r e r v a sI m a r k e d r c l d i n c s s t o a b s o r b \ l o s l c n r -l
hc lirregoing gct,logit.;rl cla\\ifi(.ilti,,r) T h e G e r n r a n a n d r e l a t e dm l t r . r l eR o m a n e s q u e
o r B v z i r n t i n ee l e n r c n t s T
. his is nrarkedll true in :' ) t h c { n e l o - \ o r m a n s c h o o l o n l ) r u fo -
lor'th bcaringin mind: lbr rhe ...tt, i' inosr itia. r t i n g s t v l e sa r e c o n s e r v a t i v e ,a n d a l l b c a r t h c o b l i o u s
tht end ol the
t h e l , ' r e n c l ra n d N o r m a n d o m i n i o n s .
,.. a.t.tonnrcnts belbre
e n g i n c e r sa n d r r t h i t e c t , o l " r . . , a t . imprint of thc great earlier developments (al-
'fhere ,t..;,,*u centurr'
is llso a ralid dir.ision berween con_ urrh a propar regard lbr th"ir.mareri,rl, 'eleventh
-In,h. . , r e a d v c o n s i d e r e d )i n t h e R h i n e l a n d .
s e n a t i r c ( o r p a s s i re ) , a n d a c t i \ . cs c h o o l s :R o m e i*'' firsrthird ol thc tuellih ccntur\' men
h o l d c r d l f l i ' r e n c e \c a l l c d l o r t h b v t r r ; . r l f , Though not indcpcndent, thc Spanish-
,fi,l ucre draun liom all qtlarlers -.csJtc-
and Provence, still Latin in the Romanesque lering nuterials, and the nuanccs rvhich rnd ideas Portuguese ancl thc English stvles are sufTicienth
.,r,1f antl Btrrgundr to thc Ilc-de-
pcriod, acccptecl ittle that was nc\r.tiom out_ w h e r e r h c m a t e r i a l sa r c m o r c s i m i l a r . . i r i t 1 ,N o t r n t n a l
a c l As r . , , r i , t o brirrq ahout thc creetion ol c h a r a c t c r i z c d ,c l c h i n i l s o r l n w a \ . 1 o n l e r i t
side, but built handsomclr in a conscr\arive i-rana., , h . . a
to the intcrcst ol' thc Rornirn"rqu" w h e r e t h c R o l n a t r e s q u ch a d national standing.
,,1 i. .,. 0
m a n n e r , u h i l c B u r q u n d v c r c i r t e da n d c x p o r t c d bothic in a rcgion
u hole. uninspired and unintercst- But in the actual development of' Roman-
seVeral inrcr.csring t\'pes; thc neighbourine for a long time b e e n
Gcorraphical, political, dnd chronolorljr.ll with more accomplishetl local esque,France is most f-ecund.B-vlieDeralconscnt
B e r r r , a l t h o u g h i t c o n t a i n e c lB o u r g e s , t h e c c _ inq. Other regions
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sa r e g c n c r a l l l , e a s i c r t o g . . r f , emplov them cll'ectivell. thsrc were seven individual regional schools in
fn stfles continued to
c l c s i a s t i c a lc a p i t a l o f A q u i t a i n e , p r o c l u c e dl i t t l e thc historl ol Romanesqu. ...hit..tur.: medieval lirance.
in fact, thc ccntreof'France has bcen callcd ,,nl until the Gothic from the Ile-dc-Ifrance ap-
a ma] sa,\'that Italr- lr,asimportirnt first, ' The Iirance of the eleventh centurl did not
'dumping
ground' becauseso much was rc_
bec,ruse oeared in the twelfih or thirteenth centur\
the basilicirand thc First Romlnc.qu" p r o p e r l r i n c l r r d eB l i t t a n r o r a n l i m p o l t i r r t rt e r r i -
ccired, withour sinrhesis, from irdjoinine spr(.Jd
,,,1. From that time onu'ard. it bccame the firnc-
li{nn rherc. 'l ht. old \cusrr.i.r torics be1'ond the Sommc, the \leuse, the
reE;ions. .,,rrl t i o n o f t h e R o m a n e s q u el o c a l s t 1 ' l e st o i n f l u c n c e
-{ustr-asia r v e r ei m p o r t a n t n c r t N c u s t r i a l o r . i t s S a o n e , ; r n t lt h e R h o n c . ' l ' h e s t r i r c r s \ \ ' e r c a p -
'fhe
m a t e r - i a l sl b r b u i l d i n g a l s o p o i n t o u t a and to modulate the incoming Gothic to do-
orig;inalitr' ('Iours, Germignr,_des_pr6s, proximatelv irt the boundaries ol'the Empirc.
signilicant classificarion.J'he Nctherlancls and
Grrrnil_ mesticate it, so to speak, in respect of' mason
lieu, Saint-Riquicr, Ciorbic, lleims, antl Carolingian .'\ustrasia remaincd Imperial, and
thc northern parts of'Germanr,, France, Itirl1,,
.Srns work, lighting, rooling, and decoration. Whilc
a r c a l l t h c r c ) a n d A u s t r a s i af b r i t s c r c a t i o n w h a t i s s o m e t i m e s( b e c a u s eo f l a t e r l r r e n c h c u l -
a n d S p a i n a l l h a i e a x c e l l e n tb r i c k _ c l a r . so f w h i c h ot rhc the Burgundian half -Gothic of the (-istercians
Rhenish stvle (Aachcn and \{ainz, Fulcla t u r a l a n d p o l i t i c a l e x p a n s i o n ) c a l l e c lt h e e i g h t h
the cngineers antl .rrchitects took irclvantagc. rrd was, like ancient Roman building, applicable
Lorsch lrc there; a concurrcnt stlle existccl
s everywhere with little change, the fullr chtr- French school that ofthe Rhineland, or of'thc
Onll Itall ancl Prorence hacl easilr arailable
tar east .rs Hung-arv in later tinres). East dcvclopedtherc in a German ambicnt.
n r a r b l e a s a I u x u r t n r a t e r i a l .E v e n i n t h c b r i c k _ a c t e r i z e dG o t h i c o f t h c I l e - d e - F l a n c e a c h i c v c d
F o l l o r v i n g t h e a c h i e v c n t e n t so l t h e
Carolin_ better results abrold when it acccpted some- Iior our purposes it will be most convenient
building recions stonc is obtainablc, though
s r a n c c n t u r i e s ,B u r g u n d v c a n c f o l i r s t i n r p o r r _ thing from the heritage of the local st-vlcs. to undertake first the studl- of middle and
o t t e n w i t h d i f i l c u l f i ' l n c l c x p e n s e ,a n d u s u a l l v i t
ancc in architecture. 'l'he rcasonswerc, D i v i d i n g R o m a n c s q u ea r c h i t c c t u r e s u m m a r - southern l'rirnce. with its schools of- (e) Bur-
i s l i m c s t o n e. S i l n ( l s l ( , n cl t.. s sl l t r r c l i r u e n . l . l u r _ rs \\c
hare seen,thc dr.namic spread, fiom
BurgLrn_ ily on national lines ficlds the lbllorving classi- gundy; (u) Provence; (c) the Loire region and
able, less rewlrding to rhe sculptor and the
dian centres, of f'ederativc monasticism (chicfl\ fication: western Francc, under the headings: (r) the
a r c h i t c c t , a b o u n c l si n E n g l a n d ( a l o n g u i t h f l i n t s ,
in thc clercnth and twellth centurics)
and rirc The Italian stllcs, in spite of'certain norel Loire Rircr area; (z) Poitou, with Anjou, Sain-
chalkl' limestone, and brick-clavs which rvcre Burgundian designersg ' r e a t a b i l i t t .t o s v n t h e s i z c d e v e l o p m e n t s ,a r e b a c k u a r d - l o o k i n g : i n L o m - tongc, and thc South-West: (r) Pdrigorcl and
c r p l o i t e c l l a t c r ) . S o u t h c r . nG e r m r n r . a n d R h i n e _ a r c h i t e c t u r a l i c l e a s .T ' h e s e i d c a s c a m e
irom thc bardy, to the First Romirnesquc stvlel in the t h e d o n r e t lc h u r c h e so f A q u i t a i n c ; ( l ) A u r e r g n c ;
land lirance hale lairlv good sendstonc. 'I'he
1.he n e i g h b o u r i n g r e g J i o n so f ' N e u s t r i a , , { u s t r a s i , r . Veneto to the B]'zirntine ; in central Itall to Earlv (n)Languedoc. s c h o o lo f t h c E a s t ( n ) w i l l b e
Aulergne antl rhe I-imousin (excc;rtionalll
) Aquitania, Pror-ence,and Itall-, and
certdil Christendom: and in the Two Sicilies cclectic taken up with thc architecture ol-the Empire,
have granite arrd volcanicstone. Elsewherc in - to the Earll'
o r i e n t a l i n f l u e n c e sw e r e w c l c o m e d t o o .
V a ulting. Christian, \'Ioslem, Bvzantinc, Normandl' (c;)and thc school o1'Prris and the
France there is exccllcnt limestonc (c.g.
the m a d t ' p r o q r e s s :s o a l s o i n L l n g u e d o c , Lombard, and Germrn st,ylcs. North (n), when we approachthe Gothic st1-le.
Caen stone o1'Normandl' lvhich rvasexportecl uhi,l.
tcr f l o r v e r c d a f t er t h c m i d d l e o f t h e e l c r . e n t h
E n g l a n d e r e n i n R o m a n c s q u et i m e s ) . b e : r u t i _ ccn-
l t i r l l v t e x t u r c d : r n c al c l e l i g h t o t h e c a rr
c r . s c h is e l :
tun, and is rcsponsiblc fbr irn
d a u g h t c r -s c h o o l i n S p a i n . I t a l r m c a n w h i l e
i r n p r e s s i re

c r i s p m o r . r i d i n g sa n c lr i c c o r a t i r eu o r k h a r e be_
been c a m e a n a r c h i t c c t u r a l l i a l e i d o s c o p e .I n .I.s
t h e r c s u l t . ' f h c s c F r e n c h l i m e s t o n e s\ \ . c i t h e r the o
I finc bul}, pale brown, and grer. tints.
Similar
to Sicilies an eclectic school sholved how
R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r ec o u l d b e u n d c r
r . a r i e ri

i s t o n e si n l t a l r ' ( n o r t h a n d s o u r h ) t e n d
to rvcarher B r z a n t i n e r r n t l V o s l e m i n f l u e n c e ;
s t r o n s

I to decper brouns_'I'his is truc

also of.the east_ a n d \ e n e r i : r h o u r i c h
ir could he; ccrtain{q_
in fuscan,

ii { d r i a t i c a n d S p a n i s hl i m es t o n e s .
S p a i n a n d P o r t u g : r l h a rc
North_ rr.esrcrn velopments of vaulting
i n L o m b a r c l _ rn . e r c , i r r
6;ranrre. c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h er e l c m e n t s . i n s t r u m e n t a l
 I3
6HAPTER
THE KINGDON{ OF ARLES, AND BURGUNDY
In the area ofthe old Carolingian Provencr: and
Burgundy, technicallv only ducal Burgrndr'
was French; the remainder had becorne a
loosely-held part of the medier,al Empire bv the
'I'he
historical accident of bequest in ro3z.1
Kingdom had an underlving Latinity. I'radi-
tional and easv communications ofl'ered bv the
great valleys of the Rhirne and the Sadne p'ile a
u n i t y t o t h i s a r e a l s h i c h s h o w si n m a n l ' w a r s i n
its architecture. The renaissance of Roman
forms was particularlv appropriate and lelici-
tous here. However, there is a strong tincture of
Carolingian and Rhenish influence in the north:
hence the area produced two great schools of
Romanesquearchitecture: (r) in ducal Bur-
gund)', where the fusion ofnorthern and srruth-
e r n e l e m e n t si s r e m a r k a b l e ,a n d ( z ) i n P r o l e n c e .
where the Roman tradition is especialll' strong.
D U C A LB U R G U N D Y
In an earlier chapter rue have obsen'ed Bur-
gundy as a crossroads unusually open to ourside
i n f l u e n c e s ,a n d u n u s u a l l l g i f t e d w i t h i m a g i n -
ation for profiting bl them and sy-nthesizing
them. Immense resources were available in men
and money from outside the region fbr building
in Romanesque timcs, and the impcrtant
churches represent not one, but ser.eral, great
types.
Roman influence cane r.rnthe Rh6ne laller.
f r o m P r o r e n c c a n dS e p t i m r n i r . O n c I c e l sl l o m e
subtly still as far north as Micon, which rvrtstbr
a long time just south of the boundarv of ducal
Burgundl but within the bortlers ot Rom,rn-
esque France. Ducal Burgundl' fbrmed a part
ot the historic metropolitan
archbishopric of'
L y o n , w h i c h w a s d i v i d e c lb e t w e e nR o m a n e s q u e
.l--
France and the Empire, but belonged archi-
t e c t u r a l l y t o d u c a l B u r g u n d , v .T h i s w a s t r u e a l s o
ofthe archbishopricof Vienne, which wasin the
Empire but bordered on the Rh6ne. The eastern
parts of'this archbishopric bordered on Italv
a n d s e r v e da s a n a t u r a l a v e n u eo f L o m b a r d i c i n -
fluence,with \,{ilan onlv a hrrndred-odd miles
a w a l . B e s a n g o n .t h e n o r t h c r n a r c h b i s h o p r i c o f
the Kingdom of ,{rles, wasopen to Burgunclian
influence, especiallf in thc Franche-Comt6, but
the eastern parts, actualll- bordeling on the
Rhine, were understandablv German in their
architecture.
Since the building t1'pes in Burgundv are so
various, and their components so widelv used
i n R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u l e ,i t i s r v o r t h w h i l e t o
u n d e r t a k e a n a n a h ' s i so f t h e e l e m e n t s .B u r g u n -
dian practice is well up to thc best general lcr.el
in the Romanesque period, and manv o1' the
observations which will be made hcrc on struc-
tural matters arc applicableclsewhere.
7 ' y p t so f P l u n
'l'he
hasilicanltlun a.nd general arrangemcnr fbr
churches har-econtinued in use in Burguntlr'
ever since Earlv Christian times without inter-
ruption, although stronglr modified b1'medie r.al
p l a n f e a t u r e sa n d r , a u l t i n g .
'l'he
p r i m i t i v e m e d i e r a l n a v e - a n d - c h a n c e lo r
'barn'
trpe of'church, rescmbling St Benedict's
C h a p e l a t S a i n t - R i q u i e r [ 5 ] , i s r e p r e s e n t e db - va
number ol sm:rller churchcs in Burgunclr.
'I'ournus
Saint-Laurent, (built belbre thc lerrr
rooo), being the most intercsting preservecl
example.
The rotunda is not unusual in Burgundl.. Its
m a j o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s( a t A u x e r r e , S e n s , C h a r -
 2 1 4 . M T D D L F .A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C t .
lieu, and especialll' Dijon Iro7 9l) har.ealreadl.
bcen anall.sed; thcv are regularlv connccted
w i t h c r 1 - p t sa n d a m b u l a t o r i e s ,a n d t h u s a r e s a t e l -
l i t e r a t h c r t h a n i n d c p e n d c n t c o n s t r u c t i o n .B u r -
g u n d i a n R o m a n e s q u ea n d G o t h i c c h u r c h e st e n d
to hare a specialaccent on the axial absidiole,
which probabh. reprcsentsa reduction o1'the
rotunda.
The Greek crzssplun and its approximations
are rare in Burgundy'. The cemetery chapel at
Cluny'(ro6.1; destroy'ed)provided a rather soli-
tarv example of its indcpendenr use.Cluny'III
'lhe
was an exceptional building. chevet, includ-
ing the minor transept, was, in efi'ect,a church of
the central t)'pe, so disposed as to gi'r'e extra
c a p a c i t v l b r l a r g e a s s e m b l a g c sE. a c h a r m o f ' t h e
grcat transept was like the 'tower nave' of a
'I'he 'double
Saxon church. transept' at Clur,l.
is beliered to have been the lirst; the scheme
lvas communicated to England through Lewcs
Priorv, and thencero English Gothic.
'I-he'douhle-endar'
plan, which was used bv
the Earh-Christians of North Aliica, and afier-
lvards in Germany, is re presented in the cathc-
dral of Ner,ers on thc Burgundian border. 'l'hc
eastern apse has becn replaced in the Gothic
stvlc, but the westcrn onc, togerhcr with hand-
some arcadcd transeptal screens, has been pre-
s e r v e d .T h e d a t e o f r o z g i s g i l e n f b r t h i s w o r k .
Saint-Vorles at Chitillon-sur-Scine (dated
about gtio rooo, with a later vault) is triapsidal,
t r a n s e p t e d , p r o v i d e d w i t h n a v e a n d a i s l e s ,a n d
has the wreck of a sort o1'westwork which recalls
'fhe
Carolingian and German work. impact of
the Empire on Burgundian rvork secms in fict
surprisinglv small, but it mar. perhaps be f-elt
i n t h e d o u b l e t r a n s e p t a n d t h e o c t a g o n a lr o r v e r s
o1'St Hugh's Clun1..
I'aotures in Plun
All Romanesque features of church planning
occur in some fbrm in Burgundian cdifices,
typically as enrichments of'the basilican scheme.
Apses are regularly semicircular, lighted bi
three windolvs, and covered bv semi-domes,
round-arched or pointed. Thev are as a rulc it
little lower than rhe adfoining, typical, r'aultcrl
sanctuary bavs. Ordinarilv the churchcs arr
triapsidal, with lateral apses attached to thc
'I'his
transcpt. simple arrangement was suffi-
cient even for so notable a building as the
twelfth-centur]. cathedral of' Autun Ir6r], be-
cause, like other early twelfth-centurv cathc-
drals, it had not yet become the fbcus of guiltl
acti\,ities and various popular religious deio-
tions. Gothic lateral chapels were added here.
as at Notre-Dame in Paris, fbr such purposes.
Cr.1,1ttsare important, as we have seen, in thc
E a r l y R o m a n e s q u eo f B u r g u n d y ( D i j o n I r o 7 ] :
'I'ournus
Iroz]; Saint-Savinen, Sens; Saint-
Germain, Auxerre z6nl). Mention should br
made of the handsome and well-built cry'pt of
thc cathedralo1'Auxerre (r. roz5-3o) [rrzl
which is precocious in its architectural forms.
perhaps because of influence from the Loire.
The crvpt has beautifullv composed groupccl
piers and fine r,aulting, with moulded ashlar
ribs. Ner,ers Cathcdral has a similar crypt dated
a b o u t r o z g . B u r i a l c r J . p t sa r e u n u s u a l i n B u r -
gundr', which did not have manv Earlv Christian
saints besides Germanus (Auxerre), Benignus
(Diion), Valerianus (Tournus), Fortunarus
(Charlieu), and Savinianus (Sens). The much
q u o t e d ' c r y p t a e ' o f C l u n y I I w e r e s e c r e t a r i ao r
lateral sacristy chambers, not subterraneani
'crypta'
may mean a vaulted chamber abor,c
ground.2
The ambulator.y with radiating chapels came
early to Burgundy, and was long confined to thc
most notable monastic buildings with crypts. It
was, however, not much used in Burgundy, evcn
in Gothic times, outside the monasteries. One
exccptional church, Bois-Sainte-Marie, perhaps
under the influence of early Charlieu, has an
ambulatory without radiating chapels.
The apse dchelon occrrs in Burgundy, and
C l u n y I I , w i t h t h e e a r l i e s t!c h e l o ni n t h e r e s i o n ,
^\-
THE KINGDOM
in its widespread use.
was doubtless influential
has an excellent example, still pre-
,{nzy-le-Duc
reminiscent of a
served, with a small apse,
central absidiole.
rotunda, opening from the
Sanctuary bays wete placed singly in lront of
pre-
the apses of Burgundian churches of anv
tension at all.
Stalls were regularly placed at the head of'thc
naves, in monastic churches, within a low-
walled enclosure. Ordinarily two or three ba-YS
sumced for this choir.
Transepts are usual in Burgundian church
'dwarf'
plans. Sometimes they are transepts
(not as high as the nave), and they are often
'included' (not extended beyond the flank lines
of the plan), in which case they may have pitch
roofs like the aisles, as at Chapaize Ir34]. How-
ever, the transepts also often proiect and have
striking fagades (Paray-le-Monial Ir 561; Autun
Cathedral). The longer transepts were built to
provide additional absidioles.r
The' archiepiscopalcrossplan' (with two tran-
septs east of the nave) apparently originated at
Cluny Ir4z], to permit large assembliesin choir.
It spread to England (Lewes Prior.v, Canter-
bury, York, and Salisbury Cathedrals).
'fhe
crossinginBurgundy, often oblong rather
than square, regularly has an octagonal domical
(or'cloister') vault on squinches, and the vault
is sometimes pierced with small windows.
Naoes are aisleless in modest churches.
Though sometimes roofed in wood, they are
typically vaulted in Burgundy - the result of
Roman heritage and probably also for reasonsof
acoustics. Small tunnel-vaulted churches of
Romanesque proportions respond amazingly to
the liturgical chant; even a few voices will hll
such a building with rich resonances which are
hardly obtainable in a wooden-roofed room.
It is obvious that certain of the Burgundian
naves were built cheaply for capacity. Saint-
Marcel and the later Infirmary Chapel at Cluny
(like the near-by church of Beaujeu and many
others belonging to the school of the Loire and
OF ARLES, AND BUR(;UNDy 2,1(
the region of'Bourges, where thc scheme was an
established type) have triapsidal chevets and
transcpts with towers, to which wide wooden-
trussed naves were added naves twice as wide,
more or less, as the chancel. The efI'ect,though
spacious, is rather barn-like.
'fhe
proportioning of Burgundian naves
varies greatly. There is a continuous tradition
for Roman sturdiness and amplitude, which
runs from the basilicas through Saint-B6nigne
and V6zelay to the Cistercians, with a placid
rhythm in the division ofbroadly proportioned,
individual bays. 1'here is a tendency, noted
especially' in the parish churches, but also at
Ylzelay, and in Cistercian work, to use a two-
storey interior elevation.
The Cluniac group of Burgundian churches
often has emphasis on the verticals. At Cluny
III the height ofthe transverse arches was three
times their width and the individual bays were
about four times as high as they were wide.
In the Burgundian nar,es, lighting bv clere-
story windows is usual, but in many instanccs of
vaulted churches they have been omitted or
blocked up for safety's sake. In such buildings,
if they are short, the west windows of the nave
give a sufficient light. The naves of ordinary
parish churches tend, in f'act,to be short, but in
monastic buildings the processional liturgies
(much developed in Burgundy) caused the con-
struction of very long naves which influenced
those of other regions.
Aisles arethe rule in buildings of any import-
ance, unless the naves have uncommon width.
Exceptionally Saint-Bdnigne at Dijon, Cluny
I I I , a n d S o u v i g n y h a d t w o a i s l e sa t e a c h s i d e o f
the nave. Aisles are almost inr,ariably covered
b1' bays ofgroin vaulting (occasionalll' quadrant
vaults) separated by transverse arches which
are buttressed b1--pilaster strips or spur but-
trcsses.Ordinarily each aisle bay has a window.
Torpersand pinnacles are normal on Burgun-
dian churches, and are invariably an attractrve
feature of the design. The number of towers
246 M T D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C F -
varies !ireatly,and with it the silhouette (always
interesting)ofthe buildings. The tower shapes
are sober and dignified, and the openings,
usually with attractive ornament, are always
well disposed. Authentic Romanesque tower
roofs had pvramids of low pitch (as a rule less
than forty-five degrees, except on pinnacles),
until the twelfth century was well advanced.
Towers in the tradition of the heavy Roman
turris,bnllt up from the ground, are square in
plan. Pignacula, olten somewhat too large to be
'pinnacles'
called in the modern sense, may
start from the roof level, and are frequently
octagonal.
'l'all
and graceful crossing towers, quad-
rangular or octagonal in plan, are a constant
feature ofthe churches. A belfry in several stages
is often set over a lantern with tiny windows at
the crossing. Bell cages, where they occur, rest
on the crossing vault. The belfry stages were
always roofed in wood, sometimes covered in
the Middle Ages rvith tile, sometimes with
'laves' (laminae
of stone).
In Burgundy, paired western towers occur
much less liequent[1'than crossingtowers; we
mav sa!' that generally paired rvestern towers
were associatedwith galilee porches of monastic
inspiration. Single western towers are unusual.
Stair turrets of varving size enliven the sil-
houettes of manl.' churches ; thev ma!' be square
or round. Saint-B6nigne at Diion was excep-
tional in having three pairs ofstair turrets, svm-
metrically placed. Cluny III had two great
square bel(iy towers at the fagade, two square
stair turrets, of which one was carried onlv to
the clerestory level, together with four pignacula
ofgreat size one oblong, and three ofoctagonal
shape.
Porchas and nart hecesare features of the more
ambitious churches, as a rule; more modest
buildings rarelv possessthem.
Prrtuls ol'embrasured lbrm, in one. t\.\o.or
several orders, with nook shafis, are a common
and attractive f'eature even ofmodest churches.
Thel-' have characteristic carved lintels, tym-
pana, and moulded enclosing arches. Onll
modest examples, or those under Cistercian in-
fluence, were left plain. The proportions are in
almost all casesexcellent.
De t a i ls of S uperstr uct ur e
The pall-porh of early Romanesque Burgundr'.
to be understood, requires a knowledge ot
mason work in the Loire region. At first, thc
execution, both of walls and of vaulting, was
rather rough. Ashlar stone was used, rather ex-
ceptionally, in the crypt of Saint-Philibcrt.
Tournus, before q79, and ashlar spur buttresses
occur in the same work. The rough vault, ne.r'er
stuccoed, still shows the marks of the small
boards used as centering. Division of vaulting
bays by arches of ashlar stone may have lirst
come in systematically with the Lombards,
about g8o rooo. Ashlar was used more and
more from that time onward. Late in the twelfih
century' walls and vaults both were increasinglv
laced with ashlar, which in Gothic work was
indispensable. Where ashlar was used, the slrrra
which regularlv surl'aced the rougher old con-
struction would not adhere properly, and was
omitted.
The walls, even early walls, in Burgundr
show a high level of craitsmanship. The region
is blessed with an abundance of excellent lime-
stone ranging from white to pale buffin colour.
which weathers to beautiful toasted browns ancl
soft greys. An exception is the pink stone ol
Pr6tr', used at Saint-Philibert, Tournus.l
At Cluny III the typical ashlar blocks arc
about three feet high, with verl'narrow mortar
ioints ( * of an inch). However, these dimen-
sions are exceptional; the ordinary joints are
thicker and the ordinary coursing is narrouer.
Common walls are faced with moellon,relativell
small stones trimmed roughly to shape. A l'elr
earll' walls show the use of rough stones with
occasional herringbone work; a few show hori-
L.
IHE KINGDOI\1 OF ARLLS, AND BURGUNDy
of ashlar work, introduced for
zontal bands
Insufficient credit is given to the skill
,tr.ngth.
Burgundian masons in linding the proper
of the
exceptionally good mortar'
materialsand making
of oblong plan occur early in the Bur-
Piers
churches' as do crucifbrm piers. which
sundian
S q u a r e n u c l e i hare three-quarler col-
iersist.
u m n s a d o s s e dt o t h c m i n m a t u r c w o r k . C r u c i -
and/or
form nuclei have three-quarter columns
pilasters flttached to them in Cluny III
fluted
and related buildings. Ashlar is early used'
Cylindrical piers of moellln occur early (Saint-
Philibert at Tournus, ChaPaize).
Colunnar sfia/is were used lrom earlv times
for support; examples occur at Saint-B6nig;ne,
Diion, and in the Charlieu chapter-house, as
well as in Cluny III and buildings related to it'
Monolithic limestone shatis trp to twentv lcet
in length are easily quarried in Burgundy', but
difficulties of transport prevented their wide
use: the columns. as in classic times, were
ordinaril-v built up ol drums' 1'he capitals are
sometimes surprisingll' close to the antique
Corinthian, but simplified, and Corinthian-
esqueforms are more usual. Structural columns
are not fluted, but decoratir-e columns irnd
pilasters often are in the twelfih century rvith
quite unconventional detail in the fom ofbevels,
zigztgs, cher,rons, reeding, cymas, and beading.
Such details show the influence of imaginative
manuscript painters and metal workers.
The mouldings in ordinary buildings are
simple and far lrom subtle, but the best work
has classicizing mouldings of great beaut-r.sThe
string courses show beak mouldings derived
from the classic cyma; column bases are some-
times close to the Roman fbrm of the Attic base.
The graduai transition to the Gothic derivatives
of these profiles can easily be traced in Bur-
gundy.
The Burgundians had a great ragt: for decor-
a;tive arcadinS which was unquestionablv of
classicalorigin. Simple at lirst, the arcading be-
came very elaborate and multiplied with the
21.7
p a s s a g eo f t i m e . I n t h e s e c o n dh a l f o f t h e t w e l f t h
centur-y it was verv luxuriant indeed, being
carried out with decorative pilastcrs and com-
plicated mouldings. Moslem influence, coming
perhaps by way of the Auvergne, brought in
cusping. Verv spic-v decorativc effects rvcre
achieved by' its use. The Lombard corbcl table
survived throughout the various phases of Bur-
gundian Romanesque, and was used effectivell.
in the almost Baroque designs of the middle of
the twelfth century.
'Ihe
sculptural decttration of Burgundian
Romanesque buildings was not rich in the early
period. The Lombardic work employs simple
capitals trimmed down in concave f'ashionat the
angles, so that triangles result on the facesofthe
capitals instead of semicircles as so much more
f r e q u e n t l f i n L o m b a r d y . I n u n p r e t e n t i o u sw o r k
these capitals are built up ol'courses. Few gro-
t e s q u e so c c u r . t h o u g h t h e r e a r e s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g
examples; leaf'agepredominates so generally
and rather unskilful leafage in fact that one
must suppose the importation of highly trained
carvers (almost certainly from the marble-
cutting regions of France, and most probably of
Italv), when the sophisticated Clutiac atelier
was created. Some of the capitals show the in-
fluence of medieval manuscript decoration. The
fine earlier acanthus leafage at Cluny III (so
l i k e a n c i e n t a c o n t h u s m o l l i s \ ,a s w e l l a s t h e e x -
ceptional delicacy and classical character of the
earlier moulding profiles at Cluny III, would
be accounted fbr, if we might suppose that fine
craftsmen came from Montecassino, Pisa,
Venice, or possibly Moslem Spain, which has
yielded beautiful carvings in an almost Roman-
esque style. These men surelJ' worked under
French direction,however; fbr the sarour ofthe
d e s i g n si s u n m i s t a k a b l y F r e n c h .
Cistercian architectural asceticism made itself
l e l t i n s t r r n t l yi n B u r g u n d y . S i m p l e c o l u m n c a p i -
tals and austere portals with blank t-Ympana
appear on many churches not belonging to the
Orcler. Their reserved charicter accords well
 2 . + u M I D D L E A N D S O t r lt l E R N F R A N C E T T I L ,K I N ( ; D O M O F A R I , F , S A
. ND tsURGUND) 219

with the sober outlincs which the Burgundian The groin vaults have on the whole stood trn E n g l a n d .r h e r i l l a g c c h u r c h m i g h t b c
medieral
Romanesquechurches generally cxhibit. bettcr than the runncl raults.Srlong mur.r.11 ol bricL or stonc in 't scttlc-
,h. only builtling
I/uulting in Burgundl fbllowed Roman kcpt both tvpes secure fbr somc time, but thr N l a n v of the communitr lunctions ol
ment.
models until well into the Gorhic period,though tunnel \ault was the morc diffrcult to abrir takcn over b) ecclesiastical or
'hall--Gothic' to-day had been
rib-vaults began to appear spora- successfulll, and with time almosr all thc rr- and most ol'the towns
m a n o r i a le s t a b l i s h m e n t s ,
dically in Burgundy as soon,or almosr as soon! amples have bccomedeformcd or hare actualli small, until the twelfth centur].' that
were so
as in the ile-d.-It.un..- The Romanesque l h i l c d . \ u x i l i a r l b u r r r e s s c sn, o t o r i c i n a l l . vp l i r r r - functions did not require highlf indivi-
their
vaults are in laminated stone.rough, with thick n e d , h a v e h e l p e c lt o k c e p s e v e r a lo f t h e i m p o r t a n r
dualized buildings. With the twclfth-centur1.
joints, thick cclls. and stuccoecl solits. raults in place.
r e v i v a lt h i s w a s c h a n g e d .
Centering was used in building the Burgun- T h e t u n n e l l a u l t s o f i e n h a v e t h c r o o l i n p ;o l Cluny, which was carlv chartered (about
'lhis
dian vaults. was supported on hear.ier l u t c s l a i r Jd i l e c t l v o n t h e v a u l t c c l l s , l o a d i n g t h c s charming old building ofthe
r r o o ) , p o s s e s s ea
timbcring, as mav be seen at Lirbro
in Gotland h a u n c h e s .H o r v c r , e r ,r o o f i n g o f ' l a v e s o r t i l e o n late Romanesque period which is said mis-
[S5o,:Sr], where a fburteenth-century vault of timber supports o\.er an air-spacc often covcrs takenly to havc served a civic purpose as the
Romancsque ty-pe in the church towcr still re- tunnel vaulting, as it invariabh'does vaults ol abbey mint. It has a big-arched grottnd floor,
tains its centering rz .sr/ll. groined or domical fbrm. where there wxs 2t fbrlic of some sortl simple
'I'he
Wooden tie-piecesset irt thc springing, bar. bv high vaults ol Romanesque Burgundr apartments occupiod an intermediatc floor; a
bal, were a common means of maintaining the l b r m a n i n t e r e s t i n g s t u d v i n t h e m s e l r e s .l \ I c n - loft above them provided storapie
vault saf'ely in position, while the masonry t i o n h a s a l r e a d r . b c e nm a d e o f C l u n y ' I I ( r ' a u l t c d A serious conflagration in rI-59 destroyed
solidified. l'hey were intended to bc remor,ed. about rooo) rrnd Saint-B6nigne (roor r71. many houses at Cluny. Surviving still arc several
'I'he
The tie-pieces wcre doubtless uselul in support- sober and powerlul r.aults of thc narthcr trr of the more or lcss standardized dwellings
ing a workmen's platfbrm durinp; construction. Tournus (about q6o) precede thcm hoth. 'I'hc which were built to replace them [186]' The
'I'imbers
lvere apparenrll' embcclded in certain u p p e r s t a g eo ( t h e n a r t h e x , d a t e c lp c r h a p s a b o u r lots are relatively narrow, and the houses, built
w a l l s t o g i v e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r e n B t ha t h i g h l r : \ e l s . rorg, has quadrant-r'aulted aislcs with dil- with party rvalls, werc placed at the sidewalk
This occurs in the dormitorr, of the Cluniac phragms between the bavs, and a tunnel vaulr line. Cellars were provided with interior access.
priorv ol'Lewes in England. It is not good prac- with transr,crsearchesover a clercstory between. Space was allotted fbr a garden plot at the rear. r 86. Clunv. charactcristic house, after r I 59
tice, lbr the buried timbers suffer from dry rot Pilaster strips stiflin the wall on thc cxterior. in The characteristic stone lbqadesare handsomel-v
and lose their strength; then rhe wall is weakcr thc Lombard manner.(, proportioned and rvell built, but the intcrior
t h a n i t r v o u l c lb e i f i t u e r e c o n s r r u c t e d e n t i r e h . W i t h C l u n l l I I t h c p o i n t e d a r c h r v a sb r o u g h r construction wls of rvood, br the court into tuo or thrce rooms; it woulcl
ol stone. i n . T h i s p e r m i t t e d a c l e r . e r e ra n d t h i n n e r g r o i n At the ground lloor a generous pointcd arch be provided with onc or two hooded fir'eplaces,
T h c t u n n e l v a u l t a n d i t s d e r i v a t i r . e sw e r e a l - r,ault, more easily built, and it sare a morr opens upon a shop, a work room, or a stable, and would har,e a storagc loft abovc, under a
'l'he
most exclusively used in Burgundl-, except lbr scicntific profile to the high vault. optimunr and beside it a narrow square-headed openinpl roof'with a dormer opening and broadly over-
the apses,which of course ha.r,eround or pointed profile is a catenar]-, which avoids all deform- gives upon the stairwal' which lcads to the hanging eaves. It is a very attractivc medieval
semi-domes. Since both round and pointed a t i o n s t r e s si n t h e v a u l t c e l l s . TB u t r v h c r c ,a s a t apartments on the floor abor,e. The shop occu- housc tvpe, and alwals appears in gencral ac-
arches arc used in the arcading, wc find round- Clunv, the clcrestorv rvallswere wronglv locatetl pies about half the ground-floor arc:r, ertending c o u r . t t so f ' F r e n c h m c d i e r a l c l o m e s t i ca r c h i t e c -
archedand pointed tunnel vaulring (commonll over the piers, the vault had to bc propped up beyond the stairway to give accessto a corridor tr.ll'c.
used in the naves and transcpts) together with with flying buttrcsses. l e a d i n gt o t h e k i t c h e n ( a t t h e b a c k o l t h e h o u s e , (,lun1-', built on two sides of the abbev en-
'I'his 'I'he
round and pointed groin vaulting (regularlv in is perhaps the placc to introducc a brief with a big open lireplace at one end). closure, had a very simple street system. Ulti-
the aisles, occasionallv in the naves). The trum- consideration of cidl arckitetzzra,s slight as the intervening space betwcen the shop, the cor- mately an outer wall, with three gates, was
p e t s q u i n c h e s a n d t h e o c t a g o n a ld o m i c a l v a u l t s remains are. In Burgundy thc Roman citics ridor, and the kitchen is an open court with a built each gate leading to a small plaza. As
w h i c h o c c u r n o r m a l l y a t t h c c r o s s i n g sa r e , l i k e s h r a n k w i t h i n t h e i r w a l l sa n d d e c r c a s e ci ln p o p u - w e l l i n i t e s s e n t i a l l ! . a no u t d n o r r o o m . far as rve know, the old Romanesquc towns
groin vaulting, derired fiom the tunnel r.ault. lltion, so that lbr I long time nt'u consrruction In these houscs at Clunl' a charming range wcre, similarly, quite simple. Sometimcs they
Exceptional are the niche-head squinchesand lor secular purposcs was not on a high level. of two-light winclows divided bv columns and s e r e l a i d o u l i n r i n g s .l r o u n d a c h u r c h o r c a s t l e '
'l'ournus,
dome ol'Saint Philibert, built some- S t o n e w a s d o u b t l e s s m u c h m o r e r . r s e di n B u r - set offby small piers givcs light across the whole but on flat ground they were often rectilincar,
what belbre r rzo. gundy than f-arther north, where, as in earlJ tront ofthe upper storey. This storef is divided and the'bastides' later inherited this mode'

.l--
 M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
25O
When a more official architecture developed,
it was naturally dependent on monastic archi-
tecture to a considerable extent. The abbel's had
been building walls, gates, gatehouses, halls of
various sorts, garners, and mills. We must infer
that municipal constructions of the sort were
simple at first, like those of the monks, and that
when they came to be embellished, the orna-
ment was what we have seen on the churches.
This observation is borne out by the 'Man6-
canterie' at Lyon, a twelfth-century work which
served as a choir-school annexe to the cathedral,
but it rnight equally have been built as a muni-
cipal hall of some sort.
The countryside architecture of Roman-
esque Burgundy must be divined from later
buildings which have obviously kept something
of their earlier lbrm. The village of Blanot, near
Mricon, looking down on its enchanting little
valley, must be more than a little like a Roman-
esque village. The manors and granges of the
region are not Romanesque, but their orienta-
tion, their simple arrangement about courtyards
oflow barn-like structures is clearly traditional.
At Berz!-la-Ville the grange of the Cluniac
monks has been rebuilt, but the old court has
its original location and the remarkable chapel
built in the days of St Hugh still dominates it.
At Berzd-le-Chitel near by, the castle has been
rebuilt, but gives a hint of older fbrms, as does
the Chiteau des Moines at Lourdon, in spite of
partial rebuilding and advancing ruin. Rural
Burgundy is still largely Romanesque in its
visual eff'ect.
The Romanesque style which we have thus
described was cherished by the Burgundians.
N'Iuch of its character was bequeathed to the
'hall--Gothic',
as one may see at a glance when
visiting the maiestic thirteenth-century interior
of the cathedral o[ Langres, so splendid and so
strong. Even the bener examples ofBurgundian
Renaissance and Baroque church architecture
have about them a certain warmth and simple,
recollected quality which is akin to the Roman-
esque. The medieval revivals of the nineteenth
century produced little of interest in Burgunilr.,
but the country chr,rrcheswerc often carried out
in a sort ol'Romanesque or half'-Gothic stvle
which blends well, in the smiling opulent lancl-
scape, with the churches which remain to us
liom the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries.
PROVENC}-
'Ihe
essentialLatinity ofProvence is well shorrn
in its Romanesque architecture. The region lvas
temporarilv a possession of the Visigoths
(a8o tr), Ostrogoths (5ro ff.), Franks (-537and
later), Arabs (before 739), and the Empire, with
interludes of local independence; it was evcn
under Spanish rule, without losing its basicallr
Roman character. Arles was a natural choice as
capital of the medieval kingdom; for it was thc
capital of Roman Gaul in the fifth centurv, and
its bishopric was then the primatial see.
Important examples of 61th-centurv ecclesi-
astical architecture still exist in the region; lirr
instance, the church ofSaint-Pierre, at Vienne,
now a museum, was in f'act a vastly spacior"rs
fifth- or sixth-centurv wooden-roofed church.
the oidest extant in France. It is erroneoush
supposed to have had tlibunes. Interior roof
supports had to be built in gz4 6, providing^
two lines of tall, slender arches on plain oblong
piers, with a Carolingian pierced screen wrll
above, providing support for a pitch roof of'
'I'he
ordinary form. church was, as we belier,e,
an example with the unobstructed interior spacc
which was usual in the Roman Imperial thronc
halls, like the'Basilica'('royal house')in Trier
T h e s e v e r l ' s p a c i o u s n a v e sa p p e a r a s a R o m a n -
esque church type. Since the reconstruction of'
gz4 6 (probably caused bv weakened trusses),
Saint-Pierre has had aisles nearly as high as the
nave, which has no clerestory. It is thus rt
primitive sort of 'hall church'.
Saint-Laurent, Grenoble, has a well-pre-
served crypt dating lrom thc eighth centur)
THE KIN(;DOM
most interestingof its type,
which is one of the
in plan.It wasbuilt intoa lateanlique
ouatrefoil
a church was con-
cemeterialcomplex. and
it about rorz'
structedover
Again,the cathedralofVaisonhasthreeapses
plan, ascribedto the Merovingian
of horseshoe
period;but betweenlolo and to3o, and once
morein the thirteenthcentury.the churchwas
rebuilt, so that it has the generalcharacterof
laterRomanesquebuildings'e
The early abbeys are unexpectedlydisap-
pointing. At Saint-Victor at Marseille, which
hasan augusthistory going back to its founder
well-
John Cassian(4r4), there is now a stour'
built,two-towered, crenellated exterior a good
example of tardy Romanesque, restored in mo-
dern times. The upper church is of the thir-
teenthcentury, incorporatingparts of an older
building dedicatedin ro4o. Beneathit thereare
fifth-century remains of unarchitecturalchar-
acter,but one can trace a stubby three-aisled
basilicawith a largesquareatrium in front of it
a layoutwhich recallsthe churchof SantaMaria
Antiqua in Rome.
L6rins, near Antibes and Cannes, though
charming,is alsodisappointing;for nothing re-
mainsof the Early Christian period, when the
monasterywas one of the most important in
r87.Saint-Gilles-du-Gard,
priorychurch,
planof thechurchbeforedestructton
O F A R L E , S .A N D B U R C L I N D Y 25I
western Europe. On the Ile-Saint-Honorat
there is a trefoil chapel dedicated to the Tri-
nity, an eleventh-centur,v work, and there arc
eleventh- or twelfih-century sections in tlre
picturesque but much rebuilt lbrtihcations 01'
the island.
Records have come down to us regarding
tenth- and eleventh-century building at other
abbeys and cathedrals, but the remains are
slight.
-I'he
really flourishing period for Provengal
architecture came in the twelfth century, when
the cities were acquiring local independence
Many older buildings of importance were re-
placed with maturer works in consequence'
The classicizing tendency is unmistakable, in-
creasing rather than diminishing as the twelfth
century advanced; it was full and strong at the
beginning of the thirteenth century, but lost
strength during the ensuing disasters, and be-
cause of the general expansion of Gothic art.
Some traces of influence fiom neighbouring
Burgundy are to be observed, it is believed, in
the cathedral of Valence. near \'tienne, where
Urban II performed a dedication in rog5.10The
fbrmer cathedral of Saint-Paul-Trois-Chi-
teaux,ir a mid twellth-centur)' work, has a cer-
tain relationship to Paray-le-Monial and Clunl
 'I'IIE
K I N G D O M O F A R L F , S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y 253

the aisles are co\rered with quad-

III, though
vaults, and the apse has pretty radiating
rant
decorative ribs in the ProvenEal manncr.
The plan of Saint-Gilles-du-Gard,1r a grcat
f,luniac priorl'' and pilgrimage centrc, had aisles,
a transept, and an apse with radiating chapels
all features which are exceptional in Provence
is conjectured that the vast crypt, at
[fi]-S].It
the cloister level, and exceptionally placed under
the nave, may represent a Cluniac church begun
{ter rc77 . In this Urban I I consecrated an altar
in ro96. A new start was made c. rr16. Before
rr42, ^pp{ently, it was decided to transfbrm
the western part ofthis church (then cithcr un-
finished, or in ruins) into the existing cr1,'pt,
and build an ambitious church at the higher
level; an arrangement which occurs at the great
pilgrimage churches of Le Puv and Santiago de
Compostela. The east end of Saint-Gilles, now
ruinous, was probably well along by rrj5, and
the west front with its splendid threc west
portals, under way by- rr42, was completed a
r88. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard, priorl'church, fhgade, r. r r7o; gablc much later generation or more later, perhaps as latc as
rtg5. The rib r,aults of the crypt har-c already-
rgo. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard, f'aqadeof housc,
been mentioned; they now sustain the pave-
tlvellih centurt'
ment ofa rather piteous church a seventeenth-
centurJ reconstruction corcring onlr a part of
t h e a r e ao f t h e C l u n i a c c h u r c h .
In passing we should note the f'aqade of a
spaciousthree-storey house ofthe twelfth cen-
tury, not far from the abbey'at Saint-Gillcsrr
Ir9o]. It is well built ofashlar,and picturesquely'
sheltered by a broad overhanging roof. It re-
sembles,on a grander scale,those houses which
we have obserr.ed at Cluny, and it is hardly
more elaborate in its arrangements. There are
three large square-headed openings on the
Eround floor. The lintels, and two lines ofpaircd
window openings above, are composed within
strong horizontal mouldings, like great fiiezes
ing across the design. Plain segmental re-
ving archcs take the load offthe lintels ofthe
Etound storevi decorative arches arc cut into
lintcls of the paired windows above, and
r 89. Saint-Gillcs-du-Gard,priorl' church, r. r r r6 7o, crvpt

enrich the composition. This fagade
effectively
of the finest of its kind'
is one
Because similarity in the sculptures' men-
of
calls to mind the
tion of Saint-Gilles inevitably
of Saint-Trophime
former cathedral
H e r e , a s i n t h e o l d m o n a s t e r l e s ,o n e
frSr-31.
Lorc n vain lbr evidence of the earl-v
astical importance of the site. Tenth-centur.v
constructions (c. 95o 7z) at the head o1'the nave
were largelv replaced b-Ya new sanctuary in the
fifteenth centur]', the old nave having mean-
rthile been rebuilt, and embellished (about
r r7o-8o) by the remarkable wcst portal. This is
set against a plain basilican fagade. The portal
seemshalf Roman becauseof its gablc, its classic
columnar forms, and the rather stumpy classic-
looking statuary. It contrasts strangcly with the
tall, austere interior of the church, though the
latter is carried out in the excellent ashlar of
ryt(leJi)andrgz.-{.rles,Saint-Trophime,fagadc,r. rrTo llo,andcloistcrgarthandtowcr,largcll'twelfthcenturl
$,
d*
s
THE KTNGDOM OF ARLES, AND BURGUNDy 2((
Provence. Its division into nave and aisles is not
typical of the region, nor are the very tall pro-
portions and rather obstructive piers. The tran-
sept (partl-v of the tenth centurv) is of simple
at Arlesra design and relatively slight projection. J'he
arches at the crossing are relatively low, as is
ecclesi- usual, and the old apses were no higher.
Over the crossing at Arles rises one of the
frnest of the Provenqal Romanesque towers
Irgz]. Formerly the main apse of the church
'fhe
stood below it, immediately to the east.
tower has three principal stages,almost cubical
in shape, and has strong set-backs which give it
a r i g o r o u s p r o f i l e . l t s d e c o r a t i o ni s u n a s s u m i n g
pilaster strips and arched corbel tables on the
two lower stages, Corinthian pilasters above,
with an ingenious pierced frieze and a corbelled
cornice. Good proportion gives it a grace which
is surprising in such a heavy design'
 256 M T D D L EA N D S O U T H E R N
FRANCE
Beside the church there is one of the finest
cloisters in France, though of late date (about
rr83, finished, perhaps, about r38g, in the
Gothic style) [r93]. The piers ancl spur but-
tresses ale very heavv, for the cloister walks are
covered by substantial stone-ribbed quadrant
vaulting. The designer beautifully lightened
the effect by giving the Romanesque spur but-
tresses the form of fluted Corinthian souare
r9.y.Arles,.Saint-Trophimc,
Romanesque cloisterwalk, r. r l8j
columns,by adorningthe pierswith bold figures
on the interior corners,and by placing relief
panelson the adiacentwall surfaces.The Ro-
manesquebays of the cloister open upon the
garth through deep and richly moulded round
arches.The supporting columns are in pairs,
set on a plinth and carrying an elegantimpost.
Someof the shaftsare round, othersoctagonal.
T H E K I N G D O ] \ TO F A R L F . S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y
with bold, lively, and varied Corinthianes(lue built ;rbout I'zoo lSainte-Croix). dignity of the church, which is, however. in_
appearance,
citpitals of great beauty. gains much fiom its lorelv and fringed by an unlbrtunate nineteenth-century
ths group
Among other 6ne churches which descr,.,, votive statue set like a pinnacle on the tower.17
remote situatlon'
mention is rhe monastery church of I\1,,111_
Much better known is the cathedral o1'Avi- The entrance porch of the cathedral is of
maiour.l5 Its affiliationwith Cluny and irs lolrr
gnon,16also aislelessItq+' tg5l It stands on an surprisingly Roman form and surprisingly late
tion on a Pilgrimage route account for rhe
lminenc" beside the heavy irregular mass of the date (about r2oo). The tower behind it is in
spacious crypt with a central rotunda, an 11,_ part rebuilt, but wirhout iniury to its essentially
|ruge fourteenth-century Papal Palace. A hand-
bulatory, and radiating chapels. Above the crr p1
some Renaissance stairway contributes to the Roman dignity. A date of r069 is given for the
l e v e l i r i s a n i m p o s i n g a n d b e a u t i l u l l _ vb r r i l r
r94. Avignon Cathedral, t. rr4o 6o and later (porch c. rzoo).
The pedestal and the statue on thc tower are a distressing modcrn addition
aislelesschurch of very pure and austere 1brm.
gracious, ample, and satisfyinglv classical. Ap-
parently the construction of this great church
was started as early as rl17, but consecration
did not take placeuntil r r53. A very simple but
substantial and well-proportioned cloister ad,
ioins the church, and at a little distance there is
a f:rmous crucifbrm charrel of almost classicrl
\
 I H E K I h - C D O N IO F . 4 R L E S . A N D B U R G T J N D Y 2-59
258

-
"*==1:=--jt 5rIT
O lO

rg.5.Ar ig;non(iathedral,
r. r r4o 6o andlater

'Ihus
church proper, but universally set aside because the nave. this cathedral is a tardv example
of the mature character of the masonrl' and of the type with tlvo axial towcrs which wc
sculpture. The nave is of ample proportions' fbund in the filth century at the church of St
and handsomely covered by a pointed tunnel Martin ol"fours.
vault rvith transverse arches. The lateral mould- In passing, ref'erence should be made to thc
ings, arcading, and nook shafts which support famous bridge, now broken, of Saint-Bcn6zct
this vault and the ribs are particularly rich and Irq6]. This is the'dancing'bridge named in the
beautiful, being consonant with a date from delightful old song, and it has a picturesque
about rr4o to r16o. Lovely marble capitals, chapel which is largely contcmporary. The
carved with rare delicacy and beauty, still sur- arches ancl piers ofthe bridge are fine examplcs
vive from a cloister of this period' An odd of heavy block masonry construction' The date
feature of the building is an octagonal lantern is r r77 85 and later.
s u s t a i n e d o n l o n p J i t u d i n a l ' e n c o r b e l l e da r c h e s ' Orange Cathedralr8 is another o{'the caver-
sprung between the vault arches at the head of nous, rather dark aisleless Provengal churches

rt'7i 85 and latcr

rty6.Asignor.t,Pont-Saint-B6n6zet,
I97. Saint-Pons-de-'lhomiires,priorl' church,
interior. r r6a and later

Here, too, we find a pointed vault. Saint-Gabriel
has a smaller church which is similar.
Aix,le an ancient city also, has lost its old
cathedral of roTo-rro3 (except an aisle, the
baptistery, and a cloister), in favour of a florid
Gothic edifice. The cloister is of the twelfth
century, and more ordinary in form than that
of Arles - being small, un,r'aulted,and provided
with piers only at the four corners; but it is gav
with paired columns, and richly carved.
Largely because of the sculptural relation-
ships, Septimania or Gothia (the ancient Gallia
Narbonensis) is assigned to the Romanesque
school ofLanguedoc. However, part ofit, Rous-
sillon, is actually French Catalonia, which has a
character ofits own, though Provengai influence
extends into this region. Alet Cathedral, lor
example, has an apse which is polygonal ex-
teriorly, and decorated with Corinthianesque
corner columns in Provengal style.
Saint-Pons-de--lhomibres,r" important in the
history of sculpturc, has a fine church with a
typical Provengal interior of rr64 and later
aisleless, ample in proportion, and covered by
a monumental pointed tunnel vault with trans-
v e r s ea r c h e sI r 9 7 ] . F o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f G o t h i c d a t e
b u t R o m a n e s q u e c h a r a c t e rh a v e l e l i t h e c h u r c h
with an interesting interior gallerv, and a machi-

a
 . I ' I I T ,K I N G D O M
260 FRANCE
M I D D L EA N D S O U T H E R N O T A R I , F , S ,A N D B U R G U N D Y z6r

colated exterior gallery carried on a handsome but these are unusual. Trefoil plans occur, bur provincial works, though the com- built under the nave r,aulting without danger.
recall Roman
applied arcade. f'he building was probably arc also unusuali the aislelesschurch with onc a r e medie\al. Thc carting can be Because of the mild climate of the rcgion, it is
oositions
crenellated also. apse at the head of it is preponderant. Apsc r n d d u l l . but in the finest cxamples the possible to pave the extrados of masonry vault-
h.ruy
The precipitous austerity ofthe cathedral of admirable' ing, forming a roofterrace, and thus to dispense
exteriors are regularly polygonal, with columns design is lively and the chiselling
Agde and the huge solidity of that of Mague- or pilasters decorating the angles; they are semi- 'fhe naaesof Provengal churches are covered with an exterior roof. But ordinarily thcre is a
lone:1 - both carried out in monumental ashlar circular and arcaded on the interior. Nave walls by substantial, usually pointed, tunnel
vaults sheltering roof covered with round tile in the
seem to have something Provengal about them. are strongly articulated by interior arcading and with ffansverse arches. The aisles are divided Roman manner. Bells are very often hung not
Agde, a construction of the middle of the twelfth exterior spur buttresses of substantial construc- by arches and covered with quadrant vaulting in towers, but in gabled walls pierced with
century, was fortified in consequence of royal tion. There is sometimes a transept, with a towcr (asat Arles) or ramping parallel tunnel vaulting arches (wall belfries, belfry walls, or bell-cotes).
permission granted in r r73. over the crossing or, failing a transept, over (as at the cathedral of Vaison). The aisles were C//11.f occur in churches which attractcd a
Saint-Guilhem-le-D6sert22 (eleventh and the bay immediately preceding the apse. This kept narrow, and the nave vaulting relatively pilgrimage.
twelfth centuries) is picturesquely set in a bay and the apse are often lower than the rest 01 low, supported on interior arcading and pro- At Les-Saintes-Maries-de-la-Merr+ [Ig8l
mountain valley above Aniane. The church, the nave. Porches are rare. but do occur (as in vided with stout spur buttresses. Since large there is a two-store-v church of pilgrimage, pro-
well known, is Lombardic, rather than Pro- the cathedral of Avignon, and the Lombardic windows were not needed' clerestoriescould be vided with a cr].pt, which makes a third level.
venEal or Languedocian. It is stoutly built and 'I'he
lateral portal of the cathedral of Embrun).
completely r,aulted over a satisf'actory clere- lbrtilied church,
r98.Les Saintes-\'Iaries-de-la-Iler,
portals sometimes take classical forrn (Car-
storl'. The sanctuary wider, later, and more twelfth centur.v
pentras, Saint-Gabriel, Saint-Quinin at Vaison.
finished than the nar,e represents an intended Saint-Restitutr3), but important examples are
reconstruction which was planned to sweep embrasured and enriched by tympanum sculp-
awa]' the earlier work completelv. Saint-Guil- ture and other reliefs, as well as by columns and
hem had a verv fine cloister, with carvings of statuar),' set on plinths which project in front
'l'his
ProvenEal character. cloister has been part- of the faqades (Arles, Saint-Gilles; Sainte-
ly re-erected at The Cloisters in New York, Marthe at Tarascon has a similar portal with
where multitudes har,e learned lrom it the architectural embellishment onlv).
charms of thesc old monastrc courts.
We mav now proceed to examine the char-
D et ai ls of S uper strucI ur e
actcristics of typical Provenqal churches, noting
f i r s t o l - a l l t h e s c a r c i r _ ro l i n r e r e s t i n g m o n a s r i c If one remembers that the buildings which we
churches, and the abundancc of interesting have been considcring are contemporar.v with
cathedral buildings - thc result of historical the Earlv Gothic constructions at Chartres
processesin the region. The towns were achiev- Cathedral (rr35-8o) and Paris Cathedral (the
ing strong civic consciousncssand were making sanctuary arm in its original form, 1163 77)
important progress in self-government during t h e ] - a p p e a r c o n s e r v a t i v e .B u t t h e y s h o w h i g h
the twclfih centurv) when most of the mature competence on the part of the architects, buil-
Provengal Romanesque buildings were built. ders, and decorators, whose designs, strongh
impregnated with the provincial Roman tradi-
tions of the region, have a convincing soliditt',
T1,les oJ'Plan
generous proportions, and (as a rule) a finc
The southern French cathcdral of the twellth s e n s eo f ' a m p l e i n t e r i o r s p a c e .
century was not a highly evolvcd building, part- Fine block masonrv in limestone, resembling
ly becausc the southern diocesesare small. Con- Roman work, was used in the better construc-
sequentl.v thc church plans are simple; ccrtain tions, and it gives them great dignitv. N{arblc
ambitious buildings, such as the cathedral at was used lbr manl- decorative carvings. Sculp-
Arles, are aisled and triapsidal, likc the basilicas, tured figures and accessory elements strongll'
262 N I I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
A fourth was created by paving the upper vault;
surrounded by battlements, this terrace made
the building a citadel and fortress, which is not
really unusual in Provence. The turret over the
sanctuary is surmounted by a bellry wall ofbold
outline. More unusual are the Italianate tlvers
of Puissalicon (lree-standing), Uzis (round, and
pierced by openings with paired arches under
an enclosing arch) and Cruas2s(about ro98; an
amusing round lantern on a rounded crossing
tower).
Returning to the interiors, we find that cruci-
form piers are the usual supports or wall
arcading in aisleless buildings. Deep interior
with transverse vaults occur in the aisle-
reresse.s
lesschurches (Cavaillon); pier forms (Le Thor),
and columnar shafts are also used in this situ-
ation. The piers usually have dosserets' and
o f t e n a s m a l l c o l u m n r e p l a c e sr h e a n g u l a r p T E Rr 4
do.-
seret ar the top of the pier (Digne. Arignonr,..
Some examples are very eleganr indecd, xl,1 W I ' T F IB O R D E R I N G A R E A SO N T H E L O I R E
UITANIA,
s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,t h e w a r m c l a s s i c a lt e e l i n g h e i n "
MEDI'I'ERRANEAN
made piquant bv a touch of medieial inrrginr"_ D THE
tion. The same is true of the mouldings.
A Roman architect visiting Provence in Ro_
manesque times would have seen much which
would have pleased his lancy by its rngagine
novelty in exploiting Late Classic lbrmsl he
would have seenlittle or nothing which he could
not have understood or admired. Even the
towers have a Roman matter-of-f'actness about
them; the roofs maintain the flat slope of'inli-
quity and are covered with tile; lorcll i.ine-
-vards,orchards, and pines embowcr thc mrrnu-
ments, and enchanting atmospheric cflects
as in ancient times.
c a r e s st h e m
thcVisigoths, who could not hold it with Spain'
lcft it open to Frankish conquest While the
Frrnkswereable to drive out the Moors, they
wereunableto protect the areafrom the Vikings,
whoinflictedterrible damage Assimilatedto
Frrnce,its westernpart passedto the English
by the historicalaccidentof a marriage,and
hrd to be reconqueredla promisingderelop-
oent of independenccin thc south was suffo-
catedby French conquestin the Albigensian
Wu.
The great rivers have kept it accessibleto
iders,and to trade. even from the Orient. The
Pyrenees have not preventedcontinuing con-
trctswith Spain.There harc bccn ccntresof
mtcllectual, spiritual,and artisticlile ar Tours,
Poitiers,Fleurv (or Sainr-Benoit-sur-Loire),
Limoges,Clermont, and Toulouse,but there
nevervtasonecommandingcentrelor all Aqui-
tania.The related
territory is madeup of areas
whicharerichly varied
iniopographl,climate,
ouilding
*",.ri.Ir. and ethnic rlpes - all ol'
th;m full
of characrerand intere.sr' On account
ot easycommunication.
the archirecturalareas
interpenetrate one another' with the result that
the grouping of their monuments inlo con-
venient regional schools has caused art histo-
ri:rns much Puzzlement.
-I'he
clearest of the suggested classifications
Velay
sets oll Languedoc, the Limousin, and
school, Auvcrg;ne as an-
as one architectural
other, and subdivides into'groups' the archi-
teclure ol the rasl and varied district remaining
in the West of France, stretching from the
south-west to southern Brittany'r
'groups' are recognized
Three architectural
fol-
in the school ot'the West of France, in the
w h ich
r e g i o n s : ( r ) T h e L o i r e a r e a , t o
lowing
the river itselfgives a certain unity; it consists
o f s o u t h B r i t t a n y . T o u r a i n e . S o l o g n e 'O r l 6 a n a i s '
with
Berry, and Bourbonnais; (z) Poitou, which
a
Anjou. Saintonge' and the south-west {brms
group; (3) P6rigord
more compact architectural
for con-
and the -\ngoumois Thc argumenr
the three groups as onc !lreater school
sidering
is a
is interesting. It rests on the fact that there
quite unusually high proportion of aisleless
mo-
.hur"he, - large and small, important and
e a r l r a n c l l a t e i n t h e a r e a : s o m e 65o to
desr,
r oo with aisles; moreover'
7oo aislelessto about
aisled churches olten have a special t1'pc of rvide
nave, and the others can most often, though
not alwa1.s,be ascribecl to outside influcnce''
In the inclusive greater school of the Loire
fbr
and the \\'est of France (here was a search
monumental and fireproof solutions through
as re-
the development of this aisleless type'
sourcesand requirements both increased durtng
coursc ol
the later cleventh century rnd in the
the trvellth.
 2 6 4 ' M I D D L E A N D S O U T H E R NF ' R A N C F ,
These works may fairly be considered as
'variations on an architectural theme'. The
ori-
gin ofthe theme is perhaps to be sought in large
Roman wooden-roofed open halls like the
Temple of Augustus in Rome and the Basilica
-I'rier,
in which had r,ery impressir,e unob-
structed interior space.
The theme of the region is thus to be recog-
nized in those edifices which have a very wide
wooden-roofed barn-like nave without aisles,
as often in Berry; or with aisles, as at Saint-
Hilaire, Poitiers, St Fulbert's Chartres, and the
old cathedral of Bourges. It is to be recognized
in those churches which have a wide tunnel-
vaulted nave, plain or with transverse arches;
and in those which by the use of parallel tunnel
vaults cover an ample nave with only slender
and unobstructive supports, as in Poitou. The
theme is equally ro be recognized in the build-
ings which cover an open nave with a succession
of domes, in P6rigord and near bv, and those
with domed-up rib vaults, which were intro-
duced about rr45 in Aniou to replace domed
construction.
In order to make the development clear, we
refer here to certain works in the region which
underlie the mature Romanesque of the area.
T T I EW E S ' I ' O FF R A N C E
The Loire Group
This area was really'the heir ofthe active archi-
tectural school of Carolingian Neustria. f'he
Norman raids, however, devastated northern
Neustria. During the period of recovery after
the Norman settlement (grr), Burgundian and
Lombard ecclesiastics greatly influenced Nor-
man churchmanship and architecture. This,
and the conquest ofEngland, gave a strong and
distinct orientation to the Norman school of
Romanesque architecture, which might other-
wise have been more like that of the southern
part of Carolingian Neustrra.
The Loire area, carrying on old Neustrjnl
traditions, was active in architecture; it
.on-
tinued to be a sourceofarchitcctural id",r,
rna
good mason nork; ir transmittcdmanr 1n111,1
encesto the Norman region. and it borr.r,$e.r
e s p e c i a l l li n t h e w e s t . L a c k i n g u n ; t ' , , i. r ; . , , , i _
sidered a weak school dtringthe mature Rorlan_
esque period paradoxically; becausethc y,^reat
buildings, though heterogeneous, e\cmplifv
such important architectural elements.
Odo of'Clunv seems to rei'er to the rvitie_nare
'theme
church' of the region in a dilicult tcrt. a
sermon deliveredabout go8 in the church of'g1
Martin at 1'ours, referring to the building as it
was befbre go3 (and, probably, befbre ,!;r):
'The
previous builders wished it to be arranged
with arcaded passages, because the strucrure.
though very wide, with the crowds pressing is
h a b i t u a l l v s o c o n s t r i c t e dt h a t t h e v o \ . c r t u r n t h e
choir benches and the little gates, in spitc of'
themselves.'3 This text, sometimes quotctl as
proof of an earlv ambulatorJ. at St \larrin,
merely indicates that aisles were requirccl ro
augment this wide-naved church becausc of
exceptional crowds.a t99.Saint-G6n6roux,
church,r. 95o
'Ihe
beautiful stone-work ofthe earlv pcriod
of building in the Loire country conrinued t0
be used and improved. Walls are ordinarilr of
fine white or buff limestone, with ashlar blocks
neatlv cut to a rather stubbv shape and rvcll l;rid
up with excellent mortar; thel-' are articuleted
b v s h a l l o w b u t t r e s s e s ,a n d o c c a s i o n a l h ' s h o r v
p a n e l so f ' r o u g h e r s t o n e s( l i k e t h o s e o f t h c 6 l l i n F
or hearting of the wall) which, with rheir un-
even contours and wide joints, enliven thc sur-
f'ace.Also, wall areasofcarefullv shaped ficing-
stones in a pattern, and clecorativepanel mould-
ings occur frequently.5
'lhe
important little thurch ol saint-(rerrt-
roux, probably built afier g-5o lr(lql, sh()\1s
excellent though restored examples ofplain rntr
-
p a t t e r n e dw a l l - w o r k . I t i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t .h {r $
e r e r , f b r i t s p l a n .o r i g i n a l l ya n o r a b l ce r a m p l . " r
the wide-naved theme (subsequenth' dirided
2oo. Autrdche,
church. tenth centurt.
266 M I D D L , EA N D S O U T I I E R NF R A N C E
into three). A Carolingian fl-v-ingscreen still
divides the nave from the transept, which for-
merly had dwarf arms extendinp; beyond the
nave wall line. The sanctuaries are in 6chelon.
The small parish church at Autreche [2oo] is
a good example ofthe wooden-ro<lfed nave-and-
chancel type of structure which must have been
verl- widely built on a modest scale in the tenth
century'. The wall is stayed on the exterior by
semi-cylindrical buttresses ofa type which later
becomes lamiliar on the tall Norman interiors.
At Crrvant the church (perhaps dating fiom
the tenth century) has unusuallv good pat-
terned wall-work.
Almost as imposing as St X'Iartin of Tours,
t h e c a t h e d r a l( r o r z f f . ) a n d t h e c h u r c h o f S a i n t -
A i g n a n ( r . r o r 8 f 1 . ) a t O r l 6 a n s r e p r e s e n t e dt h e
grandeur of the early school on the rniddle
course of the river. Both buildings were large
in scale, basilican in arrangement, and provided
with apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels.
zor. Saint-Bcnoit-sur-Loire,ahbevchurch,
r. r o.3otwclfth ccntury.
N o t c f l v i n g b u t t r e s s eosf a p s e( p . 4 9 r . N o t c 4 7 )
$,
AQUITANIA. WITH I } O R D E R I N GA R F , A S 2 6 i
The clypt of Saint-Aignan, with this layout, is
N .eart1 Io f /l cdnf urli ffi
still in existence. According to an eleventh-
centurl' text6 it was copied from that o[ Clcr- I rrrH m LIo der n
mont-Ferrand (9,16), but its fbrms are more
maturc.
The old abbey of Fleury, or Saint-Benoir-
sur-Loire (also on the middle course of the #::'* .# .p,,$..,,{p:-5:,{-r. -l+
river, near Germigny-des-Pres), erected a re-
markable church of the mature style in the
,. , ': .,'tl.r ii
r,lr/
i
c o u r s eo f a c e n t u r y f o l l o w i n g t h e r o 6 o s [ z o r - 4 ] . ffi....t{$'., .w* &
ll
It exemplifies the ideas ofthe school better than
any other building, and embodies an augusr
h i s t o r v . I n 6 7 3 , d u r i n g t h e d e s o l a t i o no f M o n t c - zoz and zo3 ( below) . Sint-Benoit-sur-Loire'
c a s s i n o( 5 8 r 7 r 4 ) , t h e b o n e s o f ' S tB e n e d i c t w e l t abbeychurch,c Io8o-trvelfthcenturv
brouglrt to Fleury, where the1,are still venerated. PlanshowsRenaissance choir platftrrm,nou remored
(It seems that in 749, at the request of Popc
Zachar.v and Pepin the Short on behalf ot by a pair of aisles, all tunnel-vaulted above two
wasperhaps wooden-roofed before being cover-
Montecassino, a small parcel was returned.) \ files of columns. Then. with its chord on the east
ed by the existing Gothic vault. Following the
pilgrimage to'Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire' derel- line ofa dwarftransept marked by two engaging
nave is a Romanesque transept with a tall cross-
oped. Gaucelin (illegitimate son of Hugh Capet) ing tower (which makes it, like St Martin, a dwarf towers, comes a spacious apse with am-
became abbot in roo4. He and :r notrble abber church with two axial towers); following this b u l a t o r y a n d t w o r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s( t h c n u m b e r
school gave lustre to the house; its influencr there is a handsome long sanctuary ba1' flanked being even, as it $'ould be in Auvcrgne). The
e x t e n d e d t o E , n g l a n da n d S p a i n . T h e m c d i o a l
abbel' buildings have long since becn replacecl.
but, except for the mutilation of its westcrn
tower, thc church still exists in a very perfcct
state. Its composition begins with the mutilated
tower-porch iust mentioncd, n'hich lost its
upper stage as punishment to the monks for rc-
sisting their first commendatorv abbot ( r 525 7 ).
T h e n r i d d l e s t a g es u r v i v e s a s a d i s u s e d C h a p e l
o f S t N I i c h a e l ,a n d t h e o p e n g r t ) u n d s t a g es e r v c s ,
as it always has, to sheltcr the main entrancc
door ofthe church. This, ofcourse, is a develop-
ment of the fortificd entrance-$av-and-chapel
tower which we have followcd all the way lrorrr
the church of'St Martin at Tours, built nearthc
s a m c r i r e r i n $ 6 - 1 2 .T h e e x a m p l e a t S a i n t -
B e n o i t - s u r - L o i r e i s a d m i r a b l v s u b s t a n t i a l ,v a u l -
ted in nine compartments over lbur interior sup-
ports on each level, with elaborate sculpturecl
capitals.
The nave beyond is of Romanesque con-
s t r u c t i o n w i t h a p a i r o f g r o i n - v a u l t e d a i s l e s .I t
I
 {R}.qS 209
AQtlT\NlA, WITH BORDLRING

w
1A
apse pavement is raised above a spacirlus crvpt
which has three rvindows (reopened) looking
91 the sanctuarv bar'.
sembles the chevet of'the church of Saint-
Genou, rvhich is also long, tunnel-like, well
lighted, and columnar. Both hare engaging
The building has a clerestory throughout. blind arcading, with balustcr columns, as a
Deformations show that this has put a strain on dccorative frieze abovc thc main arcadc.t
the walls of the apse end. The tower-porch mav Saint-Bcnoit-sur-Loire as we know it bcgan
represent the tamous tower which Abbot t o c o m c i n t o b e i n g a b o u t r o 7 r . I t s u f f e r e dl r o m
G a u c e l i nb e g a n t o e r e c t a b o u t r o z o . I l ' s o , i t h a s fire in rogi. but there was a dedication in r ro8
s u r e l y b e e n r e b u i l t ; t h e r i c h c r c a r v i n p l so f - t h c r v h i c i r m u s t h a v e s e e n r h c c s s c n t i a lp a r t s o f t h e
ground storel'seem to belong to a ltter date building complete, though construction con-
the late eleventh centurv, perhaps. Figured tinucd until about rr1o.
capitals in the upper stage indicate a date of' On the borders of Burgundv, and showing
about roTo 8o. Doubtless the tower resembled clear Burgundian influencc in thc beautiful
fine examples at Ebreuil [zo5], Germignl'- sculptured portal, Saint-Benoit's priorl. ol'
I'Exempt, and in the Poitevin arca Lesterps, Pcrrecr'-les-Forgcs has a fine tlvelfih-centurv
before it was mutilated.; The sanctuan' (its t o w e r - p o r c h i n t h e s t 1 ' l eo f t h e L o i r c r c g i o n .

p pavement now lowered to thc old lerel) rc- giving cntrance to a ty'pical church of'archaic
form, clated in the eleventh.century. This
o. ,'v zo5.Ebreuil, church, tower and porch,
church is as good an example ofthe interpene-
:.:..".*,. twelfth centurr'
tration ofLigerine and Cluniac influences as the
more famous examples, La (,haritd-sur-I-oire
i
a n d S a i n t - E t i c n n e ,N e t e r s . T h e c r r r e d p o r t a l
is a berrutiful example, cl:rtedabout r r o-5.
Among the (,luniac priories, the church of
Bourbon-Lancv p;ivesa good idea of Cluny II
,:l a s i n t e r p r e t e di n t h c L o i r c r e g i o n .
t" At La (-harit6-sur-Loire'' thc original build-

rM
iq J'i
i n g , b e g r . r ni n r o 5 g o r s h o r t l ! a l i e r , h a d a n a p s e
cchclon.
'l'he
chevet rvls enlarplcdwhen the
a;: b u i l d i n g w a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d( f b l l o w i n g t h c d c d i -
w
'::t,:. cation of rroT) to rcsemble Clunl'' III. The
t 7'"
,?::,:',,1; sanctuary is dcep, with several ba-vs, bcyoncl
**1 : which it has a fine apsc and an ambulatorv with
Y'' f i v c r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,s o m e w h i r tm o r e l o g i c a l l y
planned thirn thosc at (.lunv. There is much
g r c a t e r e m p h a s i st h a n r r t C , l u n vo n t h e c o l u m n s
(rathcr stout) which sustainthc apse wall, and

lr
t h e a p s ei t s e l f r e a c h e st h e h c i g h t o f t h e s a n c t u a r l
v a u l t . I n t h e s ed c v i a t i o n sl r o m C l u n v , t h e a r c h i -
tect of La Charit6, doubtless traincd in the
L o i r e r e g i o n , f b l l o w e d l o c a lc u s t o m .
'l '!'
'I'hc
great north-$'est ton'cr at La (,harir[
I r 6 6 1u a s p e r h a p sb c g u n a b o u t r r j o a n d f i n i s h c d
late in thc centurv. Whilc the design does not
zo4. Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire,
abbeychurch, r. rol.iotwclfth centurr
 AQUITANIA, wlTH BoRDERtNG ARLAS 27I
MIDDI,E AND SOUTHIRN FRANCE

<lepart greatlv from Burgundian models, it has zo6 ( hLlon). Lochcs,Saint-Ours,before t I6ll
a type of arcading which was used with great 2o7( ot'posit(
). Ncuvl-Saint-S6pulcre,church
effectivencss in the Loire country' and never lbundcd ro4z
with nobler, richer, or more imposing effect than
here. The tower is seen from great distances in
sweeping views over thc river, lvhich makes a
wondcrful big bow ncar La Charit6.
Chitcaumeillantr" has a Bencdictine church
with r arious f-eatureswhich parallel those of La
Charit!. It is a fine example on a smaller scale,
and has not undergone the disasters which have
injured the greatcr building.
We easily recognizc the same activity and
energetic character in the designs for Saint-
Eticnne, Neversll (ro68 97) [r45, I46]. As
noted, this was an important Cluniac priory;
its architecturalinfluence spread to smaller
houses which it possessed in the region. The
architect drew upon Burgundian and Pilgrim-
age themes, and in his nave. where he intro-
duced a clerestory under the tunnel vault' he
surpassed his models. The smaller churches
which abound in the region, Cluniac or not,
have the same crisp air. Here the aislelesschur-
ches *'ith projecting transepts and f'airlv tall there was an aisled sanctuar]' with ambulatory
in the nave,
the median columns of a double ba-v''
crossing toivcrs often make similar Burgundian dated before r I68, which cover its nave. There long
which otherwise has slender piers as supports and radiating chapels; there was also a
buildings seem rather placid by' comparison.li is an obvious connexion here with the wide nar cs navc nith I Gothic faqade' and rccent excava-
'I'he of pointed tunnel vaulting lvith transversc
open-naved, rvooden-roofed'theme of Pdrigord and near by, unobstructed, aud tions have uncovered remains of a transept'
arches.
covered with domes, which we shall consiclcr 'l'he
church' of western France, earlv suggesteclat
The rotunda derelops in the Loirc region lbur arms of thr; church were pushed out'
Saint-G6n6rour Irgq], was magnificentl]' re' presently. Meanwhile we take up other erccp- so to speak, lrom the central well bv the
two
with Carolingian precedent; for example, at 'l'his
presented on a g;rand scale about Ioo5 .1o in tional buildings. aislcs. ensemble must have pro-
Ferridres-en-Gitinais there are in the parish annular
the important church of Beaulieu-les-Loches { r ' c r r e l e g a n t a i s l e d r w c l t i h - c e n l u r } c h t r r ' (h t i u c e c la n i n t e l c s t i n g b t r t r a t h e r r i o t o u s a r c h i -
church traces ol an octagon (inspired fiom that
(near the Loire Rivcr; later remade as a Vaulted with the aislespracticalll'as high as the nate tectur'rl ellect.
of Aachen) which was built fbr Alcuin's old 3
hall church, now partly rebuilt, partlv ruined). e x i s t sa t S a i n t - R d re r i e n . r "T h i s w a s a C l u n i r r c f'he church of Neuvv-Saint-Sipulcrel [zo7]
monastery.
A later and t-vpical example, extant near priorr'. and the church has pointed arch :lrJ s simpler rotunda, intcnded to bc arl
p o s s e s s ea
Saint-B6nigne at Diion [ro8, roql and the
Bourges, is the church of Les Aix d'Angillonlr v a u l l c o n s t r u c t i o n r . r h i c hl o o k s C l u n i a c , b u t t l r c instur in the likencss of'thc Holv Scpulchre'
Dome of the Rock in -lerusalem inspired thc
(tweltih century'). A contemporarv example b a s i c i n s p i r a t i o n c o m e s l i o m t h e 5 q h s 6 l r' 1 ' \cur1-Saint-Sdpulcrc originated in a fbund-
boldest of the rotundas in the Loirc region
betwecn Clunv ancl Lyon, almost at the south- Poitou, where tunnel-r'aulted hall churcht' ation of ro.1z. ruhen the Holv Sepulchre was
tn
that built in the early-twelfth centurv fol the
eastern extrcmity' of the school of'the Loire, is a b o u n d . S a i n t - R d v 6 r i e nh a s s o m eg r o i n t a u l t i r r ' : ruins. Houcrcr, thc building was known
P o w e r l u la b b e r o l ( . h a r r o u r . r a n d n o u a r u i n
t h e c h u r c h o f B e a u j e u .I I a r t h e e a s te n d ( a n d n e c e s s a r i l yi n t h c a m b u l ' t -
The central *.ll of,h. rotunda survives as an through manuscripts and pilgrims' Construc-
A noteworthv aislelcss church is Slint-Ours tory) along with semi-domes oYer the apse lntl t i o n w a s b e g u n i n I o 4 5 o r r 0 : + 6w h e n C o n s t a n -
openwork tower. uith a cr\pt at its base'lbrm-
a t L o c h e s l s [ 2 0 6 ] , i n t e r e s t i n gf b r i t s t w o R o m a n - radiating chapelsas is usual everywhere. 1'hc ing a platform on which, as in a
'femplars' tinc Nlonomachos was rebuilding the originat
church is beautifully lighted and elegantly opcn 'fhe
esque axial towers, but er,en more so lbr the two Church, the principal altar wrrs set. In addition rotuncla (1o45-8). cxisting navo at \eu\'y'
hollow octagonal spires in ashlar masonry, 1 ' h e g r a c e t u lc o l u m n s o l ' t h e a p s ea r e e c h o e Ji "

272 |'/IIDDLE AND SOtTl HLRN FRA\t'E
i s o f t h e e l e v e n t hc e n t u r y , a n d t h e r o t u n d a m a y
be in large part. It was fbrmerll encircled b-v
residences, stout lbrtifications, and a moaf.r"
Nlention ofthesc rotundas offers the occrrsion
lbr rn excursion to Brittanv; for the only notable
Romanesque building in that region is Sainte-
Croir at Quimperld,r" dated rt87 but restored
after a collapsc in 1862. It is related to both
Charroux and Neurv-Saint-56pulcre. Thc nu-
cleus of the building is a r aultcd squarebay oi'
heavv construction. surrounded bv a ponderous
r o u n d a i s l e ,a n d m a d e c r u c i ( b r m b 1 ' f b u r v a u l t e d
extensions. It is rather rough and provincial in
exccution.
That Brcton Romanesque churches should
have connexions with the p;roup of the Loire is
understanclable when wc remembcr that Tours
was the Breton ccclesiastical mefropolis, and
t h a t c o m m c r c ea n d o t h c r c o m m u n i c r t i o n su e r e
e a s i e rb v t h e w a t e r s s o u t h o f t h c p e n i n s u l a t h a n
lrom NormandJ'or overland. Onh'Rennes and
its rcgion had closc connexions with Normand-v.
Limestone was actuallv imported lrom the
C h a r e n t e f b r b u i l d i n g ; c n g i n e e r sa n c la r c h i t e c t s
-I'he
lblloued the same route. church ol'Saint-
S a u v e u r a t D i n a n h a s P o i t e v i n c h a r a c t e r ,a n d
wc 6nd the ambulltorv usuallv a witness to
'-l'ouraine
inflr.rencc fiom at Loctudl , at
Lantl6renncc, and at Saint-Gildrrs-dc-Rhuis,
where Pierre Abelard was abbot, and had an
thc monks on his hands in
insurrection among,^.
r r.38.
'l
h e o l d c a th e d r a l si n t h e g r c a t c r c i t i e su e r e
i n m a n y c a s e sR o m r n e s q u c , b u t t h e v h a v e b e e n
r e p l a c e d ; n o f i r s t - r a t c R o m a n e s q u cm o n u m e n t s
r e m : r i ni n t h e r e g i o n .
Beforelearing thc group of thc Loire Ibr Poitou,
it \\'ill be wcll to look at sc\ eral fine monuments
of militarv architccture which have conncxions
with both regions.'I'hc nerv-built fortifications
ofthe earlv medicval period in western Europe
were tvpicallv in rvood. F-ulk Ncrra's masonrv
donjon at Langeais (r. r ooo) inaugurates a grear
series in stone irnd a long period ofhieh achier t-
ment by the French engineers.
Chinon onrheVienneharastrongsituatiorr,
and it was important even in Celtic times.
Largelv becauseofits strength as a fortress, thc
historv of Chinon is studded with grert namcs
Clor,is; Geoffroy' \{artcl of Aniou; Henrl
Plantagenct and Richard Caur de Lion of'E,ng-
land; Charles VII of'France and Joan of Alc;
'Chiteau
R a b e l a i s ;R i c h e l i e u . I n t h e du MilicLr'
is the site of the Roman castrum and the wartl
(unusually long for its width) of the early medi-
'l'he
cval fortress. tweltth-century Grand Logis
or ro1,ll dwelling where Henry' II Plantagenet
died in rr89 irnd wherc in r4z9 Charles VII
reccived Joan of Arc, is rebuilt, and a ruin.
Other old towcrs and walls have also been much
r e b u i l t a n d a u g m e n t c d ; w i t h h t c r a d d i t i o n st h c
chiteau is a most imposing arral' of militalr
works.
A much better idea of militarv architecturr
in the Romanesque period is given by the splen-
did torver at Beaugency, and the two to\lcr\
in the donjon at Lochcsrr fzo8l. Beaugencr r.
roughlv square; the larger tower at Lochcs
measures about eightv by forty-{ivc feet, tuie.
the dimensionsof the smaller. When first built
a l l o f ' t h e m m e i r s u r e da b o u t r 3 o l c e t i n h e i g h r .
'l'heir
sheer prccipitous walls are in excellcnt
a s h l a r w i t h s l i g h r l r p r o i e c t i n gb u t t r e s s e s n i l '
a s t e r s t r i p s a t B e a u g e n c - \ ,a n d s e m i - c v l i n t l e t '
a t L o c h e s . I n b o t h c a s e st h e c x t e r i o r s a r c s t r i c t l \
b u s i n c s s - l i L e ,r v i t h n o s c r r c h t b l t h e g r : r c er l h i . l r
one usually' perceivcs in a nronument of' the
Loire region.
-I'he
plan of the towcrs tt ,tt. utu,,t .,na ,,"'
the ags: it merely called lbr simple open roonl
one above another, with floors of timbcr, sntrtll
w i n d o r v s , a n d f i r e p l a c e s .T h e e x a m p l e a t B er r L r -
gencr. datcd in the clercnth cenlun, i' tlt'
m o s t a d m i r c r lo l i t s t r p c i n l i r a n c c . . l t I . o e l r e '
t h e R o m a n c s q u cc o n s l r u e t i o no f t h e e l c r e t l t l r
a n d t u e l t t h c e n t t t r i e si s n o u e i r d l ( ' d b r r r t l r 't
ll
zo8.Loches,donjon, r. rroo
works which, though verl' simple, conf-esstheir
late date by significant dctails such as the
almond-shlped plirn of thc proiecting towers.
The severer character of earlier medieval work
is clearly shown b1' comparing the rounded
towers of Loches with the lrowning semi-
circular towers of the chiteau at Angers, built
after r r8o, and indecd largcly in the thirteenth
century by Philippe-Auguste and Louis IX.
The upper parts of the torvers ancl certain out-
lying works har,e been destroyed, so that the
effect is rather ofa Rornancsque than a Gothic
chiteau. It should be noted, holrever, that there
is no such thing as a school of the Loire in
military architecture; that was inter-regional
like the wars which brought it into being, and
It was lor the most part the work of engineers.
From the rcport wc havc made, it is obvious
that the architcctural group of the I-oire is not
easily summarized. 'l'here was no grcat unl-
AQUITANIA, WITH BORDERINGARDAS 273
fying institution, such as the Burgundian school
had, to bring it to a focus. Instead, old motit's
flowed up and down the river, and outside
motifs flowed into the valley from the water-
shed. Another simile might be that of a tree
with grafted branches of various sorts. One sap
makes them all live ; the sap, in the group of the
Loire, is the lively inheritance of Carolingian
ideas and Neustrian tradition.
The Arc hitectur nl Grou p oJ'Poit ou,
nith ,4njou, Saintonga, and the South-West
The greatest historical, spiritual, and intellec-
tual centre of this region the western part ol'
Carolingian Aquitania was Poitiers. It was an
important citv under the Romans. Resounding
military victories were won near by in early
medieval times, none more important than that
of Charles Nlartel over the Saracens in 732.
'I'here
was a brilliant court at Poitiers in the
Romanesque period. The eminence of the
church of Poitiers goes back to its Early Chris-
tian bishop, Hilary, whose shrine has been a
place ol'pilgrimage throughout succeeding cen-
turies. The baptistery of Poitiers is one of the
oldest buildings o{'its kind.
O n e o f t h e m a i n r o u t e so f t h e W a y o l ' S t J a m e s
(Paris Orl6ans Bordeaux) passed through Poi-
tiers, and unquestionably contributed to the
spread of Poitevin architectural motif's to the
south-west of France and to northern Spain.
Onlv at Santiago de Compostela were the Span-
iards able to build in the grandest French Ro-
manesque st.vle; elsewhere they olten built in
simpler forms which can be traced back to
Poitou and its region.
Excellent limestonc is available in the area
ofthc Poitevin school; it is white, weathering
pleasantly to bufI.s and warm greys. The stone-
cutting and mason-work are excellent, but the
dcsigners kept to earlv solutions of vaulting and
compositional problems in the twelfth century'
Poitevin dcsigners werc seeking and xchisvrng
 B O R D E R I N GA R E A S 275
AeUtTANIA' wlTH
2 ' 1 1' M T D D L t AND SOUTHERNFRANCE

the hall church arrangement' Slend(r

magnificent Romanesque decorative effects at olified by
piers with applitJ
thc time when thc practical ground-work of Ivfindrical piers' or grouped 'crushin-'
l i k e s t i l t s can carrs the
Gothic architecture was being laid in Burgundy .otu1nnt.
vault, since the lateral laul:s
and the i1.-d.-F.attc". weight ofthe high
placed to absorb thrust' InlvarJ
Poitou was early concerned rvith effects o1' are perfectly
from the aisle vaults partly neutraliz's
clear interior space, as the old nar,e of Saint- thrust
vaults' Transverse arch(s
Hilaire in Poitiers indicates.By the middle of the thrust ofthe high
responds in tlc
the eleventh centurv forward-looking designers in the vaults strengthen them;
walls and stout spur buttresses easily car:r
began to take an interest in vaulting problems. aisle
there:s
The lbrmer abbey' church of Lesterps2r pre- the thrusts to the ground. Sometimes
on tre
sents an early example of the solution of the arcading between the open buttresses
a building. Such arcading makes for 't
problem ofthe vaulted church of basilican plan flanks of
wall over the window openings, and sul'-
which rvas widelv adoptcd in Poitou. If the stiffer
clerestorv be given up and it mav be in this Dortsthe crenellations ifthe building is fortifieJ'
region the nave supports miry be more slender, The roofing is carried over nave and aisles t'-
-
and consequentll' less obstructive. With the gether in a vast two-sloped turtle-back a sin-
aisles approaching the nare in height, the gen- ple form which obviates much trouble in mair-
eral efl'ect of such a building is that of an ample tenance.
hall with generous sp:rce in it, fustity'ing the This type of church spread lar and rvide cn
usualname'hall church'. Such interiors are less its own merits.
dramatic and less brilliantly lighted than the A much admired example of the Poitei:n
typical basilica, but have a space-beauty oftheir style stands handsomelv at Saint-Savin-su:-
own. At Lesterps [zo9] the present nave just Gartempe [zrol. The church, though norv par'- 216.S1in1-Slvin-sur-Gartempe,
abbel church'

east of the tower porch already mentioned rep- c h i a l ,w a s b u i l t b y a p o w e r f u l a b b e v ; i t i s v i s i t ' e ( . 1 0 6 0I I t 5 ' n a \ c

zorl.Lcstcrps,abbel church,dcdicatedIoTo
r e s e n t sa c h u r c h o f ' r o 3 z w h i c h w : r sd a m a g e db - v f r o m c o n s i d e r a b el d i s t a n c e sb e c a u s ea r e r l s l c : -
fire about r o4o and continued very handsomely, der and beautiful Gothic spire carries the we't 'l'hc
fronttoa greatheight 3rzfeet.Thelorlerpa:t piers ancl separated bv transversc arches'
in line austere forms with noble and simple crr,pts, and appears abore ground in Catalan supported on reall'l splen-
o f t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a R o m a n c s q u ea x i a l e r - rit ofri", latcr ba.vs,
geometry, as a hall church, covered by semi- churches befbre the ]'ear rooo. In Poitou supcr- colrtmns' wcre btrilr con-
tlid'ercar c y l i n d r i c a l
circular tunnel vaulting with transverse archcs. structures ol'this tvpe achieved a quite ner trance tower which goes back, at least, to rob:.
with Clunl lll and Durham
'l'his Beyond are the nate. lransept with crossirS i..iorrntoutlv
work was dedicatedin Io7o. sense of ample scale and openness,rvith rich part of the nave ls qurte com-
'I'he tower, apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapeir. Cathedral. This
wide wooden-roofed nave of Ileaulieu- dccoration on the faqades, but their plans rc-
in artistic qualitl' to Clun-v III and
les-Loches was divided by' two files ol'piers and mained relativell' simple in most cases. According to the most recent studies. tie n"Jt
;;;;"-: it was most beautifulll'' dcsigned fbr
corered by three parallel tunnel vaults about .\s thc t\4elfth centur\ adranccd, pointetl o l d e s t p a r r s o f t h e c h u r c h p r o p e r ( a p s e ,a m b - -
.1".-n-r", b1' the ever-memorable series of
archcs and 't':rultstook the placc of scmicircular latory, radiating chapels and transept, at tle
ro8o, and the church thus becamc a hall is
i;r.;.. called thc Bible of'St Savin, which
church.l ones,uith goo.l cllect. it\ \ e mx\ ree in the t.rll east) are to be dated about ro6o 75. Perhals
linest works of its kind. Thc palntrngis,
there was originalll- an open wooden-roolid one ol'thc
Thus before the twelfih century began, there tunnel vault with transverse arches at Chau- in tonality, are sup-
n a v e ,e x t e n d e d a b o u t I o 7 5 8 5 b y t h e c o n s t r u . - tawnr.and reddish-brown
was a satistactorl' t1''peof Poitevin church with vignv (begun afier rtoo).:5 To be sure the
bv others in the crypt and the
tion ofthe western bays ofthe existing nave, brt J.-"n,.a
the western arm covered b-vthree parallel tunnel pointed nave has its most dramatic and brerrth- piers'
;r;;;.r, and bv a striking'ma'bling' ofthe
taking expression when the vault is seen floating demolished about ro95 to make wal'' fbr the s:r
vaults. Of these the middle one is regularly :i[.r, up an ensemble which is still
existing eastern bays' rvhich were hnished fr ,11an.
somewhat higher and wider than the others. abore a pool ol light from a clercston,but it i' and perfect':"
'I'his rIr5. This nave, more generousin dimensicn sineularl)' complete
nave is (except for end windows) depen- true that a shadorvednave Vault, such as uc "'
h n ' i o ' t a n earll cxample ut the h'rll
than the chevet, has wide, high, groin-raultrJ F;;;.;:'
dent on openings placed high in the aisles for see in this Poitevin type of church, imparls ttt t h r o u g h l h e r e w o r k t n go r
aisles; the central nave is tunnel-raulted' wi:ir or three-na\e church
its light. The scheme is an old one which rvas a r e l i g i o u s b u i l d i n g a s e n s eo f g e n t l e s h e l t e r i n g (ro75) [z5rl, but rt retatns
the three western bays, only, carried by group.J th. Nlonti...teuf'"
used by the Romans; it was earll' adopted for mvsterv. Statical problems are ver\r much sim-

^-
 276 I / ' I D D L EA N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E AQUITANIA, WITH BORDERINGAREAS 277

(though in a disappointing setting which em-
phasizes unfortunate additions, and with dis-
tasteful restored interior polvchromy) the fine
church of Notre-Dame-la-Grande28 [z r r, z r z],
datable perhaps to r r30 45, or at anv rate to the
first half of the twellth century.
Notre-Dame-la-Grande, in spite of its name,
i s n o t a v e r l . l a r g e c h u r c h . I t h a s a n a p s ec a r r i e d
columns on each side) and the arches abo...
show a lavish use of decorated roussoir, 1.-
signed individually with radiating motifs. l.n1_
eral decorative arcading of similar charaqcr
but pointed, encloses paired arches with bl,rnk
tympana, and above all three enclosing arches
runs a system of spandrels embellished \\ith
figure sculpture and crowned by an claborate

zr r. Poitiers, Notre-Dame-la-Grande, ,. r rlo +5 zIz. Poitiers, Notre-Dame-la-Grande, r. r r jo .15

on cvlindrical columns and an ambulatorl. of
polvgonal erterior plan, with three radiating
'l'his
chapels. construction is attachcd to an
intermediatc bav with a crossing tower, and a
'I'he
tvpical round-archcd dark nave. aisles arc
covercd with groin vaulting throughout. Spur
buttresses and applied arcading gir.e a tl.pical
Poitevin lateral elevation, and the old part of'
t h c b u i l d i n g i s c o r . c r e dw i t h t h e u s u a l s l a b - s i d e d
roof in two slopes.
Thc f'agadcis r.crv rr,pical o1'the latcr Poitevin
fiqades; it is generalll accepted as a sort of
paradigm, though it is perhaps the richest and
'I'he
finest of'them all. profile, basilican, does
not correspond to thc rool'behind it, but gives
cmphasisto the three axial motives of the com-
'I'hc
position. d o o r w a v i s t 1 , ' p i c aol f t h e r e g i o n ;
i t h a s n o l i n t e l o r t ) . m p a n u m , a n d i s e n c l o s e di n
lbur orders of'stumpv columns (two bundles of'
arched corbel table. The axial motivc of' thc
middle register is a vast window, with two zoncs
of'arcading to eachside. The arcadingherc en-
closes statuary, and is richlv bordered. Once
morc an elaborate corbel table marks a stagc in
the composition, but it is broken by the richll
bordered window arch, and thus prepares tl.rc
ey-efor the pcdimental string course, which cn-
g a g e sa h u g e , r i c h l r c a r v e d a n d b o r d e r e d r . t r e , t
o n t h e a x i s o f t h e u p p e r s t a g eo r p e d i m e n t . l h c
e n t i r e p e d i m e n t a sl t a g ei s l ' a c e dw i t h i n l e r t . t i n {
p:rtterncd masonr\ and capped by a ponrnr.l'
'l
h i s w h o l e c o m p o s i t i o nh a s a n o r i e n t l l r i t h -
n e s sa b o u t i t - p e r h a p s t h e r i c h n e s so f ' a B r z a n -
t i n e i r o r l c a s k e tr a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f \ l r r . l t r n
architecture, but the oriental suggcstion is Ltn-
mistakable. The taste fbr it probabll'owes sonte'
t h i n g t o a c t u a l o r i e n t a l t r a d e , t h e C r u s a d c s .l t r o
the rcfler from the Pilgrimage to Santiago.
On Notre-Dame-la-Grande the corner tur-
rets are of typical form also. Bundles of three
engagedcolumns set iust back from the corners
support a stubby drum engaged with the f'agade
on each side, and with the flanks ofthe building
at the eaveslevel. Above each drum there is an
open cylindrical arcaded stage capped with a
conoidal roof and pommel. The roofs are as
usual built of radiating srones with slanting
tronts. Each slanting lront has an integral imbri-
cation or scallop proiecting from it. The faces
ofthe imbrications are vertical, so that a
iolly
l n v e r t e d f i s h - s c a l ep a t r e r n
results. Such roofs
< l r a i ne a s i l y b e t w e e n
the imbricarions, but the
vertical
ioints in the troughs often give trouble.
The crossine
tower of Nltre_Dame_la_Grande
has a simila-r roof
above a cvlindrical arcaded
alrd columnar
upper stage. *hiah .a.,. on ,n
arcaded square
intermediate belfry stage, in
turn supported by an arcaded square stage
which houses the crossing vault. Tower, turrets,
and imbrications are repeated, with variations,
elsewhere and are, in fact, characteristic ofthe
Poitevin architectural group. The-v spread to
the medieval domed churchcs of P6rigord, and
thence in modern times to the Sacr6-Coeur in
Paris.
'I'he
bundle of shafts with a pinnacle which
we have seen as the motif of the corner turrcts
of Notre-Damc-la-Grande has an interesting
history. Used independently, it is the theme of
the charming'Lantern of the Dead'in Fenioux.
It appears, restored (with variations), in the
Abbey kitchen at Fontevrault [zz4]. More im-
portant, it comes in prettily as a corner orna-
ment in the church towers and lantcrns r'rith
d i m i n i s h i n g s t a g e sw h i c h b e g r n t o a p p c a r a b o u t
I roo in Poitou and elsewhere"Ihere is a ruined
 276 i . { T D D L EA N D S O U T H E R NF R A N C E
example at the Montierneuf, Poitiers, which is
believed to be one of the earliest [z5r]. Four
bundles, each with its pinnacle, stood gracefully
above the corners ofa square tower stage, and
beside the diagonal sides ofan octagonal stage,
making a felicitous transition to the pyramidal
roof of the latter. This pattern was used, on a
larger scale,in Spain at the crossing ,cimborio,
ofthe cathedralofZamora [z5o] and derivative
monuments ; at the Martorana in Palermo Iz7z],
and derivative monuments also in Norman
Sicily. Some of the derivatives are as late in
date as the thirteenth century.
At this point we should consider briefly how
the architectural group of Poitou interpene-
trates with that of Anjou and that of Pdrigord,
all within the greater school of the West of
France. An example is Sainte-Radegonde, poi-
tiers, a church of pilgrimage built from about
rogo onward.2e Its plan includes apse, ambu_
latory, radiating chapels, and a very charac-
teristic tower-porch which is accepted as a
model of thc Poitevin version of that historic
element. At Sainte-Radegonde the nave is spa-
cious, of considerable width - a Gothic recon-
struction covered with octopartite domed-un
r i b b e d v a u l r s o f r h e t y p e t h a r w a s d e v e l o p e di n
Anjou. As if in compensation for this, we fincl
Cunault, near Angers, built in the poitevin
style, and we shall find that the domed-up
Angevin octopartite ribbed vaults are related
to the Aquitanian domed churches. It is because
of such interpenetration of these western archi-
tectural groups that French critics prefer to
consider the school ofthe west of France as an
inclusive unit.
Pursuing this matter in Anjou brings us to its
capital, Angers, the seat ofa dynasty important
in French, English, and Levantine history.
For Saint-Martin at Angers, an old founda-
tion, a remarkable church (now lacking its nave)
was created by reconstruction shortly after
r o r z . 3 0T h e b u i l d i n g w a s l a i d o u t , a s w e r e m a n v
in the west country, on a very simple plan: four
aisleless arms of a great cross. The northern,
southern, and eastern arms of the church ter-
minated in apses.Over the crossing a somewhat
warped pendentive dome was built, by ro7.5,
-il-
AQUITANIA, WI l'il BORD[,RING AREAS 2?O
this structure, still in place, and dedicatedin roz5, when the dramatic cam-
if not earlier; and
to be the oldest large French paign of expansion of the County of Aniou was
is considered
dome in existence [zl3]. It is re- beginning. The church had a wooden-roof-ed
ftomanesque
'pottery'. which w i d e n a v e ,t r a n s e p t , a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v , a n d s h a l -
porred 10 be in rubblc and
s u g g e s ra L a l c R o m a n derivation. This low oblong radiating chapels. In the tweltih
*ould
centur!' it was progressively rebuilt, prcserving
dome still serves as the support ofa rather heavy
some of the old nave walls. The new work was
block of masonrv doubtless intended to carry
started about Ir50, continued by the Planta-
s,belfty or turritus dpe'r. The ability to construct
g e n e t s( w h o h e l d A n j o u l r o m r r 5 4 t o r z o o ) , a n d
such a dome, almost free-standing at a con-
finished, except for details, under the Irrench
siderable height (where it has given a good
about r 2,1o.
account ofitselffor nearly 9oo years), makes the
The twelfih-centurr na\,e, which exists al-
achievement of the splendid twelfth-century
most unchanged, consists of three tremendous
domes ofthe abbcy church ofFontevrault, near
domed-up square groined bays with the usual
Angers, and thc P6rigordinc domes, seem less
diagonal ribs of the Early Gothic style. The-v
s t r a n g e ;a n d i t h e l p s a l s o t o e x p l a i n t h e A n g e v i n
are in ashlar with relativell'thin cells and span
domed-up rib vaults to which a preliminarl.
about 52 feet, the hrst in lirance to have so
reference has been made.
generousa dimension. Their historical impor-
Best known of all the buildings which ex-
tance as evidence ofPoitcr,in and Angevin engi-
emplify the great aislcless cross in plan, and at
neering ingenuitl. is verl' considerable. The
the same timc the Angevin rib vault, is the
laults combined the advantagesof the rib-r'ault
c a t h e d r a lo f A n g e r s i t s e l f 3 r [ 2 r 4 , 2 r 5 ] . I t s s c a l e
is much larger than that of Saint-Martin in the ofthc ile-de-France with thc advantagcs ofthin
same citl'', but the plan is even simpler. Thc ashlar domed construction. This type of vault
original cathedral was begun shortlv aftcr IoIo was much built in thc Angevin region and in
zt4. Anglers (lathcdral,
e l e v e n t h t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s ,l a \ e r 0 2 5 !
vaulted r. r r
5o, cxtcndcd later

Spain. Later Gothic developments includc tcch-
nically interesting rib systems.
The transcpt of Angers Cathedral (including
the crossing) consists of three ba.vs with an
aggreg te interior length of about r48 feet;
similrrly r,aulted the technique, however, is
maturer, and the vaults havc the characteristic
Angevin octopartite division, with ridge ribs.
(The octopartitc division looks, in plan, like the
U n i o n J a c k . ) A s i m i l a r s q u a r eb a y a n d t h c s e m i -
circular apse, with eight triangular cells, bring
the interior length of the church on the main
'I'he
axis close to zg5 feet. height to the soflit of
the transverse arches is about 6q fect. which is
equal to that of the Romanesque nave of Sant-
iago, where, however, thc width is only about
zg feet. The crowns of the cells at Angers reach
a height of about 86 f'eet. Thc stout spur but-
tresses havc alwal's maintained these magnifi-
cent vaults saf'ely in position.
The great interior space ofAngers Cathedral
has a simplicitl'which is almost Roman, though
the dimensions fall short of the greatest Roman
works (the nar,e of the Basilica Nova of N{axen-
tius and Constantine measured 83 feet in the
clear, rzo feet in height, z4o feet in length; the
lateral tunnel r,aults are 63 f'eet high). In spite
of the Gothic tincture given b.v thc pointcd
arches, the linear qualitl'' of the details, and the
odd feeling that thc church is like a small build-
ing magnified, here is a monument which an
Imperial architect would have understood and
enioyed.
Not so the laqade ofAngers Cathedral, which
makesa definitc compromise with Gothic forms.
The blocky' front has a central portal in the stylc
of Chartres, above which is a triplet with a fine
big Early Gothic window in the ccntre. At each
side, a tower with stage upon stage ofdecorative
arcading rises to a tall Gothic fldche, as ifAngers
were a pinched and narrow cathedral of basili-
can plan in the ile-de-France. The space be-
tween the towers and above thc sreat window
zI-5. Angers cathedral, eleventh thirteenth centuries, na\:e r025, r'rultcd r. r r-5o, i s o c c u o i e d b r R c n a i s s a n c em o t i f s a r r a n g e d t o
extended larcr
^.
A Q U I T A N I A , W I T H B O R D E R T N CA; n l _ , t S z8r
p r o d u c e a m e d i e v a l s i l h o u c t t e .1 ' h c a x i a l s q u a r e
tower gives an ellect somcwhat like a screcn,
such as was planned lbr Novon Cathcdral in the
unexecuted arcade between the belfiies o1'thc
'I'he
western towers. whole mass of thc three
western towers at Angers resembles a westwork
appropriatclv cnough in a cathcdral whcre the
plan is almost simple enough to be Carolingian.
Returning lrom Angers and the north to
Poitou, we lind a radiation ofthe Poitevin tvpes
to thc wcst, the east, the south-east, ancl the
south-west also. The buildings were almost all
built in the twelfth centurv, when the countrv
-I'he
was well organized and prospcrous. various
fcatures of the Poiteyin stvle as we have found
them in the capital occur, engagingly counter-
changed, in a multitude of smaller buildings
which have a r,erv direct appeal.12 It is olten
possible to savour these churches in an un-
disturbed old sctting. One comes to accept a
certain awkwardncss which often results from
the simple naive plans, and to enjoy', er,en in
rustic examples, the luxuriant carving, the
rather riotous arcading, and the hierarchies of
plump columns which catch a soft ripple of
light fbr the fagades.
Round and pointed arches were often used
together, but there was a constant relative in-
crease in the latter as the twcllth centurv ad-
vanced. Where tunnel vaulting has been used,
the naves have often become deformed or have
lost their r,aults, due to inexpert workmanship
or faulty'mortar. This is truc e\,en fbr spans of
the order of twenty feet; the domes, which we
shall considcr prcscntly, have held up much
better, e\,en ovcr spans of double the width.
Close to Poitiers there arc scvcral wcll-known
examples. At Cir,ra.v, the imposing lagade has
among its sculptures part of a horseman, sup-
posed to represent Constantine, and accepted
into the iconography of the region ; Gengal' and
'fo
Montmorillon also deserve mention. the
north-wcst of Poitiers thcre are interesling cx-
amples at Parthenav, Saint-Jouin-de-N{arnes,
 A Q t it r A N l A ' W I T I I B O R D E n t N c l n r a s 283
AND SOUTIIIRN FRANCI
282 MIDDLF'

and Airvault. Melle, to the south-west of
Poi-
tiers, has two YerY charming and typical
churches Saint-Hilaire, and Saint-Pierre,
which is one of'the most elegantly composed of
all. It has a fine apse and crossing tower.
Chiteauneu[-sur-Charente, south of Melle and
Poitiers, has a good church with a fine fagade.
Like Civray, it has a Constantine. Not lrar dis-
tant is Saint-Michel-'d'Entraigues', an octofoil
chapel (rr37) with a famous reliefofthe Arch-
angel conquering his antagonist. We are here
on the borders of the Saintonge.
The church of Aulnay-de-Saintonp;e is well
known also; it is oflate date and well preserved.
The amusingly carved voussoirs of the arches
have the motifs radiating, as is usual in the
style, rather than in sequence up the arch, which
is typical ol'Gothic. The church at Aulnav [2r6,
desolate'
zrTl has a handsomepointed tunnel vault orgl manner'and rhe main door has been more lonely, and in places almost
in the Poitevin
'jl,tr.
l h c n a \ e . a h a n d s o m e c r o s s i n g l o w c r . c r r r lx carved capitalsand ordcrs Rellex influence from Spain shows itself more
-r.u.ttously
dignified apse. Thc naveis corercdb1'a strongl-v here, irs fbr example in the vaults
lirraitrits voussoirs stvlq, at I-'H6pital-Saint-Blaise,
At Saintes (from which the Saintonge trrkc5
l"ri.r domes The crossingtower' charac- of Mozarabic
its name) there exists, in a very puch reducg6 "f y Poiterin and closelyresemblingthat Saint-P6-de-Bigorle, and Sainte-Croix at Oio-
,..iui".ff tI
state, the Clunirc priory church of Saint- at Poitiers'has an ron-Sainte-\tlarie.
'l'he oiNo,t"-Ot-e-la-Grande
Eutrope, beg;un about ro8r Ir38, r391.
'-3lTTfi::';adius
crypt, a goal ofpilgrimage, is in its original clabo- rrompoitiers,
wennda Pirigord: the Aquitttnian GrouP
rate (brm, substantially constructed, with aisles, longitudinal buildings near
'l'hc seriesof interesting oJ'Doned Churches
apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. i n which the naves are corcred
Angoul6m..
raised choir (1br monrstic liturgies) communi- (Montmoreau, Mouthiers' We present the domed churches of Aquitania as
*iti tunnel vaulting
cated rvith aisles. and thus with the remlll- Montbron)' rhe rhird subgroup in the school ol'thc west ol
PuyP6roux,
also be France. The question ofboth the origin and the
:rble nave, stepped all round and opened on the ih. t,t""a of influence can of course
crypt Irz.5e], so that pilgrim throngs could sr:c from Poitou to Bordeaux (Sainte-Croix); classification of the domed churches of P6rigord
traced 'It
with a charming and near by has long been vexed' is dilhcult
and hear serliccs performed at the shrine.j' to Petit-Palais, near Bordeaux,
Oloron, near to understand whv so essential a feature as the
The fbrmer convent church of Sainte-Nlalic- fagade; to Moirax, near Agen' to
des-Dames at Saintes is, appropriatelv, morc into Spain' 1'he monuments are roofing of a whole church lvith domes should
Pau, and so on
local in f-eeling.'l'he fagade is rich with arcading the south-west, which has always not in itself warrant the placing of the domed-
sparser in

zr(r. Aulnar', church, twellth ccnturl

ff-'
,if
,{lr.:;isr

,rr::,

:c
.'$
i
;,

)
284 M I D D L E A N D S O U T T I I , R NF R A N C E
church type in a separate school,' wrote Sir
Alfred Clapham (who was bv training an archi-
tect),'but it is argued that the adoption of'domes
was more or less accidental, and is an episode
merely in the architectural history of a school
which began without them and only adopted
them in a comparatively small number
churches even in P6rigord. Furthermore it is
argued that the general ordinance of these
domed churchcs, apart lrom their roof system,
is indistinguishable from other churches of the
school.'rs
It should be mentioned that the group ex-
tends far outside P6rigord, and that seventy-
seven examples are known to have been built, of
which sixty still exist (thirty in P6rigord and the
rest scattered all the way lrom Fontevrault in
the Loirc country to Agen on the Garonne).
Otherwise this is a very lair statement, and it
justifies the classification ofthe domcd churchcs
as a subgroup within the school of the West of
France.r6
Although we have the eleventh-century
crossing dome at Saint-Martin in Angers [zr3l,
unlbrtunately there is no text which indicates
the beginnings of the Aquitanian church type
with domes arranged in series over the naves
and transepts. There is now good reason for be-
lieving that Saint-Front at P6rigueux had an
early dome, built over and around the con-
stricted sanctuary of an old 'Latin' basilica
really a church dated about g84 to ro47. The
spectacular church with Iive domes lzz5-7l,by
I'ar the most conspicuous example of the P6ri-
gordine group, was a special development.
Pressure from pilgrim throngs probably in-
duced the construction, by ro6o 7o, ofthe ori-
ginal dome, which had round great arches and
other archaic f'eatures. The other fbur domes
seem to have been envisioned at this time. In-
expert masonry in their lower portions gare
way to better work in domes on pointed great
arches which were built after the Latin basilica
was burnt out in r rzo.J;
2u5
Angouldme Cathedral lzzr, zzz], the othcr
famous example, was begun about rro5. Ir rs
only partly covered by domes, but the schernr
is clearly not archaic, though the domes in thc
nave, covered by a conventional two-slope roof.
look like a utilitarian solution, adopted to avoid
of the use of a long tunnel vault (difficult ro abur).
Whether by direct suggestion or not, the solu-
tion in the nave of Angoul!me Cathedral is the
old oriental solution of reduplicated domcs.
commonly used for centuries previously in or-
dinary structures such as cisterns, store-rooms.
bazaars, baths, and the like. Camille Enlart rvas
persuaded that the inspiration was Cypriote, for.
there were churches of similar character in
Cyprus at the time, accessiblethrough pilgrim-
age movements.38 Several of the oldest churches in the Aqui- zrli. Pdrigueur, Saint-Etiennc-dela-C,it6,
'l'he a.lroo! rr50
oldest of the Aquitanian domes arc tanian group consist simply of a file of' domes,
simple and rather uninspired in design. Thcrc plus an apse and absidioles.a0A mere straight zr9. Cahors Ciathedral, dedicatcd incomplete
is practical iustification for them in the fact that row offour domed units on unpierced interior in r r rg, llank and portal
only about a third of the tunnel vaults of the piers formed the cathedral of Saint-Etienne-
Poitevin type - even those of moderate span deJa-Cit6 in P6rigueux Izr8]. The two original
have held, whereas sixty out of the sevenfi- domes, probably built somewhat befbre Iroo,
seven domed churches, including several ofrhc have been demolished; two more claborate
largest examples, still have their twelfth-centur\ ones, dated before and after rr5o, are still in
cupolas. The builders'instinct, the character of' position. They show low vertical drums ex-
the stone, and the quality of the mortar - urili- ternally.
tarian elements all - would thus account for the Another simple earl]'example is the cathedral
use of'domes in this region, rather than an aes- ofCahors [zr9], which also appearsto hale been
thetic pref'erence.Perhaps the acoustical efects begun shortll' before r roo; there was a dedica-
were admired.3e tion in r r rq. but the construction was probabll'
The excellent architects who chose domecl incomplete at that time. The schemo at Cahors
conslruction built it in their own wa1, using- consists of no more than two enormous and
pointed arches ofashlar on the four sides ofeach awkwardly proportioned rubble domes within
bay to support pendentives of peculiar form. low ashlar-f'aceddrums, carried on pendentivcs,
also in ashlar. Unquestionably the pendentivcs pointed arches, and unpierced wall piers ofash-
were suggested ultimately by Byzantine work. lar, with the vast interior spacethus created con-
but the reverse curvature in the profile of the tinuing into a capacious open apse with three
pendentive, resulting from geometrical rela- radiating chapels. The west lront, which is openness of such interiors, were in no haste tbr
tions with the pointed arch, is special to the
rather like a Saxon westwork, and the lateral Gothic, though at Cahors the east end of the
portal, which is Burgundian in style, hardly'prc- cathedralwas rebuilt in that style.
Aquitanian domes. The actual shells of the oldcr
cupolas are in rubble stuccoed over on the in-
pare the visitor for an interior with a clear span Cahors uas an important ccntrc, xnd it\
terior, like ordinary Romanesque vaults of thc
of sixty-five feet. It is eas-vto see how the cathedral served as a model fbr a famill'o1'some-
period.
southerners, accustomed to the warmth and what similar buildings in the region. Among
 286 MIDDLE AND sourHERN
zzo. Souillac, church, irpse and transepf, .. r 1-lo
these is Souillac [zzo], which also has two
domed bavs and a capacious apse with three
radiating chapels opening directly upon it.
Souillac is bettcr proporrioned than Cahors,
and it is provided with a transepr; rhe dare is
'fhe
about rr3o. building is generally known
fbr the man'ellous carvings set into the west wall
of the navc and obviouslv made for a portal
which was nevcr brought to completion.
Angouldme Cathedral,a' previously men_
tioned fzzr, zzz], is anorher type-church, in
t h i s c a s ei n f l u e n c e d l r o m P o i t o u . T h e l a q a d ei s
a rich examplc of the Poitevin stvle, with much
arcading and intercsting Iigural carvings, the
wholc liont being composed as a lision of the
FR:\NcE
Second Coming of Christ. Abadie the resrorcr
contaminated the design with regrettable addi-
tions tympanum sculptures over the main
doorwar,, an awkward arcade at the top of rhe
lrontispiece; two unlbrtunare western towcrs,
and the lantern, all with imbricated roofs. 'l he
interior was also restored,at rhe cost of its old
patina and much of its medieval savour: and
this is likewisetrue ofthe eastend.
The range of four domes on the main axis is
very impressive. They are supported in the
usual wav on solid wall piers, pointed arches.
a n d p e n d e n t i v e s .T h e f o u r t h d o m e i s t h e l a n -
tern. Bevond it a tunnel-vaulted bay extends to
the open main apse, lvhich is augmented tly lbur
AQUI'TANIA)WIl'II BORDERI\G AREAS 2th
radiating chapels, and which also has an axial
window.
Each arm of the transept :rt Angoul0mc is
covered by a bay o1'tunnel vaulting. L,ach has an
easternabsidiole and a crr.rcifbrm domecl chapel
beyond. The upper stages of these chapels are
lanterns, each one much resembling a bav of the
nal,eat I-e Puy Cathedral, or thq crossing at
S a i n t - P h i l i b e r t ,T o u r n u s . ' I ' h c n o r t h c r l v c h a p e l
hasa tall and characteristic arcaded stagcd tower
over it - suggested, perhaps, bl the arcrded bcl-
fries which were being built at the time in Rome,
as we shall sce later. Its matc to the south was
destroyed, else the cathcdral rvould still be in
the rather restricted class of churches with
towers at the transept entls (Cuxa ond St .l\{artin
of Tours in their later period; Old Sarum and
Exeter Catheclrals, where thc torvers form
the entire transepfal projections; the Gothic
example at Barcelona Cathedral). So composed,
the whole design of Angoul0me Cathedral ob- zzt antl zzz. {ngoul6me (lathcdral,
viously came to a handsome climax at the east. r ro; :8 and larcr
w h e r e t h e f b u r r a d i a t i n g a n d t u . o t r a n s c p t a la b -
sidioles, the generous arcaded principal apsc,
the dome at the crossing, and the two terminal
towers ofthe rransept produced a very striking
symmetrical group.
-"5+-*l=-:--
u 1.,
1 ^'
5r,!r
 288
I ?5
w c h u r c h e so l
Ii]m
zz3. Fontevrault, abbei,' church, dcdicated r r rg
Angouldme also had its family of related
churches; in certain aspects Souillac [zzo] and
Solignac (about r r3o) arc in its ambient. Their
transepts and apses resemble Angoul6me,
though their naves are shorter. Gensac has its
file of fbur domes in reduced dimension. Bor-
deaux Cathedral was prepared fbr largc domes
o\.er the nave, but Gothic vaults were built
instead.
Angouldme was begun about rro5, and the
nave was at leastpartlv vaulted in r rz8, which
suggests that the smaller eramplcs f'all near the
middlc of'the century. By this time the tech-
nique had quite definitell- improved propor-
tions were better, ornament was better disposed,
and some of the domes were carried out in ash-
lar (this is the case lbr all the domes at An-
gouldme Cathedral exccpt one).
One of the grandest of the domed churchcs
was built lbr the abbey 01'Fontevrault Plan-
tagenct roval panthcon, with the tombs of
Hcnry II, Elcanor, Richard I, Isabclla [zz3].
Iiounded bv Robert of Arbrissel about r r oo as a
doublc abbcy, with an abbess ruling rhe com-
munitl', it becamc the centre of a small but not
unimportant Order (fifiy-ser,cn houses in all,
Sooo nuns b1' rrr7, when Robcrt of Arbrissel
AeurrANrA, wrrlr RoRDERtrclHr.as z8g
'l'he
11
Poitouand \niou. and its eclectic replaces an eleventh-century lantern.
o n . o t ' t h e g o o d r e a s o n sl b r c o n s i d e r i n g ground store.v passage-wa]' to the nave, be-
ierign it
A q u i t u n i un group ol domes as helonging' tween flanking aisles, has two elaborate dornical
,h.
a l l . u i t h \niou and Poitou' vaults like those which we have found singly at
after
men- the transept ends ofAngoulOme Cathedral' and
Before leaving Fontelrault we should
abbev kitchcn [zz4], the onll.important also, in sequence, over the nave ofthe cathedral
t-, -,<>
cr tion the
to survive' It is of Le Puy'. The tower porch with its pylons and
g oart ofthe conventual buildings
torver, with a (re- aisles is massed rather like a westwork' but the
6r in the form of an octagonal
roof, man-v great shaft is very classical in feeling' built up
tl19
1d-
stored) hollow stone spire serving as
and a pinnacle at the top which in stages with set-backs, and ornamented with
chimneys,
the height to about ninetl'f-cet. The hol- pilaster and pedimental motifs. The tower ter-
brings
minates in a tremendous drum of columns
low stone spire makcs one think of Saint-Ours
at Loches [zo6l; the bundle of columns at the covered b1' an imbricated conoidal rool-. It was
pinnacle recalls P6rigord, and these two items fairl-v well rcstored bv Boeswillwald.
in variety of thc styles Once past this extraordinary tower porch,
confirm the unitf
which we have bcen studYing. the pilgrim lbund himself under the spacrous
After this account of the Aquitanian domed wcsternmost dome of the main church and near
died). Fontevrault is locatcd near Angers in thc style, Saint-Front at P6rigucux+r [zz5 7i seems the high altar. There over the tomb of St Front
Loire country, and, appealing ro rhe highesr like an outsider, which in lbct it now is; lbr the stood the remarkable shrine (by Guinamundus,
nobilitv, it prospered. +2It is easy to see wh1' thc Greek cross plan, with its pierced wall piers' a monk of La Chaise-Dieu, ro77) intended for
abbey church is a noble and I'astidiouslv de- was obviouslf inspired from St Mark's in
signed building. In rrrg it was dedicated br Venice (ro63 94), the latter church being at 224.FontevraultAbbe1, kitchen,
Pope Calixtus II. At that time surely thc beauti- that time still unshcathed with marblc and twelfth centurv (rcstored)
ful cher,et was complete. The splendid church mosaic, and, though built in brick, much morc
is about z7 5 feet in length. Its spacious nave of like the Aquitanian churches with their bare
f b u r b a v s , b e g u n a b o u t r r z 5 , i s a i s l e l c s s ,a n d stone-work than is the case at present.
widcr than the crossing, as is so olien the casein The new arrangements were so unusual, and
the Loire rcgion. Four domes of modern con- they are so little understood, due to later re-
s t r u c t i o n , b u i l t a b o u t r g r o t o r e p l a c et h o s c d e - building at Saint-Front, that it is worth while to
stroyed while the building was serr-ing militarr describe them.
uses, rest upon the old pendentives. A change in One entered fiom the west through the porch
proportions between cheYet and nave has sug- of the basilica, but its nave, afier the fire, was
g e s t e dt h a t d o m c s w e r e n o t o r i g i n a l l l ' p l a n n e d : roofless.and it became a lbrecourt, recalling thc
it is quite possible that the original project callccl atria which we havc seen at Clunv II and at
'I'he
fbr a hall arrangcmcnt. supports lbr thc SS. Peter and Paul. Hirsau. As at Hirsau, there
domes are verv stout wall piers with attachecl was a plan to make thc atrium into a covered
columns in pairs. The capitals are excellenl narthex. Piers uere built in the tbur curnersol'
cramples of carving in thc Poitevin-Angu'in the atrium space at P6rigueux, but a dome was
'l'hc
stylc. transept, with a crossing tower, has never built over them. Instead the-v were madc
two absidioles.It is covered by tunnel r,ault: into pylons, two of which flank the entrance to
lvith transr,erse arches, as is the well-propor- the atrium, while the others flank the entrance
t i o n e d a m b u l a t o r y 'w i t h t h r e c r a d i a t i n g c h a p el s . to the church, bcneath the grcat torver.
T h e h i g h v a u l t o f t h e s a n c t u a r vi s s c m i c i r c u l a r . This great tower, of classic fbrm, is perhaps
F o n t e v r a u l t i s d c c o r a t e da l t e r t h e m a n n e r o f t h e the most imposing of all the towcr porches. It
\
 2qO MIDDLE AND SOUTHERNFRANCE

225to 227- P6riglueuxCathcdral,largelvafter r r zo,

liew from the south-wcst,r'icw acrosstransept,
twellth century,rebuilt ninetcenthcenturv,dnd plan c,t,i1\tnor,nl!,1,!,,,,..,,,
f
% C h L L r t l tt i r h et L P " l a s
the relics of the saint, and there Aymery to this part of the building, and there are no\\ ' %
I L S P ' P
t l' n l'

practically no traces of the old sanctuarv at the

Picaud, who wrote the Pilgrim's Guide to San-
tiago, saw and admired it. The shrine was a hol-
low turret with a dome and gables, richly
I
decorated with hgure and animal sculpture, and
e n a m e l s . ' aF r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s e r i s t .
In to77, v'ith a sanctuarJ'dome, an imprcssivc
a n d r v o r k a b l ep i l g r i m a g e c h u r c h e x i s t c d . T h e n
three new domes were added transr,ersely, and
beyond the crossing a fifth and easternmost
dome was built really at the loot of the nave,
for the church now had reverse orientation. The
traditional orientation, reinstated fbr a time, was
later given up, however, and a chapel extended
eastward on the axis until modern times, when
it was replaced by a pseudo-Romanesque apse.
The hiEh altar has been transferred once more
i ,f
WA ut4tut-rnedcuPolo
west. In tact Abadie's restoration spoiled the
church.as
'I'hus
we leave the style of the West of Francc.
ru
It is interesting to speculate on the question rs
to whether a synthcsis of its varied elemcnts
F
lvould ever have been achieved ifGothic art hrd
not been invented, or ifthe region had achieved
true national status with one great capital ol'ils
own. As it is, the erportation of the style trt
Spain, the interesting development of Gothic
ribbed dome structure, and the experimcnts
with wide-nave construction, the dccisively im-
portant hrrll-church scheme, and the architec-
tural use ofsculpture deserve to be better known
'l 5 ' i,ttt
and more widely appreciated than they arc.
--L
sollr

I
 I5
CI{APTER
OF AUVERGNE
THE SCHOOL
limits of CarolingianAqui-
Within the eastern
Burgundy and the upper courseof
onir,n"^t
beautiful land of Auvergne,
,h. Loit", lies the
on one side by the Limousin, and on
border"d
greatcontrastto the west
theotherby Velay. In
and it has a
of France,it is a compactdistrict,
seriesof church buildings
highlycharacterized
of rr,u." design which the French historians
callthe Schoolof Auvergne''
The type church is Notre-Dame-du-Portat
Clermont-Ferrand[zz8-3ol; it is not an earll'
work,aswasformerly believed,but ratherofthe
first half of the twelfth century,althoughthere
is a recordof somereconslruction about r r 85'
In exterior aspect the church is bold, and its
elementsare well articulated'It has apse,am-
bulatory,and radiating chapelsset againstthe
precipitouseast wall of a characteristicAu-
vergnat'lantern transept',made by raisingthe
bays which flank the crossingvault so that a
rangeof windows may be carried around the
three outer sides above the ridge level of the
transeptarmsIz3o].Pent roolsslopeupwardon
the flanking bays,and betweenthem, over the
crossingvault, rises an octagonalbelfry' The
crossingvault is supportedon the east by the
window wall abovethe apse,but on the other
three sides by Carolingian interior flying
screens. West of the transeptliesthe nave,with
aislesandgalleriesbut no clerestory;beyondthe
naveis a sort ofwestwork with narthexand tri-
buneunder a modernaxialtower ofappropriate
design.
Entering the church' we find before us an
austerenave of four bays with a plain tunnel
vault.The navewall is ditided in two on cach
sideby an applied column rising liom a cruci-
form pier; thesecolumnsserveas interior but-
226 Cllermont-Fcrrand,
Notrc-Damc-du-port, trlelfih ccnturv
L
tresses, but there is no transverse arch above
them. The other piers of the nave proper have
two shafts each for the aisle arcade, and one fbr
the 11nn5vs15sarch which separates the aisle
bays ofgroin vaulting. A quadrant vault covers
the gallery cut into bavs bv diaphragm arches
and spsling into the nave through triple ar-
cades bay by bay. These are cusped, and sug-
gest somc sort of oriental influence, and thel'
repeat the fbrm ofthe Carolingian flying screens
uncler the crossing tower (where also the piers
har'e, logically, four applied shafis). The apse
has ths same height as the crossing arches, and
so have the projecting ba1's(each with a chapel)
of the transept, but the lantern-transept is, of
course, much higher.
'['here
is a much-restored crypt under Notre-
Dame-du-Port - a somewhat unusual feature
for the region. I'he crypt repeats the main lines
of the apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels
above, but the chamber under the sanctuary is
groin-vaulted in small bays carried on stout
colurn15. l'hese are set so as to fbrm a sort of
inner ambulatory; four of the columns are
placed under the altar. The whole arrangement
recalls Al6aume's Clermont Cathedral of 946.
In the church above, the apse and the sanctuary
bav are not separated by a transverse arch, nor
are the groin-vaulted bays of the ambulatory.
Eight columns support the apse and ambula-
tory. The exterior wall of the ambulatory is
logically divided into nine bays, of which four
arc occupied by round radiating chapels, and
the other live in the usual way by windows, in-
cluding the axial one. This is common in
Auvergne, and it is remarked that the arrange-
ment occurs in churches dedicated to the Virgin,
whcther the absidioles number two ot four,
 THE SCHOOL OF AUVERGNE 2qq

w i t h o t h e r d e d i c a t i o n sa n a r i a l r a t l i a t - making metropolis of Francc which Clermont-

whereas
( s o m e t i n r e so b l o n g ) i s i n t r o t l r r c e d . Iierrand norv is.
fg chap.l
a n.lmusing rarietl in rhe buttresses Notre-Dame-du-Port is a \crv satisfnctorv
bnr finat
of t h e c h a p els some being plain spur but- paradigm for a cluster of churches within a
columnar. T'hc transepts harc radius of about twent]. milcs of the cit-v. Enne-
u e s s e s .o t h e r s
the navc has an arcadc above zat, the oldest o1'the group, will be mcntioncd
spur buttresses;
buttresses' again. It is difl'erentiated liom the re$ b-van in-
5pur
There is patterneduall-work of a simplc sort definable flavour of'the I-oire countr.v. Saint-
Nectaire perhapscomes next, about ro8o, then
in the interior ot' Notre-Damc-du-Port, and
much more el:rborate cmbellishment of this others Saint-Saturnin (without radiating
'I'he
kind on the exterior. local building material chapels), Orcir,al (built about rroo, with re-
is an arkose or granitc, which allows of very building about rr68), Issoire (r. rr3o 5o),
preffy accents in red, brown, grev. or black, Saint-Amable at Riom, NIozac (a Cluniac
arrangedin panels. Star forms occur, along with priorv), and last of all Brior.rtle.
'l'he
d i a p e r sa n d s t r i p e s .R o u n d a n d m i t r e d a l c a c l i n g background of' the Auvergnat t]-pe-
i s u s e d ,a n d a l s o s h a l l o w s u n k p a n c l s e n l i v e n e d c h u r c h i s i n t e r e s t i n g ,b r . r tn o t c n t i r e l J ' c l e a r .T h e
by toy-like decorative columns ancl chisel-curl ambulatorl is old in the region, brought in from
eaves-bracketswhich bring a littlc oriental spice the Loire, and this may be true of the lantern-
to the design. In general the picturesque old transept also, lbr something of the sort mav har'e
structure in the refiactorl'local building ma- existecl at Beaulieu-les-Loches ( r oo5 ; much re-
terial seems indeed morc to belong in the rock1. built). Structuralll' the lantcrn-transept recalls
countrl.'side ol Aur ergne than in ths trre- Gernrignr'-des-Pr6s (about 8o6) rvith its flving
screens; in silhoustte it recalls Saint-Riquicr
z3o.Clermont-F<:rrrnd,Notre-l )ane-clu-Port, (US: 8oS), plus transcpt arms and minus the
twellthcenturt flanking round stair tolvcrs. The westworks are
ultimatelr connected with Saint-Riquier also.
Thcre is a tcnth-centur-n-example in Auvergnc,
'l'he
at Chamalidres. general formula of the
l u v c r g n a t c h u r c h , u i t h i t s v a u l t i n g , a p p e n r st o
hare becn settled bl the time the archaic-
looking little church at Ennezat was built, prob-
ably'not long afier its foundation as a collegiatc
church betlvcen ro6r and 1o78. One suspects
that the eleventh-centurv cathedral of Cler'-
monl (which succccded Alclaume'sbuilding),
uas thc critical design. It is known to have had
an ambulatorl' rvith {bur radiating chrrpels.
Whercver it was, the kcv designmust havc had
this motif and transept arms of cqual height
c o m p o s e d a g a i n s tt h e p r e c i p i t o u s b u l k o f a l a n -
I t e r n - t r a n s c p t w i t h a l o f t l b e l l r . ' - - a si t s p i n n a c l e .

1i
-I'here
is a strong tradition lbr carll architec-
tural and sculptural rvork connected with the
zz9. Cilermont-Ferrand, abbev of L-a Chaise-Dicr.r, where therc is nou a
Notrc_Dame_du_port,
twclfth centur\

L
 29b T { I D D L EA N D S T ] T I H E RFNR . . l N C E
beautiful Gothic church. The abbey was
lbunded in ro43 by Robert de Turlande, a
c a n o n o f ' S a i n t - J u l i e na rB r i o u d ea, n d c o n f i r m e d
by diplomas of ro5z. lt is reported that the
abbel' wa"- responsiblc lbr the consrruction of
roo churches in the ricinitv: elentuallv the
n u m b e r o l ' m o n a s r e r i c s u b m i r r e d, o o , , l l i . d
rvirh La Chaise-Ilieu reachecl
4oo. The abbev
is remembered lbr lrorl 0n lhe roads, anrl
for
der,elopments in husbandryprefiguring those
of the Cistercians. There areno identifiable
re_
m a i n s o f a r c h i t e c t u r a lo r s c u l p t u r a l w o r k .
but
t h e r c i s n o l i c c l h a t T h i o d a r d ,a m a s t e r
mason.
i r n d t w o s c u l p r o r sw e r e5 r n lt o S a i n t - C e m m e
in
to7g, and that Guinamundus, g;oldsmith
a ancl
enameller of La Chaise-Dieu,made the tomb
s t r u c t u r e f b r t h e r e l i c so f s t F r o n t a t p d r i s u e u x
in ro77, as alrt.adr remlrl,ed.-
Apart lrom the group of churches
iust con-
sidered, therc arc some I'ew interesting cq_
amples in Aurerplne Volvic and others wit\_
out galleries. Rovat is aisleless,and fbrtificcl
r
bold, rather arvkwardbuilding lull ofcharactcr..
-Ihese
minor churches talten with the grorrp
about Clermont have undoubtcd interest bLrt
they are not sufficient to make a grand school
such as those rve hat.e studied previoush.. 'I.he
A u v e r g n a t s c h o o le a r l v e n t e r c d i n t o t h e n o m e n _
clature of'schools. Representing (after a lashion
t most glorious of thc South Frcnch schools of'
the Pilgrimage type of which so manv grcrlr
examples, proportionately, hare been lost.
ir
will probably' remain in the conr,entional list.
Except lbr its rather shadowv but indubitablc
early importance,the Auvergne manner slroulcl
be noted merelv as a subgroup under the Schor,l
of Languedoc.
c H e P t n nr 6
THE SCHOOL OF I-ANGUEDOC
The remaining area of Carolingian Aquitania is
Languedoc plus the Limousin, to rvhich (bc-
c a u s ei t b e c a m ep a r t o f t h e C o u n t v o f T o u l o u s e )
S e p t i m a n i ao r G o t h i a i s t o b e a d d e d . H e r e t h e
Romanesque architccturc and sculpture u'as
created. Rightlv so, for it was one of the glowing
'Bient6t
areas of early medieval civilization. la
rafale venue du nord tua cette floraison,'savs
Enlart of the Albigensian Crusade and the In-
quisition (rzog 45) rvhich pcrmanentl-v injurcd
the countrl. and lef t a mark on the Church.
A defect of the plan ol'our exposition of
Romanesque architecture is that it takes the
greatest monuments created bv Languedoc
from the local school, and puts them in the
generalhistory ofarchitecture with other works
of equal importance. We have already given irn
accolrnt ot- the crcation of rhc Pilgrinagc t].pc
of church, which was matured in I-anguedoc
(Saint-Martial at Limoges Irr3], Sainte-Foi at
Conques Irr3, rr{r r8], and Saint-Scrnin at
Toulouse Irrj, rrg zrl, with Santiago(,athe-
dral Ir r3, rr4) r22 5] (ro78 rzr r) as an extra-
territorial membcr of'the school. Reference has
also been matle to the Cistercians. who built
magnifi cently' in Languedoc.
However, even rvithout the principal monu-
ments which have bcen analysed elses,hcre,
Languedoc has a considcrable number of not-
able examples to show. They represent a f:as-
cinating interrvcaring of influences from the
acknowledged masterpieces, and from thc
various regions bordering on Languedoc.
Toulouse. which was to be the centre of
Languedoc, had a chequerecl early histor-v. It
was a capital citv fbr the Visigoths (4rg), Mero-
vingians (628), and Carolingians (78r). 'Ihe
Normans capturcd it during a fbray'of 848, and
the fbmous marriage of Henry of Anjou to
E l e a n o r o f A q u i t a i n e t e c h n i c a l l y b r o u g ; h ti t u n -
der English dominion. Its truc history was writ-
ten undcr the (,ounts ofToulouse between 852
a n d r z o g . L i m o g e s i n t h e R o m a n e s q u ea g e w a s
ruled (9r 8 to n64) by thc Dukes of Aquitainc.
Oriental influences came there, as to Le Puy.
Because of'the earl'r' date of Saint-Martial at
Limoges (about rooo 95 and later) [rrj] it is
perhaps well to begin with churches in the
Lirnousin which are relared to the Pilgrimagc
g r o u p . A m o n g t h e s et h e a b b e v c h u r c h o f B e a u -
Iieu in the Corrdzel is surely the most interest-
ing. It is much like a Pilgrimage church with
t h c t r i f b r i u m o f t h e n a y e r e d u c e d t o t h e s c a l eo f
the usual apsidal trifbrium, thus omitting thc
charming enclosing arches abor,e the paired
a r c h e sw h i c h a r e s o h a r m o n i o u s a f ' e a t u r eo f t h e
P i l g r i m a g ei n t e r i o r s . B c a u l i e u h a s a r e m a r k a b l e
lateral portal o{'about r r18, rrther like that o1'
N'Ioissac,and hoodecl, likc Moissac. f'he aislc,
a m b u l a t o r y , a n d l a u l t i n g a r c h e sa t B e a u l i e u a r e
pointed, and the portal has an elegant frame in
three orders of pointed arches, but thc round
a r c h n c r e r t h e l e s s p e r s i s t si n t h e b u i l d i n g .
Snint-L6onardr is anothcr simplified example
of the Pilgrimage fbrmula, though it is a rather
c o n f u s e db u i l d i n g n o u . o n a c c o u n t o f l a t e r a d d i -
tions. It has a high vault abutted b-v quadrant
v a u l t s ,a n d t h e c h e v e t h a s a p s e ,a m b u l a t o r v , a n d
'I'herc
radiating chapels. are rcmains of a small
-I'he
rotunda. finest l'eaturc ofthe church is the
adjoining tower, built about rr50, which be-
l o n g s t o a s e r i e sf o u n d i n t h i s r e g i o n a t S a i n t -
Martial, Limoges, the cathedral of Le Pu1.
[rz7], and Brantirme, to namc the more im-
portant cxamples. At Saint-Martial thc charac-
 298 MrDDr-[ AND SOUTHERN FRANCi
T}IL SCHOOL OII LANGUEDO( 299

terlstlc upper stages wcre an addition of rather dral of Limoges, Saint-Michel-aux-Lions, an11
I a t e r c l a t eb u i l t o n t h e o l d w e s t e r r l t o w e r - p o r c h . S a i n t - P i e r r e - P c v r o u xI ) a v ca t t r a c t i l c s p e c i n r c n s
In the other eramples the dcsign was integral: of this tvpc of tower. The louer part of' rhr
at Le Puv, cast of the sanctuarv,at Brant6mc cathedral tower is Romanesque; the lowcst oi
anclSaint-L6onard bcsidethe church. t h e o c t a g o n a l s t a g e s i s t r . a n s i t i o n a lt o G o t h r r .
T h e t o r v c r sa r e a l l i n t c r e s t i n g s t u d i e s i n t r a n _ rrgr; the upper parrs have becn rebuilt in
sition liom a square basc to a pointcd roof.r Gothic v'ith a strong Romanesque f-eeling.
Saint-L6onard is a straightfbru.ard example, J.e Dorari is another striking church in thc
and anahsis of it rvill do fbr all. Thc rowcr is Lim<rusin region nhich is relatecl ro the l)il_
s c l u a r e ,w i t h t w o o p e n i n g s o n e a c h s i d e o f t h e grimagc group. Like Saint-N{:rrtial, it is
rr
lorvcr storeys, but the scconcl stage has a slight church with two axial towcrs, ancl it has re-
r c r e a l a t t h e c o r n e r , w h i c h s e t st h e p r o f i l e b a c t m i n i s c e n c e so f ' S a i n t - R i q u i e r , b u r i t i s a r u . e l t t h _
l little, because tho square has, in effect, small c e n t u r ] ' c h u r c h . T h e r e i s a b o l d s t a g e dl a n t e r r r
nicks takcn out of'the corners. This efi'ect is re_ and belfiv tower o\-er thc crossing, the tou.cr
p e a t e da t t h e t h i r d s t a g e ,w h e r e t h c a r c a d er e s t s being octagonal in shapc and set point-uisr.
'I'he 'l'he
on round picrs. f b u r t h s r i r g ei s b o l d l r s e t apsc, :rmbulatorl', and radiating chapcls
back abor.e a slope, but has a stecp-gablcd ele_ b e v o n d i t a r e s e t a g a i n s ta l o n g t r a n s e p t , w h i c j l
mcnt brcaking fbrward. Above the spring_line is happill. acccntcd b)- t$,o turrers. 'I'hesetur_
of this gable the tolver is octrgonal, set point_ rets, with the crossing torvcr, recall the oltl
wisc that is, with arriseson thc cardinal and Saint-Riquier arrangemcnt. At the west cntl
diagonal axes of the towor. -{ little buttr.css there is partial
r e m i n i s c e n c eo f S a i n t _ R i q u i e r i n
c l e r e r l y - f i l l s i n t h e a n p l l eo n t h c d i a g o n a l b c s i d e a h e a r , t
-I'herc toucr (which contains a dome) srrn_
the gable. are trvo arcadecl stages of thc metricallv llankcd bJ- trvo charming octagonal
octagon, then a frieze-like band with a simole turrets set point-rvisc. Substantial spur btrt_
p r r r m i d a b o rc . t r e s s e sc o n r r i b u t c t o a r i g o r o u s p 1 - r a n r i c l acl l c c r z3I. Moissac,priorr church,cloister,
\t Uzerchc (in a church of similar tunncl_ in this parr of the building. 'I'he main portal is ,. I loo, later relvorkcd
a n d - q u a d r a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n ) a r e l a t e d t o w c r h a s plain, two-archcd,
with no sculpture on the t1,nr_
h a l f - e a b l e s s s t b e s i d e t h c c h a r a c t e r i s t i cs t e c o p a n u m ,
b u t v c r r , h a n d s o m e l l b o r c l e r e cbl r f b u : . sent Gothic laults Ir6o]. The famous cloister I n s p i t e o f t h c p r e s t i g eo f ' t h e P i l g r i r n a g e f b r -
g l b l c t l e l c n r c n t . T h c h a l f - g a h l e s .j o i n i n g s i m i - o r d e r s o f c u s p e d a r c h c s .a n d f l a n k e c lb v t w o t : t l l [ 2 3I ] w a s a l s o r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h c G o t h i c m u l a , u h i c h u i r s b r o u g ; h tt o a c l i m a x i n S a i n t -
lar hall--gableson the adiacent sidcs ofthe torver, l a n < e t - s h a p e dr e c c s s e s .l h e c u s p c r i . r . h . r r . - period. Moulded and pointed arches of' red Scrnin at'l'oulousc,r the nclv half-Romanesque
fbrm intercsting acroteria. At Uzerche thc oc_ a p p c a r
o n t h e l i r n t e r nt o u , e r ,a n d a r e c o n s i d e r c r l . brick now rest on the Romanesque impost cathedral of Toulouse, begun in If,rr," was
t a g o n i s s e r f l a t u ' i s e ;a r B r a n t 6 m e t h e u p p e r p a r t o t c o u r s e ,a s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f s p a n i s h i n f l u c n c c . blockswhich are so beaurifully carvcd, and srr r a c l i c a l l l d i l l c r e n t i n t l p e - I t m a r k e d a s t a g i ei n
o f t h e t o w c r i s s q u a r e ,a n d t h i s i s t h c c a s el v i t h ( L a S o u t e r r a i n e (h , a s a s i m i l a r f ' a g a d ew gracefully sustained b1. the Romanesque col-
, ith cn- thc dcrelopmcnt of the characteristic wide-
t h e m u c h m o r c e l a b o r a t et o w e r o l ' t h e c a t h e d r a l g a g i n g
asvmmetries.)'l'he plan of'Lc Dorat is. umns, alternatelr. single and in pairs. with rich n a v c d G o t h i c o l s o u t h F r a n c c a n d C a t a l o n i a .I n
o l ' I - e P u y , u h i c h h a s e i g h t a r c h e c l s r a g e sb c - e x c e p t f b r t h e $ e s t w o r k , m u c h l i k e t h a t o f ' S a i nr _ and imaginatire capitals.The handsome slabs t h c s e \ i r s t i n t c r i o r s p a c c sw e h a r e a n c r v v e r s i o n
neath the plramid. Iltiennc at Ncvers. I-c l)orat has no clerestorr.
'l'he with large ligure relief-sof r. r roo srill havc their o f t h e u i d e n a v e sw h i c h p r o d u c c d s u c h r e m a r k -
octagonal tower set point-wise has in_ except in the apse. Its lantern tower is espc_ places at thc corner piers. The rebuilt cloistcr, able elI'ects in Carolingian and Romanesquc
t e r e s t i n g il a t c r v a r i a n t s i n t h e L i m o u s i n . r S u c h 'l'his
c i a l l v i n t c r e s r i n g , f b r i t h a s s p h c r i c t a lp e n c l e n - with its beautiful garth, is ycrl poctic indced. timcs. kind of Gothic rctainecl Roman-
toners rise shcer, stage upon stagc, fi.om a trlcs, and a dome of circular olan. T o u l o u s e , t h e c a p i t a l o f ' L a n g u c c l o c ,h a s s u f - csquc proportions, antl uscd a version of
squa.rebase, with polygonal tourclles covering -
\loissac is relatcd somcwhal ro Le Dorrrr tered greatly from demolition and roconstruc- Romanesque interior buttressing to makc pos-
t h c l n g l e s o l l h e s q u a r e ,l a n g e n t l o t h c t o t r e r t h r o r r g h tton' 'Ihe most elaborate cloistcr in Lrnguedoc
t h c h e a r . r . w e s t e r nt o w c r . I t h a s a l r e a c l r s i b l e m a x i m u m G o t h i c v a r r l t i n gs p a n s .
a n c l c a r r i e d u p t h e l l l l h c i g h t o l ' t h c s h a f ' t .A n h c c n s . r i d r h r r rI l o i s s l c r r r s f i r s r p l a n n e d w a st h a t o f L a D a u r a d e i n ' l ' o u l o u s c ; i t w a s c l c - 'I'he
1ir i. church of Bindrent-l'Abba1'cr" in rhc
octlgonal pvramid of steep slope terminates the believed) as rr hall chr.rrch, then cor.ered b1 molished in r8r3, and only specimensof the Limousin is relatcd to the Pilgrimage t]'pc
m a i n t o r v e r a n d c a c h o f t h e t o u r c l l e s .- l . h c c a t h c _ d o m c s , a n d c a r v i n g sr e m a i n . T
finallv reconstructcdwith the pre- t h r o u g h i t s a p s e . a m b u l a t o r - r ,a n d r r c l i a t i n g
 3oo M I D D L I , A N D S o U T H E R NF R A N c E
chapels, but thc nave rs like Cistercian work be_
c a u s co f i t s p o i n t e d b a n d e d t u n n e l v a u l t , s t o u t l l
abutted bt'pointed transverse tunnel vaults bav
b t b a - v .- \ a r r o n . p i c r c i n g s b e r w c e n s r . . . . . i r .
ba1's and a timid clerestorv, norv lrlocked uo.
show a concernlbr soliditr. 'l'he church dates
from the twelfth centurv. Cistercian architec_
t u r e w h e n i t c a m e ( a s a t S i l v a n e s ,S 6 n a n q u e r l )
was al home among such buildings, lor ir is
structurallv similar.
This abutment system of interior recesses.
when develope<1vertically,
1,.ieldedthe effrcieni
interior buttress slstem of'southern Gothic.
Structuralh.it is rather like aqueduct construc_
tion with'screen walls at the back and Gothic
vaults sprung betrvecn. In a way it is like the
Pantheon in Rome, where in effect aqueduct_
l i L e a r c h e sa n d s u p p o r t s f o r m a c i r c u m t e r e n c e .
w i t h t h e d o m e t u r n e d b e r w e e nr h e m .
With clerer irbutment such as the flying but_
tresses developed in the ilc_tlc_Francc atier
rr7-5, Gorhic naves could go high. With stout
spur buttresses or interior recessesther. could
b e g i r e n g r e a r b r e a d r h .T h u s i t * r , p o r r i b l . , o
achieve on a grand scale the ver\.spaclous n:lves
of ample Romanesque proportions rvhich were
prelbrred in southern France, Catalonia.
and
I t a l . v . ' l h i s i s r h c s 1s t e m w h i c h w a s e m p l o v e d
i n t h e T o u l r u s a n c a t h c d r aI o l ' r : r r p e r h u p ,
, ihe
firsr cxampleof its t.vpc.r The span ot..sjrtr_
four leet uas achiered in brick consrruc(i;n
with immense square rib-v4ulted bavs. boldlv
domed up over plain rectangul". rib., iike Lom_
b a r d R o m a n e s q u ev a u l t s . ' I ' h e l o w p r o p o r t i o n s
and the detail are very dilfcrent from those
of
the High Gothic cathedral of Reims, started
in
t h e s a m ey e a r . Y c r t h e r e i s i n t h e n o l v m u t i l a r c d
and unlovely work at loulouse a good promise
of Albi and Gerona (where thc widest Gothic
span, s'eventy-three l'cet, was reachccl).ir
It is significant that the developmcnt of this
type of building. with its Romanesque rrncture,
rvas continued after the stanclard High Gothic
of the ile-de-France had been introduced
at
Narbonne in rz7z, Limoges in 1273,
'I'oulouse anl
itself though the destruction of.rhi
calhcdral ol r z r r was planner.l.and
parrL,
a c h i e v e d ,d u r i n g t h e w o r k s u n d e r t a k e n i n
rz;,
Calcassonne shows the pa.aiat..r". of
tu',,
Romanesque schemes. The Gothic
Sainr_
Vincent (fourteenth century and later)
has x
single-nave span of sixty_eight f'eet, the
wiclesr
in all Irrance. On the other hand, the wesrcrn
limb of rhe lbrmcr calhedral of Sainr_\azai.c.
in the Citd, is a hall church dating back to
roo6
i n i t s b e g i n n i n g s .T h e l i g h t a n d b e a u r i f u l
rrun_
sept and apseofthe thirteenth century respecr
the disposition, heights, and proportions
of: thc
old building - presenring, in glowing contrasr.
the openness and light which Gothic bralurr
m a d e p o s s i b l e r. 3
Along the \{editerranean coasr the influence
of the Pilgrimage rype in the Romanesque
ot.
L a n g u e d o c w a s w e a ki c o n v e r s e l y , L o m b i r l r l
and Catalan influences were strong, as alreaclr
indicated. In this ver1, southern u-Ui..r,
on.t
climate the differentiations which make a buikl_
ing sepm French had no great occasion to
de_
velop. I'et, perhaps because of the persistcncc
o f l o r i n g l l s c u l p t u r . e do r n a m e n t , t h e r e i s
sonr..
f l a v o u r o f L a n g u e d o c a b o u t t h e s ew o r k s .
'I'he
cathedral of Elne,11in French Catalonir.
is perhaps the best example. It is an eleventh_
century conception, interrupted in execution
a n d c a r r i e d o n , c o n s i s t e n t l y ,a t a l a t e r t i m e . T h e
nar,e has a semicirular banded tunnel vaulr
carried on piers with crucilbrm nuclei antl
attached shafts or pilasters. Thus there are three
orclersofarches in the aisle arcade, for the trans-
versc arches are single and the nave has no
clerestory. The ell'ect is very substantial antl
good. 1'he aisles have quadrant r.auks
dividctl
i n t o b a v sb v d i a p h r a g m a r c h e s s h a l l o w a r c a d i n g
; rntoAquitania.
decorates the exterior walls ofthe aisles. At ancl
near the lbgade there is rib vaulting, a sign of.late
date, but thc frontispiece has two crenellatcil
torvcrs of traditional l,ombardic form. One is
much heavier than the other, but thev comnose
'Ihere
handsomelv. is a fine and characteristic
cloister attached to the church. Thc church of
Arles-sur-'I'ech was lebuilt rvith similar r.ault-
i n g i n t h i s p e r i o d ( c o n s e c r a t i o n ,r r S T ) . T h e r e
are other picturesque works in the mountain
country tirther west, but space does not sulice
for their consideration.
How shall we achievcan ordcrh'statemcnt and
explanation of' the wonderful flowering of
Romanesque architecture and sculpture which
we have fbund in the eleventh and twellth cen-
turies in Carolingian Aquitania and its border-
i n g l a n d s o n t h e L o i r e a n d t h e M e d i r e r r a n e a n?
It is clear that there rvas an underlving dc-
velopment, alive with Carolingian encrgy., in
the Loire region, in the ninth and tenth cen-
turies. This radiated northward into the region
where Gothic architecture was to be crcated. irs
we shall see later. Its radiation to the south and
east may be roughlv traced b}'the churchcs
which har eambulatories, olien tu,oaxial towers.
and, in the earlier examplcs, the t-vpicalmasonrv
wall-work; we find many such in Burgunclv and
Aquitania proper.
Obviousll also the Irirst Romanesque arca
contributed to the architcctural fbrmation of
Aquitania. Serious studv of lost earlv monu-
ments will have to bc undertaken bclbre this
flow ofinfluenccs can be clarifiecl, but onc clis-
cernsthat it must have been drawn on in de-
veloping the sculpture, and in vaulting basilican
schemesabove the ground let'el. Catalan lault-
hg (alread)' fhirh adr.anced at the end of-rhc
tenth centurv). earlv sculpture norrh of the
Pyrenees,ancl Burgundian developments
under
First Romanesque inpact appear to har,c llowed
Oriental influences flolvcd in too, from N,Ios-
_
lem Spain as earlr as the rcnth
ccntury., from
the Near East in Crusacler
times. Auvergne.
w h i c h h a t l t h e e a r l i c s (o n r e c o r d o l
s r r c hn c n i n -
sular contacts (Bishop
Cotlescalc antl his .zoo
TIIE SCHOOI- OF I-ANGLIEDOC
.]OI
monks, g-5r ), retaincd the strongest imprinr,
but
oriental motili cuspcd irrchcs; ribs in con_
ncxion with domes and donricalraultsi rcncti_
t i r e o c t a g o n a ld o m i c a l r a u l t s a n d d o m c s i n e r _
haps also imbricirrrd rooting *er. p..pp.:r.d
about thc rvhole Aquitanian region anclabsorbed
into the eler,enth- and tuolfih-ccnrurv st],Ie.
C a t a l o n i a ,w h i c h w a s i n a c t u a l c o n t a c t t v i t h t h e
Nloors, shows surprisinglv little trace of thcir
i n f l u e n c e , t h o u g h t h e i r c a r \ - c r sm a \ . h a v e a i d e d
i n I I r er e - c r e a t i o no l ' s c r r l p t u r a lt c c h n i q u e d u r i n g
t h e t e n t h c e n t u r r , r c i n l b r c i n g p e r h a p sa l i n g e r -
ing tradition in Septimaniaor Gothia.
'fhe
centrcs trf power, mostl\ secular, began
to gain focus about thc \ear rooo, il'not bcfirre,
in the Aquitanian area, ancl tt'pe-monuments
appeared which were to affect regional building
fbr several cenruries afier that. -I'hcre is, how-
eler, also the intcr-rep;ional influencc of the
monks of Clunv in their builtling enterpriscs
a n d a R o m a n h e r i t a g e ,a l s o .T ' h e a r c a o f C l u n i a c
wcstr.ard expansion until the end of Odilo's
abbacl' (ro4g) w:rs almosr cotcrminous with
A q u i t a n i a , r - it h c d o m a i n o f t h e i r f b r r n d e r D u k e
William. Abbot Odilo is wcll known asa buildcr
in r,arious rcgions. The r.ision of the Cluniac
rnonks can surch be credited with an important
part in the impulsc which brought about con-
sistcntlv larp;er, more ma jestic. and bettcr
vaulted church buildings, and some o1'theskill
a n c ls u c c e s so l ' t h c r c g i o n a l s c h o o l sm u s t b e d u e
to thc stimulation of' wide knowledgc which
c a m e w i t h t h c p r e s e n c eo f ' t h c C l u n i a c s . a n d t h e
tidc o1'I'il grimalic ctrnracts.
'l'lius
i n - { n i o u r s u c c o s s t u lc o m b i n a t i c r n o l '
thc principlesof'ribbed and of'domed construc-
tion was rnade. In Poitou quite surprisinelv
monumental ellccts were earll- achieved with
columnar supporrs and 'h:rll church' r'aulting,
w h i c h h a d h a r d l _ y ,i n p r c v i o u s t i m e s , a c h i e r c d
'I'he
anv reallv noble ell'ccts. latcr application of'
g r o u p e d p i c r s a n d p o i n r e d a r c h e st o t h i s s c h c m c
opcnecl up a whole panoramt of interesting
eff'ects.ancl these, together with -{ngevin vaults
 MIDDLL AND SOUTHF,RN FRANCT]
]O2
f u r t h e r d e v c l o p e d , w e r c s u c c e s s f u l l vd r a w n o n
in Gothic work indecd at the cathedral of'
Poitiers itsclf, as well as later, with grcat art, in
thc developcd hall churches o1'South France,
Spain, and Germany. In P6rigord a quite pedes-
trian and utilitarian scheme of dome construc-
tion developed spccial and monumental effects
of' genuine interest, quite apart liom the
achievemcntof building the cathcdral of Piri-
g u c u x . T h e s a m e r e s i l i e n c e o f ' s p i r i t s h o l r , si n
the livelv, original, and monumental tower and
lantern lbrms, though the towcrs fiile d to
multipl'l over the churchcs as thev did in Bur-
gundl'and thc North.
.In decorative works therc lvas a notable skill
'I'hcrc
ofelerv sort. a r e s u c c e s s l u li m i t a t i o n s o f
provincial Roman rvork, carvings rvhich havc
the strong bulk o1-carlv medielal work, and
others which suggest the subtlc refinement of
Bvzantine or oriental works in ivorv such as
w e r e t r e a s u r e db v t h c a r t i s t s ' p a t r o n sa n d k n o r v n
to the designers themselves. In Anjou and
Poitou the column-bundles, leaf'age,arcading,
and mouldings arc treated with such conscious-
n e s so f e n r e l o p c , s u c h d e l i c a c vo 1 ' u n d e r c u t t i n g
and scale, such tirelessnessof'fancf in treatinq- PART FI\ E
t h e s i m p l e v o c a b u l a r y o f l c a v e s a n d s c r o l l s ,t h a t
'I'hc
the eflects are the equivalent of orientalism.
g r e a t s c u l p t u r e so f t h e S c h o o l o f ' T o u l o u s e h a i t THE MATURE ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
a l - u l l e rc l a r i t r . o l i e n a n o r c r p o w c r i n gi n t e n s i t r. 'I'HE
and thel' gain vastlv as decoration from tht O F S P A I N , P O R ' I ' U G A I , ,A N D HOLY LANI)
stvlizcd fbrm and subtlc rippling surfaces, sri
s w e e tt o t h c l i g h t , i n w h i c h t h e v p a r a l l e lo r i e n t r r l
and Bvzantineworks.
With all this. the fundamental architectur.al
tvpes createdin the area of (,arolingian Aqui- c H A P T E Rr 7
tania were not maeinified or elaborated bey-ond
'I'hev 'I'HI.,
measure. alwavs remaincd eminentlr STYLES DL,PL,NDEN'I'ON MOORS AND ON LO\'IBARD\
-Ihis
practical. is the key to their usefulness in
lronticr countr]' like Earl.v Romanesquc Spain.
or the Crusaders'Holv Land. Both thesearcas
were architectural provinces of' Burgundr. All Christian Spain ultimatell' succumbed to dcnce even in Cistercian works. Hence these
'I'hc French architectural genius, as thc Gothic trvo st1'lesrvill be considered befbre we resume
Poitou, and Languedoc. Romanesque ol
Aquitania s h o w e d a r e m a r k a b l e e x p a n s i re cathedrals of Letin, Barcelona, and Seville our studl' of the expansion of French architec-
power. In the mo\.ement towards Spain lvhich clearly show. But thc northern kingdoms were ture to the other lands which had been r\loslem.
started seriouslv in the earlv eleventh centllr\. building in the French Romanesquc stvle as
and in thc Crusadeswhich began in rog7, thc e a r l ya s r o 5 o .
N T u D a J A R o M A N I s e u EA R ( i H r r E c ' r ' u R L
Frcnch took their architecture with them. arrd Catalonia remained an active province of the
I\ BRICK
built it with a local nuance, but retained tht Lombardic st1'lc until the advent of Gothic
s p c c i a l s t a m po l ' l ; r c n c hg e n i u so n i r . the Gothic of Citeaux, and that of Langucdoc, The elcventh- and twclfth-ccnturv victories of
referred to in the preceding chapter. the Christian kingdoms in Spain advanced their
The Christians in the Nloorish part o1'Spain frontiers rvellsouth ofthe equator ofthe penin-
worked in the Nlozarabic st1'lebefbre thc tcnth sula, except in the hinterland of Valencia.The
centurv, as we have scen. In the lbllorving period areasubject to the Christians lvas nearly'doubled
'I'he
they did not greatl!' develop thcir church art, in two hundrcd 1'cars. new conquests were
'l
except at oledo, uhich lbr a time uas scmi- progressivell' more settlcd in character, and
independent. The 'Ntuddjar' st.vle, that is, thc morc densel]' populated, with large N{oorish
M o o r i s h s t l l e i n ( . h r i s t i a n s e r r i c e . a p p c a r st o and Jelvish contingents in the population.
have been worked out in -I'oleclo before the N'toorish masons in thcsc rcgions built verv
conquest (ro85), and drawn on as Christian successfullv in brick. Sefror G6mez-\Ioreno
buildings multiplied in the middle and southern makes the point that ordinarl building must
parts ofthe pcninsula, where the \,{ud6jar was have procccded as before, with ordinarv N{oor-
most appropriate to local conditions.l Iior us ish craftsmen.: Clever N'Ioorish craftsmen
lts interest is largely confined to brickwork and learned the Christian style, and ultimatch
wall patterning in the sophisticated Moorish Christian crafismen lcarncd the N'Ioorish sty.le
tashion. which was, after all, dill-erent rather than
The Mucl6iar was outsidc the currcnt of lbreign.
French architecture. In the earlier pcriod an ambitious Romanes-
ancl the Catalan Roman-
esgue alwavs quc work lbr the reconquercd arca would in-
maintained a certain indcpen-
 .lo.l spAIN, PORTU(;Al-, AND THE HOLY LAND

volve all thc diffrculties attendant on importetl the round-arched decorativearcading is sct i1
liom thc east
cralismen fiom Poitou. I-anguedoc,Burgundl Iloorish-looking oblong pancls. San Lorenz,, , 3 2 .S a h a g u nS. a nT i r s o . t u c l l i h c e n t u r r .
or Spanish crattsmen from the norrh, with a t S a h a e i l n t n d t h e P e r e g r i n ac o m e l a t c r , i n t l r q
s i m i l a r t r a i n i n g ; s u c h l v o r k sw c r c n o t n u n l er o u s . thirteenth centurv, and har.e thc cusping rnrl
Romancsque architecture in f-actnevcr reached pointed arches which become er-cr morc ti.r_
Tolcdo at all; that was the centre of'rhe N{ud6jar 'l'oro
quent in this work. has correspondins
s t v l e, a n d , a s t i m c w o r e o n , t h e S p a n i a r d s b e - s i m p l e c x a m p l c s , t h e C r i s t o d e l a s B a t a l l a sa n r l
c a m e l e s s d c p c n d e n r o n l i r r c i g n e r s .W h e n p o s - S a n L o r e n z o , d a t c c la b o u t r z o o . L r L u g a r c j a l r
siblc, it uas naturirl fbr them to profit br the Areraio is a similar work, Clistcrciana
, n c ld a t e , l
e r p e r i c n c c o f t h e \ l o o r . i s h a n d N , I u d 6j a r b u i l d e r s in the thirteenth century.+
in nervlr occupied arels, and to devclop Rtrman- 'l'he 'I'oledo
oldest prescn'ed example at i.
esque variations on the N,Iud6jar stvle, built, the extension, dated about roll7, of a tt:nllr_
lile the originals,largelr,in brick, but organic- centurv mosque called El Cristo dc la l.uz.
a l l r R o m i r n e s q u cr a t h c r t h a n o r i e n t a l . . \ c t u a l l y , where ,{llbnso \rI paused rvhen he enrcred tlr..
the rlecorative pilastcr str-ips and decoratire c i t l o n . z- 5 \ l a v 1 o 8 , 5 . .H e r e t h e r e i s a r o u n r l -
a r c a d i n g w h i c h c h a r a c t e r i z et h e } I u d i ' j l r s t r l c a r c h e t l c l e c o r a t i r ea r c a d c i n t h e l o w c r r e g i s t t r . .
irre bascd ultimatclv on the ver\, same elenrents a n d a c u s p e d r a n g e a b o r . e .L a t e r e x a m p l e s ,l i l e
u hich lvere de vcloped in thc Lombardo-(,atalan Santiago dcl Arrabal (r. rz56), Sanro Tomr.
First Romanesquc stvle. In Spain the pattern Santa Fi (thirtecnth centur)'), and others arc
work on the pale-brolrn brick rvalls,wirh the more purelv oriental. San Romdn at J'olcdo, tirr.
spicv shadowsof dccoratire cusped and intcr- instance,is pcrl'ectlvNloorish in stvle: a cle:tr
laccd arches, givcs an oriental nuance tu the c a s eo l ' c c l c c t i c i s m , t b r i t l v a s c l e d i c a t e di n r _ : : r
r i p p l e o l s u n s h i n c w h i c h p l a v su p o n t h e n r . bv,\rchbishop RodcrigoJimenez de Rada, r,r'ho
\Ianv of the \luclt'jar churchcs arc ntodest laid thc corncrstoneof the Gothic cathedralin
a i s l e l e s sa f l a i r s , w i t h p o l v g o n a l a p s e s ,g e n e r a l h r227.
precedcd bv a tunnel-r'aultcd sanctuart bar T h i s s a m c 'm i x r u r c o f s t r l c s i s p e r c e p t i b l e i n
rvhich carriesthe torvcr.if therc is onc.'I-he the southern arca at Sclille, Granada, antl
nnrcs, and the aislesil' prcsent, are usuallr b e t ' o n c l ,a n c lt o s o m e e x t c n t i n t h c n o r t h d u r i n , r
r o o f e d i n l v o o c l . \ l o o r i s h ' a r t c s o n a c l o s 'w i t h the Gothic period. A remarkable derclopmenr
t l r i n t i e - b e a m so f t c r . o
r c c u r a sn a r e c e i l i n g s . o f ' t h c I I u d !j a r s t v l e w i t h s r r o n g R o m a n e s q u e
Xlozarabic brick rvorkcrs were among the rcminiscenccs took placc in the Ebro Valler
settlers when Qgintana, near Sahaginr and during thc Gothic agc, anclcontinued into rht
L e 6 n , r v a sr e p o p u l a t e di n t h e t e n t h c c n t u r \ , a n c l 'l'eruel
Renaissance. has splendid examplcs ril
t h i s p o i n t i s a l i k e l r s t a r t i n c - p l a c ef i r r t h e b r - i c k - t h c f b u r t e e n t h c e n t u r r ' , a n d t h e r e l v a sa w o n c l e r-
building str.le ol (-astilc. Earh- examplcs are f u l f l o n c r i n g i n Z a r a g c : z aa n c l n c a r b 1 . T h c t l t ,
l l c k i n g ; t h e 1 ,w e r e c k i u b t l e s su t i l i t a r i a n , : r n c l ,i n l c l o p m e n t t l i d n o t e n d w i t h G o t h i c t i m e s ,a sr h (
c h u r c h a r c h i t e c t u r e , r e p h c e d b c c a u s eo t t h e i r handsomc belfrv and crossing towcr of' fhe
modestscalc- cathcdral of"l'arazona bcar lvitness ft5ry zi)
'l'he -I'here
C l u n i a c a b b e l . o f ' S a h a g r i nt,h o u g h s ro n c - is cvcn one cxample in America .r
built, had the brick chapclof'San Mancio, built l b u n t a i n h o u s c o l r . ; { r 3i n t h c p u b l i c s q u i r r e, ' l
'l'his
Irbout I roo. i s a s i r r p l e c l e s i g n ,a n d o n c o l ' ( . h i r p r d c ( i r r z r ri n \ l e r i c o .
thc olclcr p r c s e r r e c l\ l u d 6 j a r w o r k s . S r n - l i r s o 1'he \ludijar stvlc oflcrs irn inrerestinr
at Sahagin lzjzl, tuelf rh ccntur\', is much like parrrlleland conrrast to thc 'brick Gothic' or'
a I r i r s t R o m a n e s q u cc h u r c h i n b r i c k . e x c e n t t h a t 'l'he
Bttksteingttik of Germanv. latter str lu

L

306 SPAIN, PORTU(;AL' AND TIIE HOLY LAND
started with rctual Lombard Romanesque elc-
ments about the middle ol the twellth ccnturv'
rnd devclopcd interestinglbrms appropriateto
brick. Its simplicitl accords well with the so'ere
Baltic countrl rvhere it flourishcd. Later', like
t h e M u d 6 j a r s t 1 l e ,i t b e c a m e p l a l f u l a n d i n t r o -
duced Gothic motifi.
I Maria ol \iilabertrin, dated about Iroo, r't-
TfiE MATURE
C A T A L A NR O M A N E S Q USET Y L E
Ram6n Berengucr III, Count o1' Barcelona
(ro96 r r3r), was masterof'the whole Nlediter-
ranean coast-line from the Ebro to Nice. Under
him French influences filtered into the archi-
tectural sculpture in Catalonia, but in general
the area retained its Lombardic st1'le,which had
dominated since the tenth centur-t. The increase
of means, in Catalonia as elsewhere in the
eleventh and twelith centuries, permitted an
improvement in craftsmanship' particularly in
the use ol'fine ashlar masonry for interior and
'l'he
exterior walls. later churches are generous
in scale, and ordinarily vaulted; thet are in
many cases richly ernbellished occasionally
'lvith carved
with tvmpanum reliefs, usualll'
capitals, and therv often have cloisters, richlv
carr,ed and unfailingly poetic. Reminiscences of
the Mozarabic st1'leare unusual, but there ts an
indefinable half-oriental warmth in the build-
ings which must owe something ultimatel-v to
the Moors.
San Clemente oF'l'ahull,6 well known lor its
paintings, is almost archaic for its date (tt3z)'
It is a perfectly plain triapsidal wooden-roofed
basilica without even a clerestory. The hand-
some square tower is traditionally Lombard.
French influence in Catalonia may, as usual,
be traced bl the ambulatory and radiating
chapels (rare in Romanesque Catalonia) and by
sculptural style. San Juan de las Abadesas'-
shows the old scheme of a tight cruciform plan
ol surprisingly grand scale expanded by an
lmbulatorv and radiating chapels (later rebuilt
STYLES DEPENDENT ON THE IVlOORS,{NDON LON{BARDY 307
ditl'crentll-) and embellished rvith sculpture 1n
the French mannsr; the dates probabll tlll
betwecn r r r4 and r r5o. Yet despiteits |rcn11.
elements thc resulting btrilding docs not stcrl
French. Nor does San Pedro at Besalu.(It ha.
an ambulatorl- uith nichcs in the outer \\rll
s e r r i n g a s r a d i a t i r r g c h a p e l s ; t h e a p s e a r c a c l ri 5
d o u b l e c l , l i k e t h e s u p p o r t s o { ' a c l o i s t e r ' . )S a n t x
sembles a simple Prorengal or Burguntli,rl
'i
c h u r c h . L i k e m a n l ' s u c h b u i l d i n g s i n F r a n c e. i t
h a s q u a d r a n t v i r u l t e d a i s l e s ,a s c m i c i r c u l a r t L r n - \,li
nel vault with trlnslersc archcs in thc nnrc.
rvith a timid clerestorl', but it has Lombardic
o r n a m e n t o n t h e e x t e r i o r a n d a c l o i s t c ro 1 ' L o n t -
bardic character.
O f ' t h e g r o u p o f c l o i s t e r sr v h i c h m u l t i p l i e d i n
the twelfth centur)'', a I-erv are noticcd hcrc,'
being connected with intcresting churchcs:
San Pedro Galligans, Gerona (about tt.;o),
S r r n t aN l a r i a d e I ' E s t a n v ( r r 3 3 ) , S a n C u g a t d c l
Vallds (about rI5o); the crthedral of Gcrona
(neally contemporarv); San Benito de Bagcs
( r v e l l a l t e r r r 5 o , p r o b a b l l i n c o r p o r a t i t . t gc ' t r -
2 3 3 .S e od e U r g e l C a t h e d r a lr,I 3 r - ? 5 2 3 4 .S c od e U r g e l C a t h c d r a l r, r 3 r 7 5
r,ings which belonged to thc cloistcl ol 9;:)'
and later, from the north-west and latcr, analvticalsection
ancl, beside thc charming little latc Lomb:rrtlic
church of San Pablo del Clmpo in Barcelon"r'
a r i n v c l o i s t c ro l a b o u r I 2 o o , t o $ h i c h c u s l ' c t l
orientation in architecture. The Catalans think east walls of the transept also being thick
arches give an odd oriental look. The visiror
ofthe later twelfth centur,v as a rather decadent enough to contain its fbur absidioles, and those
who makes the rounds of'thcse and others likc
period in this art. So it is that the chief great of the apse thick enough to contrin a small
thcm cxpericnccs onc of thc tlclights ol lltc
e n t e r p r i s eo f t h e t i m e , t h e c a t h e d r a l o f t h e S e o horseshoe-shaped arial rotunda. In the massive
metlieral trrrclling ecclcsiltsticu ' ho morttl
de Urgel 143, 41, is in larious wavs like a nave thcre are t\lo files ofcrucilbrm piers lvith
from monaster\ to monasterJ and slu sotttt-
maturer and more finished version of Ripoll, nook-shalis, supporting banded tunnel vault-
thing of life in the cloister wherever he r'r'ent'
t and in the lineage of San Vicente, Cardona (r. ing in the transept and naYe, groin vaulting in
The monasterv of Ripoll has an attracttr
tozo-4o), San Pons de Corbeira (c. ro8o), and t h e a i s l e s .T h e c r o s s i n g i s c o l e r c d b 1 ' a c u r i o u s
c l o i s t e r a l s o , i n t $ o s t o r e y s ,b u t t h e i m p o r t ' r n t
S a n J a i m ed e F r o n t a n y d ( r o 7 o ) . ' ' fbur-ribbed dome carried on squinches and
s c u l p t u r a l m o n u m e n t t h e r e i s t h e e l a b o r a t ep i r r - 'l'he
The grand old cathedral of rr3r-75 at the shallolvpendentivcs. nate has a clcrestorl-
t a l o f ' t h e m o n a s t e r y 'c h u r c h . T h e c l o i s t e r n t ' t l
Seo ds Lht.lro has a T-shaped plan rather like of prettv paired arches suppolted on paircd
b e a se a r l v a s I r z 5 a n d t h e p o r t a l a sl a t e a s I t 7 5 'l
'I'hev that of Ripoll, but simpler. It is laid out rvith shatts like thosc of a cloister' he fiont of the
were added, of course, to the remarlirblc
tremendous stout walls in fine ashlar masonrv. b u i l d i n g w a s p l a n n e d l b r t u o s q u a t es t a i r l u t -
church of ro.iz, lvhich $e have mcntlolrct'
The walls oithe transeot enclsserve as the actual lets, llhich n'ith the huge tlanseptal torvcrs and
previously.
bases of trvo the trvel\e-sidcd lantern would mark a strong
o' hear'1' towers (containing com-
I n r r 3 5 C a t a l o n i a r v a s! o i n e d t o t h e c r o u t t
' t t t c t'
partments
which open into the transept), the silhouettc ergrinstthc sk-v Not the least rcmark-
\ragon, but the ttnion did n o r b l i n g a b o u r
L )
3O8 sPAlN, PORTUGAL, ANI) THL HOLY I.AND
able thing about the building is its almost pure
Lombard strle, especiirlll'on the extcrior, where
the design uith its decorative arcading, apse
g:rllerl', and other f'eaturesmight casilv bc mis-
taken fbr an actual Lombard building o1'the
errlv or middle twellih century.
Completion of'the roofs, towers, and dome
u'as in f'act contracted fbr in r r7S between thc
Chapter on onc part, and Raimundus with lour
lamhardos on the other: lumlturdus at the time
s i g n i f r i n g n o m o r e t h a , n m a s u n .B u t t h c s t y ' l c
of'the edificc shows thrt masonrv of-the Lom-
bard ty'pe rvas expectcd, as it had becn fbr ccn-
turiesin Catalonia.
'l'he
c o n s e r v a t i \ e c h a r a e t e ro f ' t h e b u i l d e r s i n
C a t a l o n i ac a n n o t b c t o o m u c h e m p h a s i z e d .T h e
C l u n i a c p o s s e s s i o n st,h o u g h t h e f i r s t g i f t d a t e s
back to 966. serc nert'r actile ol important.
'l'hcrcfbrc.
after thc Lombartls and thc Pro-
Vengaux, the first ensrrinp;ware of fbreign in-
fluence was thc (,istcrcian sn1e, which came in
b e c a u s eo f t h e i n t e r e s t w h i c h t h e n c w d v n a s t l '
(of Aragon, sincc rr.1i) carll erinced in the
refbrm of Citeaur. The Burgundian half-
Gothic in France so relativelv conscr\.ative
i n C a t a l o n i am a r k s r n a d r a n c c .
P o b l e t , l ' a l r e a d v m e n t i o n e c li n o u r b r i c f ' s u r -
vel of'Cistercian archjtecture,rvasfbundcd in
rr5r, and it became the Aragonese dl.nastic
p:rnthcon, which erplains its fine construction
and its vast developmant.'l'he pointecltunnel
vault with transverse arches is of'undiluted
R o m a n e s q u ci b r m . S u r p r i s i n g a s i t i s i n r c l a t i o n
to its contcmporar), the 1,lult of Notre-Dlme
in Paris (about rr75 g5), it u:rs quitc natural
i n t h e C a t a l o n i ao f t h a t a p ; e w
, herc the rib vaults
of the aislosof Poblet werc) on the contrar\,,
surprising. Throughout the vasr ertent of thc
l a t e r m e d i e v a l b u i l c l i n g sa t P o b l c t t h e r e i s m o r e
t h a n a h i n t o f ' R o m a n e s q u ec h a r a c t e ri n t h e r v l l l -
work irnd massing, rvhilc the plal ful Gothic
trlcerr h'ls a half'-oricntal sparkle, and occurs
o f t e n i n w i n c l o l rs l v i t h s l e n d e rs h a f t sa n d c l e q a n t
narrow openings, likc those of the Moorish
LUlmt:.
In passing, the other great Catalan Cistercian
foundation should be mentioned Santas Creu.
( r r 5 7 ) , a l s o p r o v i d e d w i t h a n a u s t e r ea n d c h a r -
ncteristic church which builds up into a beauti-
lul octagonal cimborio or crossing lo\4cr r'
Gothic date.rl
Tarragona Cathedral, begun in rrTr,rr is tht
heir of all these tendencies. Metropolitan archi-
episcopal establishment in a city with manr
Romirn remains. the church has the resolute
sturdiness of the most invincible Roman or
'Ihough
Provcngal construction. finished in
Gothic times, the excellent ashlal masonry has
Romanesque character. The plan has the ar'-
rangement of a much smaller French church ol
the apse echelon type (nave offive bays, single
proiecting apsidal transept ba1's,with sanctuar\
bay and triapsidal chevct bevond). The result-
ing effect of magnilic:rtion is awkward in vari-
ous respccts, but imposing, since heavy lbrms
dcrivcd {rom the Cistercian stvle (with Poiter rn
influence, perhaps, in thc column-bunclle pier: )
wcre used with f-air consistency in the loucr
parts of the building, and the exterior, flat-
roofed, is blockl' and plain like a Provcng:rl
-l'he
building. cloister is surprisinglv Burgurr-
dian - with Cistercian architectural forms, and
carvings in the Cluniac tradition. Herc and
elsewhere in thc cathedral establishment thcle
are oriental touches. Of course, being fullr
vaulted onlv in 1287, and dedicated complctc
onll in r j3r, the building has Gothic details
also: in thc wcst portal, the windo$ trrccrv, lntl
the (characteristic) octrgonal crossing tower.
'I'he
old cathedral of L6ridara [235], boldlr
sct on a great rock which dominates th. mod"r',
torvn, is a somewhat more consistent examplc
ot'this samc solid, sunburned late half-Gothic
architccture (rzo3-78). Its plan is simpler thrn
tlrat ol Tarragona (an dchelon of five apscs to wcst ptrrtrl into the cathedral
235. L6rida Cathcdral, rzoj 7ll, vicw liom thc
t h e c a s t 0 t l h e t r a n s e p ti h a n d s o m ec i m b o r i o , , t
^L-
 3IO SPAIN, POR'IUGAL,AND THE HOLY
LAND

6gAPTER r 8

S T Y L E SD E P E N D E N T O N F R A N C E

p R E L l N l l N A R rC O N S T D [ , R A T I O N S the passesinto thc Peninsula. A large proportion

of them were southern Frenchmen - in parti-
Conservatism in Cirtalonia prevented an earlv cular from Poitou, Languedoc, and Burgundv.
or effective spread of Iirench Romanesque Benedictinism and Carolingian monasticisn'r
architecture to the region. It was quite the earll-' filtered into middle and western north
reverse in the Christian states to the west. in Spain, but lvere not rcally'ellectite until thc
spite of the apparent barrier of the Pyrenees. conringof the Cluniacs under Sancho the Great
The southrvard advance of'the doughtl' Spanish (97o ro35), King of Navarrc.l
kings and soldicrs produced a splendid oppor- S a n c h o ' sg r a n d s o n , A l l b n s o V I ( r o 6 S - r r o g ) ,
tunity for inrmigration, and religious aspects of' the great patron of Santiago and Clunv, re-
the war turned it into a crusade. French partici- assembled thc Kingdom (parcelled in accor-
pation in such crusades has usually becn ac- d a n c e w i t h S a n c h o t h e G r e a t ' s b e q u e s t s )a n d
companied bv good and practical rcsults ol-some enlargcd it. He continued the ecclesiastical
L6rida, Exchange,rhirreenrhcenturl sort, and thc storl' of thenr is often written in policJ' ol' Sancho, as we know. Srhagirn, the
architecture. greatest monaster) in Castile, was associated
The war of rcconquest began at Cor,adonga with Clun1., and its abbot, Bernard of Agen,
'Ioledo
transrttonal st1-le; heavill,_built in 7r8. It increasingl-v gained French recruits became primate aftcr the crpture of in
nave oI three ish style. Certain other details
bays) except that a Gothic
.to;r,., ,o_.rtr,
can only be as the Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela ro85 and the resuscitation of its ancient ec-
larger than the church was
N:lT- in origin, and are doubtless
added at the west. .or,.,..t"d flourished. Actually the conquering Christian clesiastical dignitl'.
with Sicily, whereaoual Aragonese
1'he cloister, which reall .ute begai kingdoms offered profitable opportunitics to T h e c o u r t b e c a m eg a l l i c i z e d ,n o t o n l f i n p o l i -
rn 1262.
hasagreat port"r i*;;vr.?;;t.,r*.ljr#; adventurers becausethe population of Christian tics and religion, but also in blood. Four ofthe
q u a r t e r . sa r e a t t"f
he
north; at the south_west
Someremainsof medievalcivic
anddomestic north Spain was not large enough to stand the consorts of Allbnso VI were F'renchwomen, and
rork ol'the Romanesque periodexistin Cata_ 'lhc
is r rall octagonalroucr sct drain of cxpansion. arca of the Christian sei eral of his children made French marriages;
- l 1r st ne ., 1 , t t t . 1 . poinr_ ronra,bur the fine examples(the
w lrke the Limousin tr {rchbishop,s kingdoms trebled in the eleventh century. When French chivllry flo*ered at the court, and so it
in therburtee;;il;:T;:',Tll T:,i .O"ti:..
t-r Barcelona,the Exchange
in L!.i;; the great cities fell, many faithful Moslems \\'as that the arbitcrs of taste and the patrons
Romanesque. [zj6l), do nor anredarethe thirteenth..n,r.f, were displaced, their room being taken by Cas- of art were b.v-'nature fitted to desire French
when urbanismreallvbegins 'l'his
I alencia,though temporarily in the.egiorr.Brt tilians and French, occurred alicr the re- creations, though not quite to the exclusion of
captured and an
ruled bt, thc Cid (that is, donion (,Torr. a. Ho-_.nrj"ji c o n q u e s to f ' T o l e d o ( r o 8 5 ) , H u e s c a ( r o t l 6 ) , V a - sophisticated Moslem works.
Said, Lor<I; ,"nOlnJ ,occasional
with ward and enclosure
wasnot rcally incorporatedinro walls, perhaps also l e n c i a ( r o g , + ) ,a n d Z a r a g o z a( r r r 8 ) . Alfbnso's son-in-law, Ra1'mond of Burgundy,
the A.ugo.r.se_
Catalandominionsuntil rz3g. survived,along with .ity t,our., It was the same with the native Church: is known to have brought twentl' French ma-
A nom"n.rqu. l1*..1 lur in
Mur, Solsona,Vich, Besalf problems on an entirely nelv scale werc pre-
cathedralwas begun there in , ard Ge.ona.So_e_ s < r n st o u o r k o n t h e w a l l s o l ' . i l i l a ( r o r l o ) | 2 . 1 4l .
rz6z,,- quiti-a times.in rhe back_country
naruralthing in the capital rillages,wherethe sented to it, and foreig;n ecclesiasticswith suit- Alfonso VII (rrz6-57) lbunded a number o1'
of that conservative chrrrchrs likelr still ro bc Romanesque,
architecturalprovince. The thereis able experience had to be called to fill the great C i s t e r c i a n m o n a s t e r i e si n C a s t i l e , A r a g o n , a n d
rich doorwaysof a medievalimprint yet remaininp;
the building which have survived rt,. ,irnil. posts. The Isidorian church was overfloocled by. Galicia, which of course meant an influx of the
a larcr re_ houses,porticoes, ""
construction are ver], elegantly and overhanging.uu.r.Th. this tide, and Romanized befbre the end of the usual Burgundian hall'-Gothic. Under Altbnso
embrasured, Romanesquestamp on Catalonia
with manynook-shafts, i, i"d;"; eleventh centurv. So ecclesiastics as lvell as \''II's son, Sancho III (rr57 8), the Order o1'
andornamenfs of.Moor_ extraoriinarv. pilgrims, knights, ancl settlers flowcd through Calatlara rvas founded lbr the def'encc of the
 -lr2 s p A I N , p o R . I . U G A r ,A, N D T H [ . t { o L y L A N D
STYt,L,S DEP[,NDEN'I' ON FRANC[, 1I1

fiontier, under the Cistercian Rule.

Sancho ARAcoN AND NA\ ARRE
I I I ' s s o n ,A l f b n s o V I I I ( r r 5 g _ r z r 4 ) , t h e c r - v ' ' pot f ' r o 3 o h a s c y l i n d r i c a l p l i n t h s r r n d e r
m a r r i e da
dar-rghrerof Henrl' of'Anjou (who thc piers, likc those ofJaca Cathedral). Abore
had by his In the fbrmati'e period of Romanesque
marrilge with Eleanor of- Aquitaine ar.cl1- the arcrde thc wall at Jacais plain, with a single
tecture these two mountain kingdoms
that great territorv- which long_int..".,.iE.rg- ".qui."d rcccired clcrestor] window over each opening in thc
many architecturar impurses fiom
lish rolalty as much as the Island) and th]s abroacl, du. aisle arcatle.
to their contacs wittr ttre pilgrimage 'l'here 'included
union fu'rher opened spain and *irh is an trirnsept' with tunncl
to influences from clun,r,. parrs.f Ar;;';*sess
Frrnce' rn rzrz, at LasNa'a^s brick Ronran_ vaulting in the arms, and a fine stone dome
a. lotor", o.rif .rqu. and Mucl.iar u..hi,..ru..,
about roo miles from c6rdoba, ancr this is the latter slightll'distortcd to lit over an octagon
Alfonso vIIi occasionalll.echoecl in stone buildings,
won the victory which insured like the made bl trumpct squinches. A rib rises fiom
an ultimate eleventh-centu.y.h..,..t ,o.,".rs
triumph (r492) againstthe Moors. of Ldrrcclc rrnd t h e m i d d l e o f e a c h s i d e o f t h e o c t a g o ni n M o o r -
Meanwhile Gavin.2 r"-u".alf
Burgundian dynasts were acrvancing J*,ri',, *.,, represcnrcd ish fashion. Intermediate bays of tunncl rault-
the' con- in the cathedr"r oinoJ.-i.
quest of Portugal' \Iilitary Ribagorga(ro.;6 ing beyond the transept preceded three Ro-
strugglesin which ( 1 7 ) .E c c l e s i a s t i c a l
Archbishop Diego Gelmir., c o n n e x i o n sb r o u g h t a F r c . c h m a n c s q u e a p s e s ,o f l v h i c h t h e c e n t r l l o n e h a s
ois..r,i"go *r, o.i.nt"tion. cluniac ;;;k;."-.
incidentally concerned, resulted abour ro:0, been replaced.
in the in'-d.p..r- but thc earliest cluniac church 'l'hornr.
d e n c e o l r h e c o u n t r l . u n d e r .A f i b n s o still cxistinS^is archaeological problems are posed
l in ,'ra3. S a n S a l r , a d o r. t L . r r . ,
In rr47, rvith the herp of pirgrimr, i"rr.rr, noted) [r-q71. b 1 ' t h c b u i l d i n g b e c a u s eo l ' t h e e x c e l l e n c eo f i t s
h..rptrr"i I . - ti s r v o n d c r t u i l v s e r i n , n r o u n r r i n .r.hc
Lisbon' All modern portugal 'ailer. construction and the luxuriance, vivacitr', and
had been con- e a s r e r np a r t s o f t h e c h u r c h h a d -I'he
quered lrom the Moors by rz7g. been buirr hr grcat merit of its sculptural dccoration.
ro57. They are notable fbr the
In spite of'the ob'ious French h a n d s o m eu s eo f . o l d e r F r c n c h a r c h i t e c t u r a lh i s t o r i a n s\ \ e r c p r o n e
sources of fro-.*tu, irregurar) ashrar stone
style in northern spain. and the rn m;ln\ to post-date such structures, but nerver studies
presence of' ,.gion, still an unusuar thing
c o n s i d e r a b l en u m b e r s o f F r e n c h at this date. .l.he hare pushed the enscmble of dates back b1'
c r a f t s m e ' n ,t h e 'aulted crvpt somcrvhat reca's
Spanishmonumenrsrealll'areSpanish.andnot saint_\larrin_ t\yentr or thirtl' vears. Noting that two of the
a,,-canigou, bur ir is -rr.. o.iginat.
ser'ile copies what precisely gi'es srum'r 237.Jtct Crrthedral,in use ro6.1,finishcdlater column capitals in the intcrior of the church
the subtle .olu.nn, support hairpin-like rransr.erse
nuance it is difficult or impossible archcs a r ec v e n n o w i n a b l o c k l c o n d i t i o n , n e v c r h a v i n g
to sav liasti- uncler the vault with .r,er1,,
dious tastc, rbrmed in the presence 'fhc picturesque efrccr. becn carlcd, we may suppse that the carving
of Moorish main triapsidal liun.,ur.1,, with parirllcr 'l'he
a r t , d o u b t l e s sc o u n t s f o r s o m e t h i n g . At the entrance o1'the cathedral there is a r v a sd e l a v c d a t J a c a u n t i l a b o u t r o 7 o . high
Mozarabic t u n n " l ' ' ' o r l t . , r c c a l l sL a n g u e c l o c .
archirecrureand Iloslcrn crafismen Bv the t*.cilih tunnel-r'aultecl porch of tlvo ba1s. lbrmcrlv q u a l i t l o f ' t h c f a b r i c , s o u n e x p e c t c di n a r e m o r c
ha. some ."n,u.nawidenarcrvasaddcd, likerhoseof.thc
slight influence Traclitional skill o p e na t t h e s i d c s ,w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n gw e s t p o r t a l place. rvould be due to thc personalintcrest of
in cxploiting i,oi..; i, now has fine Gothic vaults.
e f l ' e c t so f s u n a n d s h a c l o w ; s i m p l e r The r.rrl - Burgundian in general srrle like the porch, the King, and his excellentchoice ot il master
bulks, ani Augustinian fbundation ar Siresa
the indefinable plaJ' of relationships built 1als, but with lions and the XP monogram (later builder.
between ,o-"*h"t in the stvle of.Languedoc) a runncl_ 'I'he 'I'he
the buildings and their austere' copied in rhc region) on th{j tympanum. influence of'Jaca Cathedral radiated
alwavs moun- v a u l t e c la i s r e l e s sc . r c i f b r . n r c h u r c h
tainous surroundings or backgrouni in roliz. n a v ea n d a i s l e sh a v c b e a u t i l i r l s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r \ through the district; wc find an ccho ofits plan,
may be Jaca cathedral, Lzlllinaugur{rcd a distinc_ star vaufting, but the relativcl-v-.light original and pcrhaps of its structurc, in thc fine ruined
lliiil:ffiJil"l:'iJil:::T::::l',1':l"' tirle
rocarschoor R"o-un".qu.
n'.hi-
",.;';;p;; construction prcdicates a Romanesque rool in C l a s t i l i a na b b e v c h u r c h o f A r l a n z a , d a t e d a b o u t
or bu'ding spuin, .'.n*.iililTT:iJ:; ,.*i,,,::.;il;[TT:in:"iJ:"il:*,i]: wood. 'l'he nave bals are double (except the ro8o to r roo.
n e v e r b c c a m e F r e n c h , a n c li t w a s westernmost one) with elegant round columns L o a r r c ' f z j t i , 2 3 9 l , a l s os h o r v i n gt h e i n l l u e n c c
thc samervith of de'elopment i n c l u d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a l ,u . h i c h
the architectu.e' 'lhis nuancc as intermediate supports betrvt:en groupctl of'Jaca Cathedral, has thc finest Romanesque
is alrva's to be rvasto bc (perhaps only in part)
understood' even when not mentionecl. a raultecl sr.rc- p i e r s .T h e r e i s a h a u n t i n s r e m i n i s c c n c eo f ' t h e c a s t l ei r . rS p a i n , a b l u l i m a s so f w a l l s t n c l t o w e r s
in the ture. A council is saicl to har.e
ensuing discussions. becn helcl in thc Loire region in the clesign, but onl1. impcr'ttct bcautifullv set on a rockt spur, commanding
building in ro63, but there is no corrtparisons can be made (Saint-Sar-inien at
a s s u r a n c et h r r r gorgeous views of the Gdllego Vallel. and its
the lhbric was rhen adranced. .lhe Sens;Saint-Benoit-sur-Loire; thc abbel' church
b a s i cd c s i g n mountain barriers. Parts of thc castlc antedate
is very slggxnl, but so eclectic of Jumidges,
a s t o s u g g e s tt h i l r to4o 67, which rvas in(luenccd an cstablishmentol' Au-rustinian canons thcrc,
a Spirniard uas rhc :rrchirecr. lrom the
L o i r e : r h e c a t h e d r a lo f A u r e r r e . w h e r e sanctioned by the Pope in ro7I. 1'he church,
 .lt+ sp-\l\. PoRT('(iAL,.{ND l'llE II()LY L{\l)
z1li. l,oarre, castle, r. ro1;5
which now dominatesthe whole group, has an
epitaph of rog5 carvedin the lower part, which
probably indicates that construction was wcll
on towards completion at that time.
Approach to the church is through a long
ascending stair corridor to thc castle ward, and
thence bv a lateral portal into the ccntral bav of
the church. To the west of this is an irregular
tunnel-vaulted bay, and to ths east a very elc-
gant arcaded apse, the architectural lines being
delicatelv rnarked by billet mouldings. The
central bay itselfrises through a combination of'
oricntal f-accted f-an squinches, broad trumpet
squinches, and shallow pendentives pierced
with oculi, to a hemispherical dome all in first-
class ashlar which has endurcd well.
The sculptured capitals, placed on shalts
under the gireatarches beside thc windows, and
-I'oulousan
in the decorative arcade, resemble
c a r r , i n g so f ' t h e t i m e . T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h o u g h
close in detail to that of'Languedoc and Poitou.
has a half--oriental warmth and seems verr
Spanish. The aesthetic and acoustical effect ol'
the interior is dramatic, in Spanish fashion; thc
abrupt verticalitv of the middle bay' is startling,-
as one cnters, without harm to the graciousness
or harmonious proportions of the interior. On
the exterior the domed bay has a stubbl.octr-
gonal tower, brought to a square base over thc
squinches by 'broach' rool.s cmall half'-pvra-
m i d s , t h a t i s . T h e c a s t e r n c r o s s i n go f C l u n 1 . I I t
had a somewhat similar roof, and the ty'pe be-
came common in Aragon.o
Relationships with Pamplona Cathedral in
Nayarre cannot be traced, owing to the destruc'
tion of that important Romanesque building,
l
z3g.Loarre,castlechapel,r. lo95
erected by Pedro de Roda, a Cluniac refbrming
bishop, who is known to have been at Cluny in
t h e y e a r r r o o . O n e o f h i s m a s t e r sw a s S t e p h e n ,
who worked on the cathedral at Santiago. Un-
questionably the old cathedral of Pamplona, if
it existed, would throw interesting light on the
tangled architectural history ofits period.
In passing, it is worth while to mention a few
stylistically complex buildings which, with the
Mud6jar work, show foreign architectural cur-
rents in this region ofAragon and Navarre, e\,en
at a late date. There is, fbr instance, the half-
Gothic-half-Poitevin Santa Maria la Real at
SangiiesaT (rr3r and later). The half'-Moorish
Santo Sepulcro in'Iorres del Rios (alrcady re-
terredto
Ir32, r33]; late twelfth century) ought
to be mentioned, as well as the supposed 'l'em-
plar octagon at Eunate') - thc last, by rare ex-
S T Y L E SD E P E N D E N T
ON FRANC]E3I5
ception, bcing set in an octagonal open spacc,
screened off somewhat likc a classical building
in its temenos,or like the Dome of'thc Rock in
Jerusalem, which probably inspired the general
form of this and similar buildings. Stronglv
under Cistercian and Poitevin influcncc in plan
is the half'-Gothic cathcdral of Tudela,10 wherc
the high altar was consecrated in rzo4. A con-
sistent st1''lewas maintained on the interior, al-
though the building wasnot finisheduntil about
r275. As in Catalonia, the tardv half-Gothic
-I'arra-
w a s s u c c e s s l u l l va b s o r b c d ; L 6 r i d a a n d
gona are thc comparable eramPles-
L [ , O N ,C A S T t L E A
, ND GALtCIA
Union with Navarre and Aragon, and ever-
increasing relationships rvith France, stirrcd a
rery' interesting artistic rcvival in the western
kingdoms. Le6n (in the Asturias) alreadl'had a
national st1'le of'architccture, which we havc
s t u d i e d . T h e c a p i t a l c i t . v ,L e 6 n i t s e l f ' s i n c eg r 4 ,
rallied alter destruction by Almanzor in 996,
and undoubtedll. initiated a new architcctural
revival likc that rvhich had stirrcd Oviedo twcr
centuries befbrc. Both Leirn and Castile had
some peaccablc contact with the Nloors, and
Nlozarabic works eristed in both areas before
the Romanesque stl'le t'as introduccd.
'I'he
earliest eristing fragmcnt of Roman-
e s q u ca r c h i t e c t u r ei n t h e r e g i o n i s a n e r l e n s i o n
to the Visigothic crypt of thc cathedral o1'Pa-
lencia. Date d ro3:[, it is in excellent ashlar work,
and has a clcr,er arcade in the apse vault which
shows competenceon the part of'the builders
at this earlv date.
I n L e 6 n u n k n o l v n m a s t e r so f r c a l g e n i u s e x -
tcnded the little old church of St John Baptist
and San Pelavo de C6rdoba betrveenro54 and
ro67 to fbrm a portico and the roval pantheon.
-I'he
church. latcr rebuilt, became the church ol
San Isidoro [z4o-zl when the relicsof'the grcat
D o c t o r o f S e v i l l e w e r e b r o u g h t t o i t . 1 1T h i s a n d
 3IO SPAIN, PORTUGAL,AND THE HOLY LAND

o t h e r c h a n g e sh a r e l e f t t h e n e w w o r k o f r o 5 4 of the time. Its oblong area is dirided into si1

67 as a retircd chapcl, whereas in origin the compartments over two ample columnar sun-
pantheon was a kind of inner narthex with a portsl the) :rnd the numerous rnall responll,
har.e capitals which are among the best anrl
most interesting of their periocl. The well_
d e s i g n e ds y s t e m o f d o m e d - u p g r o i n v a u k s j u s t
above them has remarkable frcsco decoration.
extraordinarily well preserved, which was pain_
red about r r75.
The church ofSan Isidoro was progressirclr
r e b u i l t , a n d u l t i m a r c l . rr a u l t e r l b y r h e a r c h i r e t l r
'I'he
Petrus Deustamben. central one of its three
!i c n e r o u sa p s e sh a s b e e n r e p l a c e d b u t t h e h a n d -
some lateral apses are still in place, with in-
teresting sculptural decoration. The transepr,
tunnel-vaulted, extends bevond the lateral
apscs, and opens into the nave through lrsr
c u s p e d a r c h e s ,a b o v e w h i c h t h e h i g h v a u l t ( c a r _
ried airily over a clerestory in the nave) is pro_
longetl.This is rcrl sqrnp.lent rvork of the cn.l
ofthe eleventh centurv and the beginning ofthc
tlvelfth. The carr.inEl,especiallr. on the latcrtli
portal, shows progress bcyond the point rcachcd
i n t h e P a n t e 6 n d e l o s R e v e si n t h e c a r l i e r p e r i o t l .
z4o. Lc6n, San Isicloro,ro54 tweltih centurl
We now turn to other important Roman-
z4r. Le6n, San Isidoro, I'ante6ndc los Rc.vcs,lo54 67
esqueworks ofthc Leonesc school.
'l'he
tribune abore it. p o r t i c o $ a s p l a c e c lo n i t s A church resembling San Isidoro was builr
north flank. and ertended also along the west (,. ro65-85) as the cathcdral of Le6n, but clc- z4z.Le6n, San Isidoro, 1o5.1twcllth ccnturl'
s i d e . w i t h t h e s o l i d m a s so f ' t h c c i t v n . a l l i u s t t o
the west of the passagc-wa_l
The
'P6rtico
.
c l el o s R e r e s ' t h u s e n c l o s e dt l v o
s i d c s o f t h e ' P a n t e 6 n d e l o s R e 1 , e s ,'.I ' h e l a t t e r ,
molishcd to make wav for the present beautilirl
Gothic building, under the pavement of u.hich
the old fbundations came to light in r884 8.r
+
o n c o f t h e f i n e s t a n d b c s t p r c s e r r c d r v o r k so l i t s
kind, is reallv a special vcrsion of the Caro-
San Nlartin at Fr6mistarr is a sort of'paradignr
lor the Leonese school. Fr6mista, like Le6n, i, -a-J
on the Pilgrimage routc to Santiaso de Cont-
lingian burial porch which we hare scen ar postela. A monaster.!. was being built there br Oo, |,Ot?
Saint-Riquier (where Angilbert was buriecl), Doia Nlavor, widow of Sancho the Great ot
and at Saint-Denis (where Pepin the Short was
Nararrc, rvhen the dollager )
Queen's testamenl
laid awav) and also a spccial version of'the was written, in ro66.
'I'his
date docsnot strictlr ,*/
t o w e r - p o r c h e s w h i c h w e h a v c s e e ni n t h e L o i r e
region ar Sr Nlartin of Tours (466 7o ancl
applv to the church, and it mav be that the
lorrrro
about ro5o) and Sainr-Benoit-sur-Loirc (datccl
extraorclinarill vivacious sculptures date fronr
the latter vcars of the eler.enth centurv. 'I'he fr?t -a t,
rn rts presentfbrm shortlv after ro67).
'l'hc
Pante6n dc los Reles is actuallv more
accornplishcd than anl'existing French *.ork
c n s e m b l eo f t h e b u i t d i n g i s r c r r h a r m o n i o r r .
and dignified, though it sufiers fiom hxr,ing
been over-restored a generirtion ago. The platr
{'+
 STYLES DEPENDENT ON FRANCE 3I9

3rlJ sPAIN, PORTU(;ALr AND TLIE IIOL'l- LAND

is triapsidal, and rather short, with an octagonal

lantern towcl over a tunnel-vaulted transept;
the nave has no clerestorl', but is covered by a
tunncl vault with transverse arches. carried.
with the similar vaulting of the aisles, on logical
grouped piers. The resulting building resembles
a P o i t e v i n h a l l c h u r c h . T h e : r b r u p t v e r t i c a l so f
thc pair of crlindrical stlir turrets at the west,
and the boldnessof the hntern give it special
character.
It is quite clear that Leon could not have
nrade the leap from N{ozarabic to Romanesque
without France, but the exact incidcnce of the
influencc is not easl'' to determine. There are,
as in the case ol'the Prnte6n de los Reyes,
cledible signs ol- connexions with the Loire
region, nourished by the pilgrimage to the tomb
of St Nlartin (a popular saint in Spain) and re-
inlbrced b1' contacts with French pilgrims to
Santiag;o.Even more evident are the indices of
Poiterin influcnce. The southward expansion
ofthe Poitevin st1'lehas alreadv been the subiect
o f c o m m e n t . I t i s e r e m p l i f i e d i n t h e c a t h e d r a lo f
z4j. CiudadRodrigoCathedral,nave,twelfrhcenrun 24+ clt\ wall, begun rogo
Ciudad Rodrigo [243J where also the nave is
vaulted with Angevin ribbed domes; in the c a s e so f i n s p i r a t i o n
seems ratncr of Orense;1ithere are other
v a r i o u s c h u r c h e sa t S o r i a ; a t O v i e d o i n t h e l a t e r p1rirndestell'ects, it was never applied bf itsell San Salrador, o1l'the ambulatorv' second hand which have evldent
arches there liom Iirance rrt
;;;;;tt, or Prorenqal Cusped
constructions of the Cimara Santa, beautifullv i n a r e a l l v l a r g e - s c a l eS p a n i s h b u i l d i n g . E i t h e r
gile a N'Ioorish weakncsses.
'
.fi.*t... in thc building where Bur-
cmbellished uith figure sculptures i58]. and at it u,as used bv a Spanish architect in an eclectic
"nJ l r a n s c pt suggesl We turn now to other examples
t a n g .T h e c o r n e r t u r r e t s o f t h e ertainl) fi'lt
Santiago de (,ompostela in the church of Santa composition, or bt a Burgundian masterin one guntliirn influence i s s t r o n g l t i s c
poiiou tN.,..-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers)
Nlaria del Sar (rr44); also, in the portal, the episode ofa long-continued building enterprise. f l f U " i n S e g o r i a 'a t t h c e l e g a r ' ct h u r c h
l , . S . nf
'I'he rowers (resembling the and at rhe
Christ in Glorl', and the'Apostolado'(rr65) of Spaniards nerer developed a Romanesqr.tc fzrz), asdo the rvestern oii.n,i*go del Burgo' in Zamora'
of Angou-
thc f-agadcat Carri6n de los Condes.r+ stvle strong enough to exclude all importations north-"".t tower of thc cathcrlral wooden-rool'ed church of Aguas
c a s t e n d o fthe navc' i.rigit,f"i
l !m e ) ,b u t t h e t u r r e t s a t t h e is sustained b)
01'thcse buildings, the cathedral of'Ciudad fiom the design of large works. the cor.ering
ths lirnousin' The Sr.ti"r, *hr..
being set pointwrse, suggest and diaphragm
Rodrigo is b1. fir thc most interesting and the Usuallv, as the great Spanish buildings went
Cathedral was nare arcadcs carr,rlng screens
latest in dats (1r65 r:io), proofof'continuing lbrward, the imported forms were progressivell original west front of Santiago l t '
'l'he of Le Pu-v Irz8l' but 'x' r c h e s .
finished offr'athe r like that Ra'r-
contacts rvith wcstcrn Francc. intcrior has hispanized, or, through change of plan, other g . . s u " a ] ' i s s t r o n g l v f ' e l ta l s o a t A v i l a : t 7
Glona rvas inspirecl from Bur-
domcd-up rib-r'aults resembling Angerin con- fbrms were brought in to modify the design the P6rtico dc la h r o u g h t l ; r c n c h masonslo
of the *on.l.-ot Burgundr
gundv. In a wlJ'' one ('eels thc eft'ect of lhclr trilol-
struction, carried on substantial piers which (not ahvavs to its advantage).
Roads tn start $orks there. and something
remind one of the column-bundles of Poitou. A good example of this process, with Bur- iunn.l-rhrp".1 map of the Pilgrimagc 'Ihe
rvalls of Avilrr [244]' rrt which
delivertng a tior, t;nr* i".a.
France with its spout at Santiago rogo' when the cttl
The grcrt cffbrt made in Romancsque times gundian fbrms involved, is offered b1'the cathe- 'lhe in
(caturcs eclectt- ,ft"t'tuUo,',..a beginning
varietv ofFrcnch regional thc
b y w a r r i o r s , s e t t l e r s ,a n d c c c l e s i a s t i c lsi o m B u r - dral ol Santiagode CompostelaIr r3, r r4, rzz-
architect' ,ru. ,n nro...' of being rcpopulated.rlier
9u''d!' makes it naturnl to expcct the work of 6 1 , t o w h i c h r e ( e r e n c ei n d e t a i l h a s a l r e a d v b e e n of Santiago in<licatcs a Spanish and l i l t l c o h s t r t r c tco
"ir* mention an lnterlor aonqu.r,. r,a still complcte 'lhc1' prescnt u
Burgu"dixn architccts and sculptors. Although made. The main thcmc of Srrntiago rvas first In plssing one should
in the cathedral bl subsequent construction'
i n B u r g u r ^ . l yi t s c l f t h e s t l l c w a s c a p a b l eo f ' t h e if,. P6rtico tlt la Gloria
a c h i e v e di n L a n g u e d o c , b u t t h e a x i a l c h a p e l o 1 '
""p1'of
32O sPAIN, PORTU(;AL' AND THE HOI-Y I,AND

magnificcnt Spanish ensemble earlier in 1111.

than (.arcassonne,and not nearll 16 Dttlch
rcstorccl.
The Rorranesquc cathedral, now replirced.
w i r s c l o s c t o t h e c i t - yw l l l , a n d q u i t c p o s s i h l i ., ,
was planned as a def'encc work fiom thc beqin-
n i n g . A n o r m a l t r i a p s i d a lp l a n ( ) r . r g
d i n g b 1 s rl n c -
tural lincs which thc present Gothic cathcdrnl
has inherited) would havc ioined and pcrhrps
extended past the line of'curtain u'all erst o1 rhr
cathedral. In the rebuildinel, thc transept \\a(
apparentll enlarged eastward, and a spacrOus
nelv apse, ambulirtor)', and radiating chirpt'ls
were erected within a \,ast semicircular projcc-
tion which containecl thesc elements and 'llso
continued thc line of defences: indeed .ru{j-
m e n t e d t h e m ; l b r t h e p r o j e c t i o n h a st h r o e b a t t l e-
mented passrge-wavs and a machicolatcd g,^rrl-
l e r l . o f b o l d d e s i g n .T h i s w o r k i s o f G o t h i c c l a t e ,
c t roq and latcr
b u t i t h a s R o m a n e s q u e c h a r a c t e r ,a n d i s m r g - zq6 arfi z,1i ivila. San Vicentt'
24.5.ir.ila Cathedral,twclfth centurr or later, nificentlv imposing [24.5].
east\ie$, withour prrasitcstru,Jluie((K.j.a'.)
San Vicente at Avilars [u46-8|, a pilgrirnarrc
'oe{bie
church, rvas begun shcitlr' trog, itntl
continucd, with interruptions, to Gothic timcs
I t h a s a p l a r r w h i c h b c c a m e c l a s s i ci n S p a i n
sanctuary triapsidal, applied with short sani-
tuarl' bays to a long transept with oblong bal:
4 projecting rvcll beyond the aisles; a lantcrtr
lni '= t o w e r a t t h e c r o s s i n g ,a n d a r e l a t i v e l Yl o n g n a r c .
The narc of San Viccnte has six bavs, groin-
_ilr"' L-- r . a u l t e c l ,w i t h r i b s o n t h e h i g h r ' : r u l t . I t i s a u g -
t:' i
t'' ltr mcntcd by'' r ver-r' Spanish lateral porch antl
+
(crceptionalll-) br a tall opcn vaultcd narthe\
ba\. like a great hood betwecn thc rvestcrn
'l'hc
towcrs. tower ba]'s open lateralll upon thc
e x i i r l b a r . a n d t h u t s t l g H ( s ta n e r l c r i o r v r e s l t l ' l l
transcpt.r"
'-['hcle
are other Burgundian featurcs about
San \ricente the squ:lrc crossing tower, thc
",1,:d+,4q pier fbrms, thc high nare with half--Gothic
vaulting. The p;olgeous \\'cstern portai, partll
Burgunclian, parth' Poite\.in in inspiration, is
one of the verl 6nest in Spain; it is of about
rr50.

122 SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND THE IIOLY LAND
Santo Domingo de Silos is another site asso-
ciated rvith line sculpture. The lost church
(almost entirelv replaced between rySb ^nd
r 8I6) was apparently a small building dating in
part from the lifetime of St Domingo (d. ro73)
but enlarged at both ends. There was a dedi-
cation in ro88. As finished, the church had a
layout somewhat resembling that of San Vicente
at Avila. But the interest at Silos must always
have been in the remarkablecloister [249]. It is
now two storeys in height, and in use bv the
community planted at Silos in the nineteenth
century. The most beautilul ol'its carvingsare
those on the north and east walks at the lower
level, and they are the oldest not dating before
St Domingo's death in ro73 asArthur Kingslev
323
i r09 and later
Avila' San Vicente''
,48 (0!!0sne)'
later, cloister
Domingo de Silos' r' ro8{-r roo and
(below)"Santo
z4g.
because the cathedrals irnd collegiate churches
P o r t e r s u p p o s e d ,b u t q u i t e c r e d i b l l . i n t h e p e r i o d Another traditionxl element is the Spanish
narc in
roljq r roo.l0 south porch connected perhaps. but not h : r v et h e c a n o n s ' c h o i r a t r h e h e a d o l ' t h e
Spain); v e r y h e a v v w a l l s a n d p i e r s i n u n excep-
The church of Santillanadel Mar, near San- demonstrably, with the lateral porches ofSvrian
con-
tandcr, is another in this series of triapsicl;rl Early Christian churches. In and near Segoria tionable ashlar masonr)'; ribbed dome
Angevin vaults; marked
R o m a n e s q u eb u i l d i n g s . D a t i n g l r o m t h e t w e l l i h and Burgos there is a charming group of such struction resembling
(at thc
century (and continued perhaps evcn into thc porches: Sepirlveda, ro93 ff', Gormaz, Jara- emnhasis on elaboratc lantern towcrs
in thc
thirteenth), it shows thc Spanish love lbr a sn le millo de la Fuente, San Millin, and with a crossing); and a superlicial orientalism
s t a n d i n w estcrn
characteristic tower - San Esteban, at Sego\la' decoration.'I'hcse buildings
once received and given a Spanish cachet. Santl re-
1'arragona do in their
-I'era
This is all twelfth-centurl work'22 Snain, as L6ri<1aand
Marta de shows this in another way: in l and
spccti\ c d i s t r i c t s ' f o r t h c R o m a n e s q u e
building dated rrzg the plan (a simple cross). On the Duero and to lhe south' near thc in
western border oi the old Kingdom of Leon transitional Gothic as received together
t h e b u t t r e s s s y s t e m ,t h e m a s s i n g ,a n d t h c d c c o r ' - with
Spain, absorbecl, and marked indelibl-v
ative zoning are surprisinglv like thoseofa fine (the present Hispano-Portuguese border)' there
is a group of half--Gothic churches which have national characteristics'
late Visigothic church, such as Q:intanilla dc probablv
The cathedral of Ztmorazr lz5ol is
las Vifras
but the striking thing is that both rhc a shong and unmistakably Spanish character'
Roman- the ol<lest ofthe group ofthe Duero to be rcalized
masonry and the detail are accomplished Ro- The laiter include simplc, traditional
lbrm. It uas begun in r r5z and
manesoue.:r e s q u et r i a p s i d a l p l a n s ( w i t h s h a l l o w s a n c t u a r i e s i n i l s D r e s e n t
324 sPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND IHE HOLY LAND
z5o. Zxnora Cathedral, crossing towcr, ,. I r7,l
dedicated in try4. Gudiol
and Gaya Nufro
think that the architect was not a Spaniard, per-
haps becausethe orientolism of the Bishop's
Door irnd the crossing tower is self'-conscious
and exap;gcratedrather than intimately under-
stood. Yct the building is eclectic as Spanish
designcrs' work often is. The transept l-agade
has a strong Poitevin imprint; the interior is
simple and perf'ect Burgundian half-Gothic. It
has becn sholrn in an exccllentstudt'r'that the
lantcrn at the crossing was inspired in part by
the domc over thc Crusadcrs' transcpt at the
Church of the Holr, Sepulchre in Jerusalem
(dcdicated in rr-19), though the pcndentives
and thc gored panels in the ribbed dome are
spccial variants of' French and Mosleln work
respecti\ cl\'.
Shortll aftcr its first eonstruction, corner
turrets and axial grrblcswcre ldded to the cross-
i n g l o l r c l a l Z a m o r l . a n d t h u s i t s c x t e r i o rc a m e
r o r e s c m b l e t h e c r o s s i n gt o w e r o f t h e . l \ l o n t i e r -
neufat Poiticrs, a vcrv influcntial design lz5rl.
One window of the lantcrn rvas obscured by
cach of'the lbur corner turrots, lcavin.q twelve
windorvs open thrce bctween each pail oftur-
'I-he
rets. vault of the lantern is a singlc shell 61
ashlar work with a rib over each of the sixtcsn
piers, and a gore over each of the sixtcen s 11_
-l'hc
dows. ribs have crestinp;which is drau n uD
i n a n o g e e c u r \ e t o t h e a p e x o t t h e t o u e r . 16 .
gores and the spirclets (which repeat thc og^ee
curve) both have a scale pattcrn on the stonq
roofing.
At the west enrl of Zamora Cathedral thcre
is, lbr constrast, a vcry simple and impo:ing
'fhe
*e
squlrc to\\er. east end has unlortunilrl\
.,,.
been rebuilt, but without spoiling the building. i
':." . i
Near by, in the collegiate church of Toro, thc
lantcrn of Ztmorr and the more famous onc
-,j ,
which had meanwhile been built at Salamanc;r
Cathedral inspired a handsome but less erotic
design. I'he church at Toro was built in thc
period r 16o rz4o, almost exactly that of' thc
cathedral o1'Notre-Dame in Paris. Thc herrr
Romanesque walls and piers of Toro, its tri-
apsidal chevet with short three-bav nave, sh()rt
t u n n e l - r , a u l t e dt r a n s e p ta r m s a n d r i b b e d l o b u l , r r
and dome d vaults, are in marked contrast to thc
Parisian building, which was already on thc
threshold of the High Gothic style.
'l'he
l a r r t e r n a t T o r o h a s t w o s t o r e y so l ' u i n -
dows, like that of Salamanca, but it is finished
offrather lamelv by a flat drum and simple rile
'I'here
roof. is a great show of cusping on thr
windows of' the drum, contrasting with ball
ornament on thc corner turrets.
There alc two latclal portals and an arr.tl
'Ioro.
porch at The north portal has threc
figured archivolts, two ofcusping with a figulc
in every cusp, and all radiating like the figr.rrcs
of'a Poiterin portal, but set ofi'by alternating
archivolts of'Moorish leafage.:5
-Ihe
spread ofthe characteristic lantern motrl
of Zrmort in the Duero region brought it trt
S a l a m a n c a ,w h e r e i t i s r c p r e s e n t c d , w i t h r a r i -
ations, in thc crossing tower and the formct'
c h a p t e r - h o u s eo f t h e O l d C a t h e d r a l , b o t h d a t c d
s h o r t l - vb e l b r e r 2 o o . T h e l a s t i m p o r t a n t m c d i - c I I40
z5r. Poiters, Montierneuf, renrains ofcrossing tower
eval example is the thirteenth-century chapter-
 320 Sp,{rN, poRTLrcAL, AND THE HOLy LAND

house of the cathedral of plasencia, whcre

it is tic background ofthe cath
called 'el Mel<in' because of' the lobcs
yault.
in the varied
asrhat ofzam
ora,riiTJ,T"lJill.-:::
wasachicred at Salamanca. f n. .n r..h * ,,. ,i,.
Instinctively one fcels that the great
lantern_ Ercatestornamentof Salamanca
tower of the old cathedral of Salarnan whenth" .itrl"
ca fzqz, earl.vconrribu(ions to intellecrual
25JJ is the masterpiece ofthe series. lifc ,n.t 1..,..,1
t'u'
T.he aesthe_ derelopnren wle r eb e i n g m a d e r b o ur 2
t oo-

r"q (.athcdrrl,
:ir i 5 ! . S a h m a n c a0,t d
I o r r c d c l G r l l o , s l r o r r l rh c l b r er z o o

*l t 'w{

J28 SPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND'I'Htr HOLY LAND
Salamanca, an ancient Roman town, was held
by the Moors until about ro5o. Under Alfonso
VI a special effort was made about r roo to de-
velop it, and it was repopulated under Raymond
of Burgundy. The architecture of the cathedral
may owe something to a tradition started by a
French archbishop, Jer6nimo of P6rigord,
before r rz5. Anticipations of its elements are
found in Poitou, Languedoc, and Burgundy,
b u t t h e b u i l d i n g p o s s e s s eas m a t u r e s p i r i t o f i t s
own as an accomplished Spanish work of art
[254]. The warm but proud and unyielding
mass of the beautiful procession of nave piers
makes one forget that their originals are Poite-
vin ; the grave and severe succession of pointed
254. Salamanca, Old Cathedral,nave,
tweltih centurv
nave arches, clerestory windows, and half-
Gothic vaults makes one forget that they' are
Burgundian and Angevin; the crossing tower,
though suggested by that of Ztmora, and ulri-
mately by the crossing tower of the Montierneuf
at Poiters, is too deeph'stamped with the origin-
our consideration the area
alitv of its architect, Pedro Petriz, ro be anr_ There remains for
'; 'l hc rural
thing but Spanish.rn S a n t i a g o de Compostcll
about
The building was begun about rr5z nn,1 ot Galicia has a rarc charm' but
f,-orrn.rqu.
finished early in the thirteenth centurl-. Peclrq building in that rcmotc
,h.r. it no firsr-rate
Petriz is mentioned in r 163 or r r64 in the nill t i o m S l n t i ago The rirrtousmote-
r e g i o na p a r t
o l ' a S a l a m a n t i n ee c c l e s i a s t i cV e l a w h o d i r e c t c d w t , i c l t produccd lht Romanesquc ol'
mlnt.
the sale ol various assets fbr the work of thc - including Santiago ('athedral itself
Sprin 'l'he
cimborio
'sic
quomodo dixerit PetrusPetriz quc in these minor buildings'
,.fl..t.d
"r. still has its battle-
de bet esse'. A Peter was master of the works in cathedral of'I'6v, lbr instance,
rrEz, rrgz, rzoz, tnd rzo7. Gudiol irnd Gala Lugo and Orense Cathedrals are tardy
ments.
indeed the
Nuio believethat the first master (responsible Romanesque and half-Gothic
evcn to the
lbr the generous layout, with an outer porch. flavour ofRomanesque is pleserved
fir'e nar,c bays, and a transept extending a firll century in rural Galician works'
fifteenth
ba-y to each side of the nave and the triapsichl Santa Maria del Campo in La Coruia and
sanctuary) was influenced bv the School of' Santa Maria at Cambre in the province have
Avila; that Pedro Petriz, who took o\:er rhc Thel- are, in fact, rather like
local interest.
building when the walls had been raised to l handsome Romanesque of near-b1. Portugal,
certain height, possessed more genius, and a which is worth)-ofstudY on its own account'
bent towardsZamora.
\mong Spaniartls the crossing tower go(\
'l'orre P O R T UG AL
under the name of del Gallo becausc of
'Ihe
its rveather cock. tower has two storevs ot It might hale been expected that Portugal, as
rvindows under a lobulated ribbed vrrultof sir- the Reconquest went forword, would become a
t e e n c e l l s w h i c h c a r r i e s a s l i g h t l l , ' c o n v e xe i g h r - part of Christian Spain, in spite of its somewhat
sided fish-scale roof of stone with crockets on more Celtic stock and the rather more orienlal
the arrises. This roof is in fact a separate shcll c h a r a c t e ro f t h e c o u n t r v . T h e C o u n t l ' o f P o r t u '
of corbel construction weighing down the gal (Portucalia. tlking its name tiom O Porto,
haunches of the ribbed dome.
'fhe
interspacc the Port) rvas retaken in ro5.5 64, and Allbnso
was filled with rubble. The thrusts of rhe dome VI of Spain gave it to Henrv of Burgund-v in
are picked up by wide pilaster-like forms bc- Iog5 as a plrt of the dowrv of his daughter
hind the corner turrets, and b1'a projccting blr Teresa. This gave Alfonso \iI a certain pro-
enclosing the middlc rvindow on cnch of' thc tection against the Nloors, uho still hsld con-
c a r d i n a l s i d e so f t h e r o w e r . ' f h e b a 1 ' s . . r rleo a d c d s i d e r a b l et e r r i t o r i e s t o t h e w e s t o ( h i s d o m i n i o n s '
b 1 ' w e l l - d e s i g n e d g a b l e s ,t h e t u r r e r s b y c o n i c a l On Alfonso \ l's death in t totl scparatism(lc-
rool-s which increase their resistance as but- veloped at oncc. The Irrench colonizers, who
tresses, and break the silhouette ofthe tower in only succeedcd in gallicizing the court in Spain'
thc most admirable manner. The construction reached indepcndcnt status in Portugal ln
of the enormous nelv Late Gothic clthedral. rr43, under Henrv of Burguncll"s son, Aflbnso
begun in r5r3, involved clippingthe norrh tran- I Henriqucs, Portugal achievcd an indcpen-
s e p t a n d a i s l eo f t h e o l d c h u r c h , b u t o n e m a y b e dencewhich was onlv lost (and temporarily) to
sure that the architects who left the remainder Philip Il and \apolcon I.
o f t h c b u i l d i n g i n p l a c e d i d s o b e c a u s eo f t h c Affonso I{cnriqucs extended the countrl'
general affcction in which it has alwavs bcen southward tiom the old bounclarl' on the Nilon-
held. dego to the'l'agus, rvhere r'r'ithcrr'rsaderhelp he
Sl YLES DEP!.ND[,NT ON FRANCI- 12q
captured Lisbon in rr47 and held it, despitc
N{oorish resurgence which gare much troublc
t o S a n c h o I , h i s s u c c e s s o (r r r 8 5 r z l r ) . A f t e r
struggles with the Moors, the Spaniards, and
P o o e I n n o c e n t I I I . t h e d c f i n i t i r e b o u n d a r i c so f '
continental Portugal were reached and the
kingll' office assumed by Aflbnso III in Iu63'
During this process the Portuguese followed
the policl-'of'repopulation with fbreigners (manr'
ol' thcm French pilgrims and rdr enturers)
which was so success(ulin Spain' It was Aflbnso
I Henriques, ruler fiom r rz8 to r t85, who built
the enduring core ofthe state, as his grandfather
Alfonso VI had done in Spain. Many of the
a Romanesque churches date from this prosper-
the ous and effective reiP;n.
Allonso Henriques's birthplace, the castle of-
Guimaries, is realll' the cradle of Portugal lt
goes back to g27, but was rebuilt by Henry I
about rroo. and may'still be seen to-day, the
finest example of Romanesque fbrtification in
Portugal ifnot in the Peninsttla lts bold aus-
tere battlementcd towers are lull ofthe severit!
of the time, and enormously picturesquc' Near
b-v is the little nave-and-chancel church of Sio
Miguel clo Castelo, where, probably, Affonso
H e n r i q u e s w a s b a p t i z e di n r r I I . r o
The rise o[ the towns' which occurrcd in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Portugal, is
aptl-\ illustrated by a contemporary monument
(about rzoo) theDomusMunicipalisorCoun-
c i l H a l l a t B r a g r r n q laz 5 5 l . T h i s u n i q u e e x a m p l c
of'civic architecture (in plan rlther like a five-
sided pocket, on account of'an irregular site) is
placed over a cistern adioining t he castle church'
In function it resembled an abbey chapter-
house; like a chapter-house it h:ts a stone bench
'fhe
running cntirelv around it. intcrior is two-
n a v e d .a n d w o o d e n - r o o l ' e d ' ' f h u s i t w a s p o s s i b l e
to carry a gallery with thirty-cight windows en-.
tirel.v round it at the top of the wall a rare mottl
among existing buildings, but already reported
i n A b b o t O d i l o ' s d o r m i t o r - va t C l u n l . l r o 4 l . ' I h e
ro'15
n a r r l l e l b e t u e e n r h e t w o c o n s t tu c t i o n so f
 spArN, PoRTUGAT_A
j ND THE HOLy
3JO
a n d r 2 o o p o i n t s t o t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s e r v a t i s mo f
cir ic architecture.j'
Braga, the capital of Portugal from ro9-3 to
rr47, was placcd in thc ccclesiastical province
o 1 ' S a n t i a g o ,w h e n t h e a r c h b i s h o p r i c w a s s e t u p
i n r r z o a t t h e e x p e n s eo f ' t h e a n c i c n t d i e n i t v o l -
gl*w*k*;"ilH'&,
o*.ffi
:5.5.I3ragangaX
, {unicipal Hall, r. r:oo
\ I 6 r i d a ; b u t t h i s m e r e l y r e c o g n i z e ca
l n eristing
state ol'affairs. Artistic influences had long bcen
coming lrom Asturias and Galicia. We have in_
dicated that the tenth-centur.r, church of l.ou_
r o s a i s t h e b c s t e x i s t i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i r . eo f t h e
Santiago Cathcdral which was built between
'l'he
86r and Ug6. s i m p l e r R o m a n e s q u ec h u r c h e s
carr'\' on the schcme so often used in the small
Asturian buildings, of a nare, and a smaller
s h e d l i k e s a n u u : r r y b e y o n d ( e . g .S i o M i g u e l d o
C a s t e l oa t G u i m a r i e s , r . r r o o ) ; b u t u n d e r n e w
LAND
influences we find that the cletail is Romanesq
'fhe 1rc
sameis truc fbr the church of'Cedofcitl in
O p o r t o ( r r z o i ) ; a t F e r r e i r a t h e n c r . ri n l l u c n t t .
have brought a Poitevin apse.3(,
The local building material, granitc, is
x1
course similar to that in Galicia; hencc thc
P o r t u g u e s eb u i l d i n g s a s a r u l e , l i k e t h e G a l i c i a n ,
are wisely kept simplc, ancl whcrc elaborate
sculptural clle'cts are (by exception) sought fbr..
the lbrms show the limit:rtions o1' rhe hard
material r er1'clearly.
P i l g r i m a g e a n d B u r g u n d i a n R o m a n e s q u ei n _
f l u c n c e ss h o r r t h e m s e l re s i n t h e m o r e a m b i t i o u .
P o r t u g u c s eb u i l d i n g s . rI S i o S a l v a d o r ,- I r a v a n c i r
( r ' . r r 5 o . ) ) a n d S i o P e d r o , R a t e s( a f t e r r r
'fravanca 5z) are
triapsidal with thc traditional deen
r e c t a n g u l a r a p s e o tnh e a x i s .B o t h c h u r c h e sh a r e
begrtnt I6z.
256.CoimbraC.athedral,
from thc north-ucst
the familiar grouped piers ancl pointed arches,
though the1. were never vaulted. Even more
naturallv do Pilgrimage and Bulgundian inflr-r-
e n c e sc o m e t o t h e c a t h c d r a l s u h i c h F e r c b u i l t
progressivcll' as the conquest and repopuhtion
went forward. until, south of the Duero, the Iate
date brings in Gothic architecture instead.
S o m e t h i n g r e m a i n s o f t h e c a t h e d r a lo f B r a g a '
a triapsidal truilding originrlll begun about
t r o o , a n d c o n n e c t e d w i t h S a n t i a g ot h r o u g h t h e
legend that Sio Pedro de Rates, a supposed dis-
STI'L-ES DEPENDENT ON FRANC]E .l.l r
c i p l e o f S t J a m c s ,w a s t h c o r i g i n a l f b u n d e r o f t h e
church in Braga. At Oporto a similar triapsidal
cathedral church has been almost complctely
transformcd.
,{t Lisbon there has becn much rcbuilding,
but the cathsdral has been understandingll''
restorcd to something like its original fbrm. It
s t a n d sp r e t t i l v o n a s l o p e a n d s t i l l d o m i n a t c s i t s
quarter with a well-proportioned two-tower
l a q a d ea n d p o r c h . T h e n a v e h a s a n a i s l c t o c a c h
side; therc is a transept with a lantern, and'
 332 S p A I N , p O R T U G A L ,A N D T H E H O L y L A N D
bevond, an ambulatory of Gothic ribbed con_
struction with radiating chapels. There were
EnglishandFlemingsinthepilgrimbandwhich
c a p t u r e d t h e c i t y i n t t 4 7 , a n d i t r v a so n e o f t h e
Englishmen, Ralph of Hastings, who began the
construdion of the cathedral in r r
church is, however, not an Engrish buitding;
it has the Latin character and the fastidious
warmth which we have mentioned in speaking
of the finest Spanish Romanesque buildings.32
Lisbon cathedral shared two masters, Robert
and.Bernardo, u'ith the cathedral of coimbrarr
[.256],norv called the 56 Velha becauseits func_
tion has been transferred to a newer building.
Work was begun on the Se Velha in r16z, jult
alier Santiago Cathedral was finished. In
this
casethe Portuguese architects produced
a char-
acteristic variation on the theme of Santiago
de
Compostela. The resulti.
resem
bringthat
ofSan : ffiT"'[1'5:;ruffi
"1,1"1_?f
"l:,',::11
fir'e.nave bays, a transept with a t..min"l
dral has the last of the peninsular cimborios
f e c t i n g b a 1 ' a t e a c h e n d ' a n d t h r e e a p s e s- b u t
the superstructure, suffused with an elegance
w}ich betokens an appreciation of the
delicacy
of xloslemarr on rhepart of its designers
and
craftsmen, has a verv different temper from
robustBurgundian sanvicenteantltheopulent
Languedocian santiago. Decorative
by' 'Joio de Ruio' (Jean de Rouen)
school carlv in the sixteenrh centur),have
the building intcresting to historians
R e n a i s s a n c ea r c h i t e c t u r e w i t h o u t r e a l l y
i n g i t . I t s t i l l r e t a i n s i t s s e v e r ew e s t f r o n t ,
corner turrets and a proiecting shallow
like mass comprehending the <ieepl,"-'
sured main portal and rvcst window
church. Except fbr a corbel table or.er the portal
a n d s m a l l a r c h e si r t t h e w i n d o w s , t h e w a l r s
shecr' and they are crowned vigorouslv
prettill'' with Moorish battlements (cubes
s q u a r e p a r r r l l e l e p i p e d aa b o ' e t h e p a r a p e t '
ished with pvramidal blocks). On account
mild climarc of coimbra, ir was possible ro pave
t h e v a u l t o f t h e c a t h e d r a la n d t h u- -s -m" -a"k' , . a i r - - ,
ingplatformthere.
T h e i n t e r i o r , e s p e c i a l l yw h e n s e e n
quadrant_r.ault.d goll..i: abore the
very elegant and harmonious. The orr,.... .
5o. The supported of'course on ,rr. g-i" ,,rr,ri,,
aisles,andthereisatunnervaultwithrransrcrse
arches over the nave, which is without
a clere-
story. 1'he lantern, square and rib_r,aulrccr,
is
carried high, and the l(ht which it sheds
un the
head end of the church is a happy f earure
ot.rhe
interioreffect.
t"or", O.i"g in the south beyond the.fagus,
was not captured from the Moors until
r166,
when the sanctuary of paris Cathedral s.as
al_
ready under corrst.uctiorr. At Evora a spacious
cathedral was started in the Romanesque
sr1,le
in r rg5 or r rg6 and consecrated in rzo4,
ten
,:f i:1H:,TlT:r
p.o-
in
the Romanesque tradition, built about r:s:
when the wonderful chevet ofBeauvais
cathc-
dral was being reconstructed. yet the cathedral
of Eoo." il;?il;;;;ihii
the ribbed .omes over the aisres,and a strong
tercian or other Burgundian rnfluence
a.lditiorrs plan and in many of the details. .fhe church
and his u ,,rr. ..rd aisles of six bays, rhe transept er_
made tending beyond them. The sanctuarl. has been
of Early rebuilt, unfortunately i. ,rr.'.rrT;'.;il,;:i
spoil_ not in a Gothic centurv; fbr the Romanesque
with w a s s t i l l b e l o v e d i n p o r t u g a l c l u r r n gt h e
tower_ period.jl
embra-
The great quarities of the 'ery spacious
of the tercian abbey: church at Alcobaga, to
ref.erencehas already U..n -"a., o'J
rise q u e q r . r a l i t i e s ,a l t h o u g h t h e c h u r c h
and between r r5g and rzz3. one might well
or hall church (here so magnificentrl represenrerr
lin- insturdl.ribbedconstruction)atransfiguration.
of the bv the genius of poitou, of the F-irst Romanes-
que hail church type which we have followed in
sr \ LEs DEeENDl.N l oN FRANctE i-l-l
u ttsht- and ele'enth glvrng Lrp the frivolouschiralrl,of'the dav'to
examplesof the tenth 'l'he-v
6odest fight for the true and suprcme King'. had
.enturles'
t"
rrrnr th. man! rr'c1xi1s lrorn the vagabond crowd of
u c 6nd thisoutstrndingerample
,i1.r,,1: ntl, ont. do 'rogues
architcctttrc-here at \lcobaqain ;1n{ impious men, robbers and sacri-
^f'Cirr.r.irn
but in addition thc 1'r:mplars legious- murderers, periurers and adulterers'
_ i],l it l"rn-or.fotrugtl. (to grv(- St Bcrnard's list) who overllooded the
by one of thc finest of thcir
"i.-r.p..r"nttttexisting the churchot rhc Con- Holl- [- lntl in searchof'salvation and plunder,
i'uifainststill 'l'omar 257':58 " G traldino
w h i c h 1 1 ' g 1 gb o t h a v a i l a b l e t h c r e . S t B e r n a r d
]Jn,oao Crit,o ,t | l'
pri, *.r elecrecl Grand Nlaster ot the Order of sponsorcd the morement; its rule was sanc-
Portugal in rr5o, and it washe tioncd 11 the Council of'l'roves, and soon thc
ti. Tr-pl. in
time still closeto the Order rl'as establishcd in irlmost all thc king-
whofortifiedTomar' at the
frontier. The church goesbackto r r6z, doms o1'I-atin Christcndom. Bclbre long it had
Moorish
with the addition of a nave in the fantasticlate rich eq{6s'rpents and cxceptionirl privilcgcs;
Gothic and transitionalstylc called it becapl6 a polrerful international institution
Portuguese
with establi<hments rvhereler crusrrding enthu-
Manuelino.
s i a s mc o u l d b e s t i r r c d .
-{t J crusalem quirrtcrsu ere earll gir cn to thc
A N D T I I E H ( ) S P I T A t , L } , R S 'Iemp111s
T H ET E M P L A R S
i n B a l d u i n I I ' s p a l a c ea d j o i n i n g t h e
we are about to lbllow Flcnch Roman- l ) o m e 1 ) f 1 5 s R o c k , ( r 8 . 59 r ( m i s c a l l e dt h e N l o s -
Since
esque architecturc to the Near East, this is an que ol (161r,) and the'Distant'X{osque el \qsa
( e i g h t h c e n t u r - v , r o 1 - 5 ,a n d l a t e r ) , b o t h o n t h e
appropriate place to consider the reflex from
another pilgrimage the great intcrnatitrnal i m p o s i n g r o c k p l a t l b r m u ' h e r eS o l o m o n ' s T e n r -
ple an3 thc later templcs all had stood. Both of'
pilgrimage and series of Crusades to the Holv
Land. These movements werc' greatlv facili- the mo5qvss (churches under thc C,rusaders)
harf:Gothic,
,,,irh 'l'emple
tated, and serious help was given to individuals ancl otr occasion the porticoes of the
c.is_ platfbrrn entered into the Templars' pattern tbr
and to the Christian Levantine states.b1'the
in thc church building in the Ordcr.
military Orders of Templars and Hospitallers.
hrs Both Orders had dependencies in Europe which Thc mosquc calledthe Dome of.the Rock is a
served pilgrims and wa1''farers,encouraged re- great n.rasterpieceof Nloslem architecture, ul-
cruitment, and provided income lbr the grert timatrll, inspired tiom thc Rotunda ot the
work ofdefence, protection' and charitable care A n a s t ; 1 s i 5a t t h e C h u r c h o f t h e H o l l ' S e p u l c h r e .
which the Orders perlblmed in the East NIedi- It takcs one part ol'its name from a rvood-built
Gothic terranean area. centritl dome carried on a cvlindrical wall
'l'hc
The 'Poor Knights of the Christ and the piercc{ b1' columnar arcades. dome covers
cis- Temple of Solomon' are remembered fbr con- a rockl outcrop stcred to the }{oslcms because
'l'he
which siderable works of building. Order was Mohammed is said to have ascended to hcaven
_;#.;- founded b-r-Hugh oi Pa1'ns,a Burgundian, and from it but the rock is bclieved to have been
was buil Godefroy of Saint-Omer in the north of'France. sacrctl in Jewish times also. Onll thc clergv
cat thc In rrrg thel'undertook the obligation to pro- m i g h t c n 1 s 1t h e d o m e d s a n c t u a r y ; o t h e r w o r -
tect pilgrims on the Palestinian roads. Joined shippcrs rcmaincd in thc aisles(also wooden-
soon after by other knights, they banded them- rooted) which envelop the cylindcr, but are
'l'his
s e l v e st o g e t h e l t o l i r e i n c h a s t i t y , o b e d i e n c e , bouncled b1'an octagonal extcrior wall.
and povertv ilccording to the rule ofSt Benedict, a r r a n g e m e n to f c e n t r a l r o t u n d a a n c la n n u l a r a i s l e
 -]15
-)Ja
S T Y L E SD E P E N D ! ] N TO N F R A N C E

the connexion is not proved and the arrange-

I d-Lt5ri/r-g
-ii
11 the
a.uoJ, i
Templar church ol'the Vera Crtz
n Spain the ambulatorl is sixtecn-
at
ment is not in its original condition.
The odd arcadcd court, with some Moslem
small central compartmenl ls two-
ilili
-
.ll""a; tttt
t h e r e a r e - p r o i e c t i n ga p s e sl o w a r d detail, which stands beside the little wide-naved
l.r.t.a' and
LILLLUJ.ll.l.l.[) - like those of a normal church' Thc church of San Juan de Duero may be related to
;;;;t, Eunate, or perhaps to the atrium of a mosque.
is givcnfor this building''"
ir,. tros The church belonged to the Hospitallers of St
flourishcd in Nararre under
The Templars 'I'he of thc militarl.
the Wise (rr5o-94)' octagon at John of Jerusalem, anothcr
Sancho
w e l l b e l o n g to his time Eunalc'; is orders.
iunate m a y
Puente la Reina' whcre the Pil- N{ore familiar among the Tcmplars' churches
litu.t.d near
lrom France all joined' It was a is the octagon at Laon, in northern Francerr
c r i m a g eR o a d s hasalreadl'
b u r i a l c hurch. not a'femplars' church, [259], dated about r I6o; this church
iilgrims'
c l e " t l y b u ilt under the influence of the been mentioned. The greatest church of the
iii ii ihJugh 'l'emplars
is well proportioned, in France was that in Paris, destroyed
it Templars. The
but it has no
octagon
interior compartment; it is rib- at the Revolution. It was built as a rotunda
east' about r r5o, but cxtended by a porch and a vast
vaulted, and has a rib-vaulted apse at thc
choir later on.
u-57and z-58.T'omar, The church stands free in a remarkable arcaded
(lhurch ofthc Conventodo Cristo, por- In England one well-known'Iemplar shrinc
court which recalls (with a difference) the -l'emple
plan (K.J.C.) and sancuan, survives, the Church, London, con-
ticoesofthe'Iemple platform in Jerusalcm ; but

'I'emplars'
z5g.Laon, Church, r. r I6o
was used by the Templars in a limited number
of their most important churches, and often
augmented later by a choir or nave, or by both.
The I'emplars built vaulted churchcs in the
Romanesque or Gothic idiom of their times,
and quite lost the enchantment of'their oriental
originals. Like Cistercian architecture, the
'femplars'
works tend to be monotonous, and
not one of them ever rated high as an archi_
tectural masterpiece. The real architectural
geniusof the West never took on the'femplars'
problem as such. Their establishments were
like contemporary conyentual structures, with
little or norhing specifically T'cmplar, except,
occasionally, the church.
'I'he
great Tcmplar church of the Con,r,cnto
do Cristo ar Tomarr5 [257,2581, already mcn_
tioned, is a notable exception. 'I'he older part
ofthe church, begun between rr5o and rr6z,
has a sixtcen-sided exterior aisle wrappecl round
an arched octagonal tower-like structure which
serves as sanctuary. 'fhe stvle here is half_
Gothic.
 -13/-
STYLES DEPENDENT 0N FRANCE
LAND
336 sPAIN, PORTUGAL' AND THE HOLY

'Iemplars, :'.1:).:.
After the suppressionof the 111. w@'
b u l k o f t h e i r p r o p e r t y p a s s e dt o t h e O t d c r 1 ; 1 '
the Knights Hospitallers ol' St John of'-lrrLrr
s a l e m( b 1 ' r 3 z o ) . 1 ' h e H o s p i t a l l c r s a c t u a l l l a n r c -
'l'emplars,
dated the having been organizrd
'1har
about rrr.1. Gcrard, the Iirst Nlaster of
Ilouse of God the Hospital fbr the supporr of'
p i l g r i m s a n d t h e n e c c s s i t i e so f t h e P o o r ' , r r 1 .
c o n f i r m e d b l P o p c P a s c a lI I i n F e b r u a r l o f t h . r t
1car. The pilgrims wcrc olien both poor irnd
sick; the Hospitallcrs especiall-vcarcd (irr sur[
'Palace
unfbrtunates in their of the Sick' in
J r : r u s a l e m .T h e h o s p i c e w a s l o c a t e d , u s t s o u r h
o f t h e C h u r c h o 1 - t h eH o l y S e p u l c h r e , b r S a n t r
X , l a r i aL a t i n a , a n d i t s o o n h a d a c c o m m o d a t i , r n
fbr 75o sick poor. In r 16o John of Wiirzburs-
leports 2ooo sick and rvounded being carcd Ior
there. lvith ir mortalitl of liftl'a da1'-
'l'he
'-**r-*"&rsjw H o s p i t a l l e r s l b u g h t a l s o ; t h e l h el d ,
('heralters,r. tzoo
clcsCheraliers,
anrong othcrs, the grcxt fbrtrcsses at thc Kr.,.lk z6r. The Krrk clcs
; ( i o . C a n r b r i d g cS, t S e p u l c h r ci,. I t 3 o
des Chevaliers(after rr4z; r'. rzoo) [z{rrl, antl
'with 1'emplars and
\'largat (r'. r zoo) man) towers that scentc(l
Francc by losses and suffering Later the
loose colonial empire attachcd to sr-rchdistress somewnat'
secrated in rr85, alongl with three relatcd t o s u s t a i n t h e s k y . . . e a g l e sl n d v u l t u r e s a l o n t a !rench Hospitallcrs mitigated
lt wls
biood, historv, and sentiment b1 r o97 thele
churches thc Norman rotunda ol'St Sepul- could rcach its ramparts'.r. A great military ellbrt came earl-v;
Pope, Urban I I , w h o ' a f t e r a i o u r n ef fr3m on thcir
c h r e , C r m b r i d g e ( b u i l t a b o u t r r 3 0 ) [ z ( r o ]; S t In Er.rropc the Hospitallers had vast posscs- *.:r. ,5o,ooo .oldicrs in Constantinople
Parma through lirance along a route burgeonln!i whereas in t a.group.
ott'1.
Scpulchre, Northampton; and the supposed sions, with myrirds of buildings of'all sorts. wa-vto the Holy Land,
with new Ro*"n.rqu. churches, preached the
archbishop ot.
Hospitallers' church of Little Nlaplestcad (r'. sccular and ecclesiastical, but no charactcristie z6 Nov- of Tooo pilgrims including the
First Crusacleat Clermont-Fcrrand on in point of
rr rg r27z,later rebuilt).'I'hc Temple Church, architccture. One striking Commanderv is pre- lrch- It"i.r, ort, .onsiclered remarkablc
e m b e r t o 9 5 . l n t h e p r e s e n c eo f l b u r t e e n
L o n d o n , i s a g o o d e x a m p l c o f t h c E , a r l 1L - n g l i s h servcd, at Saint-Andrf it Luz, rz6o.rr It dor' nrtmbcrs.
'+oo
bishops, about z5o bishops and about thc fleets ot
Gothic sty'le,with stronpi Burgundian and othcr not include a hospice, but its grim still halt-
Spain, he pro-With considerable support fiom
abbors fiom Francc, Ital-v, and hosts
Crusade'r
R o m a n e s q u e r e m i n i s c e n c e s .A n o b l o n g c h o i r R o m a n e s q u ef b r m s a n d i t s l b r t i f i e d c h u r c h r l c the Italian maritime cities thc
nounced a remarkable tddress in Romance' on I5 Jul!-
was added in the (iothic style about rz4o.r" otherwise very expressivc.At this late perit,tl aclvanced, and capturecl Jertrsalem
and 'Ihe-v
'l'cmplar 'Comnrndcr'1--' making a drarnatic cali upon Iirench picty L-lrban II died
No survives com- the Hospitallcrs also participated in thc con- 'fhe enormous' ,ogq, ,*o weeks befbre
chivalric pride. response was
s l r u c t i o n o l h r s t i t l e s ,b u t t h c l a t t e r t r e p r o p ( ' r l \ arrangemcnts fbr
pletc. but such a group rvould bc easil,''under- ha.l-not madc lrcll-reasoncd
and it had the efl'cct ol re-uniting Western t e r r itorics'and were
standablc on thc basis of'what we know of studied under thc herding of civic planning lhe gorernment ol' their
Christcnclom behincl Urban II at the expense
monastic architecturc. The knights thcn.rselres and design in the Gothic epoch. thuJat the mcrcl o f i n t e r n e c i n e i e a l o u s i c sw' hile
of the AntipoPe Clcment III' in ro99' reassembled
would havc quartcrs rescmbling those of I mon- 'I'hcre ln il th. N{url.*.. clisunitecl
was precedent tbr thc enterprlse 'Ihe
Crusaders missed thcir earl-v
a s t e r l ' o f ' t h e t i m e , i n t e g r a t e c lw i t h t h c c h u r c h . b v G r e g o r ] ' Y I I ' - a l - thcir strcngth.
T I I F .I I O L Y L A \ D force gathercd in I o 7 . 1 lnd \lcppo'
Quarters like those of the monastery scrvants Near .rppnr,uniit lo capturc Dam:rscus
though the troops were not sent to thc t h e \ l o s l e m dominions
would be provided fbr thc servitors and garri- Examples of French Romanesquearchitectrtre *'hi.h *uuid harc c u t
E.rt.' It was Urbitn's plca that the Crusade dettnce of ('hristirrn
s o n . S o m e e s t a b l i s h m e n t sw e r c l i k e m a n o r s . I n s t i l l e x i s t i n t h e I I o l l l . a n d a s w i t n e s s e st o t l t ' thc irr two; conscqucntlv the
should bc an orglnrzcd erpcdition' but and ulti-
Palestinc the 1'cmplars manned Crusader lbrti- C r u s a d e s ,w h i c h , t h o u g h a s p i r i t u a l m o v c m e r l t . Palestine was much more diflicult'
great waves of'em<ltion which rvere generateo brigandage b1
fications; thel lrcquently built irnd streng- rcsulted in thc establishment of a nunrber ot great matell hopeless Perfidy end
sent throngs eastward prematurcll ' with
t h c n e d c a s t l c s ,a s n e c d a r o s e . L a t i n s t a t e sr u l e d b y . F r e n c h d v n a s t s r e a l l r . t

t
338 sPAIN, PORTUGAL, AND THE HOLY LAND

r I49'
Church of the HolJ' Sepulchre' dedicated
. t ^tanstt! ) and 2o3. Jerusalem,
irresponsible Christians made it necessary for Constantinian Martl-rion had been destlolq4. th' transept
oI Crusa'1ers'
the Moslems to destrol' the Crusader states. a n d t h e R o t u n d a t w i c e r e b u i l t - i n . ( r r 4 . : r 16 ,
"I5"4"'o'
Jerusalem itself was lost in r r87, and its King- t h e P a t r i a r c h N l o d e s t o s ,a n d i n r o . 1 5 8 h r 1 1 . , .
dom came to an end in t244. Emperor Constantine \lonomachos. FIe 1.-
A theocratic government was first attempted s t o r c d t h e T o m b o f C h r i s t , t h e R o t u n c l aa b q n l
under the former bishop of Pisa, Daimbert, who it, and the ambulatory' with radiating chapel5
had accompaniedUrban II to France, and as- on its wcstern side besides which he ;rcldgfl
s i s t e d i n t h e c o n s e c r a t i o na t C l u n y ' I I I i n r o g - 5 . n e w a p s e so n t h e e a s t e r n s i d e o f t h e R o t u n t l a .
'fhe
He came to Palestinc with the Pisan fleet, and Crusaders rcplaced these lpses with a Jolg
r.rnsuccessfull-v
tried to set up a state like the trxnsept entered through the frmous clouble
Papal Patrimony.'Ihe e c c l e s i a s t i c a li n t e r e s t , portal of its south fagade, which is for us b1 lirr
'lhg
h o l v e v e r ,w a s a l w a v ss t r o n g , a n d a l i e r t h c m a n - thc most lamiliar aspect of the church.
ncr of its kind, succeeded in gaining con- lagade is flanked on the east b't' a small domcd
siderable fiscal advantages. This meant ample vestibulc,and on the wcst bv a belfrl.toner. \t
resources for building. the crossing of the transept, on the east-\\rsr
l'he best-known construction which resulted a x i s o f t h e R o t u n d a o f t h e A n a s t a s i s ,a s n r a l l
is the Crusadcr enlargemcnt of the Church of dome was built (the model lbr the lantcrn rrt
the Holy. Sepulchrel2 [262, 263]. 1'he originrrl Zamora\ and the cilst-west aris rras further

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 34o spArN, PORTUGAL, AND THE HOLY LAND
prolonged across a choir to a new eastern apse
surrounded by an ambulatory and radiating
chapels. Thus the new porrion of the church
was in effect like the transept and chevet of a
Pilgrimage church. The ambulatory was re-
quired in order to provide communication with
earlier shrines on the site. Bevond the apse, the
crypt of the Martyrion basilica survived as the
Chapel o[ St Helena, and a sub-crypt opening
downward to the east from it was none other
than the grotto where, according to tradition,
the relics of the Holv Cross were found by the
Empress Helena in 326. Beside the choir on the
south, and served bv the choir ambulatory, a
raised chapel was built over the traditional Rock
ofCalvary. Exterior accessto the Calvary chapel
was through the small domed vestibule already
mentioned. The dome of the Chapel of St
Helena projected upward into rhe garth of the
cloister of a monastcry built fbr Augustinian
canons who served the Holl'Sepulchre;
l a y t o t h e e a s to f t h e n e w a p s e .
This work has largely'survived,though dis-
figured in parts, and much of the rest is at
present under restoration. Therc is a consider-
able though not disturbing variety in style and
fabric. Fine Syrian limestone is the material
used, and the original work is beautifully cut.
Four rcigning sovereigns of French nationa-
lity were present, during the Second Crusade,
at the dedication of the new lvork, which took
place on r5 July rr49, thc fiftieth anniversary
o f t h e f ' a l lo f t h e c i t y i n r o 9 9 . l t i s l i k e l y . r h a rt h e
building was complere at rhe time, although
t h e r e w a s n o s p e c i a ln e e d f o r - t h e C r u s a d e r st o
build in a hurry the Rorunda of ro45 8 which
they took oyer was a fairlv spaciousbuilding.
The existing work is very complex stylistically:
thcre is a range all the way fiom the classicism
of thc transept cornices through the half--
Pror,cngal-half-Poitevin transept and sanctuarl'
to the Gothic bell-tower. The high vault of the
transept is ribbed, and its design has an odd
'l'he
Burgundian flavour. dome is of Levantine
STYLES DEP[,ND[,I,{T ON FRANCL 11I
form. It is much to be hoped that there ma1,b.,, Spain stronger than it had been befbre. This
occur. lbr instance' at St
.re uouSull. but do
sympathetic restoration of the Crusader [.o1; S t A n n c h a s a c r o s s i n gr Ti t h was true also of the Nloslem conquosts and the
inn. i n J..u.utem
and the Rotunda, where Constantine NIo16_ Iconoclastic troubles, which expatriatcd vast
on pc.ndenti\(jsresembling thosc of
machos's work was buried within clumsl. ar* ,'aoa.
which is also unusurl " numbers of'Greeks some of them artists, some
i' 1-rTi gi eosr.d , 'I'he
cading after a fire of r8o8. The old builclinq ofthem patrons with a taste fbr Eastcrn art.
buildings hare somehow kept alir e the
retainsa certain dignity in spite ofall its drrlr_
of the Crusadc' too oftqn lbr- Ottonian Bl zantinism afi'ectcd architecture but
ters and the divisioning which has been neccs- r e l i g i o u sa s p e c t
ofignoble conrpcritionsg ' reed' little. Bt Ottonian times divcrgcnces betwcen
sary in order to accornmodate the various sccts ootLn in ttt. t"l.s
'^suffering of innocent \4oslem East and West were strong in churchmanship
w h i c h p o s s e s sr i g h t s i n t h e b u i l d i n g . I t s g r e a t e s t ierfidy, lealousl
rcsourccs' lvhich are and monastic practice especially strong at thc
moment is at the Orthodox Easter, with thg folk and waste of human
f'eaturesof Llrusader history-' t i m e r v h e n R o m a n c s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r eu a s b e i n g
such conspicuous
traditional ceremony of the new Easter firc, formed. Consequentll', at that time the actrral
that the popu-
A r a b o b s e r v e r ss e e m t o i n d i c a t e
brought lrom the tomb to the multitude waiting, relativell' well oriental inlluencc was relatively small, be1-'ond
lation of the Christian states was
in the darkened Rotunda, with their cancllcs breathe what was bcing absorbcd by a sort ofarchitec-
off, and the shrines which still remain
ready for the symbolic light. tural osmosis.
ofa satisfYing religious lif'e.
The beautit'ul south doorways ofthe transcpt
In passing, Cyprus should be mentioned lt Critics with sound architectural training
ofthe Church ofthe Holy Sepulchre are exccp-
was conquered by Richard Cceur de Lion in and Sir Alfred \\'as one are littlc imprcssed b,-v
tional in their richness. The carved lintels, rvith supcrlicial and literary resemblances when
rr9r, on his wav to the Holy Land during the
scroll-work and figures, recall early twelfih- practical and structural elemcnts do not corres-
Third Crusade, and sold to Gu!' de Lusignan; -I'his
century Toulousan work.a3 pond. objection is valicl in the case of Ar-
the Lusignans held it until I-189. Bellapais
Crusader masonrv is fine, and the buildings menian architecture, rvhich is the most subtle,
Abbey, Cistercian in character though dated
this make their point bv ercellence of construction, Iinished, and impressive of all the proto-
c. r324-g, remains, with seleral clstles, irs a
on which account they are in many cases srill Romanesque stvles.
memorial lo their regimc.''
preservetl entire with but little change. In lirrrl T h e - \ r n e n i a n a r c h i t c c t sd e a l t w i t h t h e s a m e
and execution they are comparable to good elements antl manv of the same conditions as
French work; the designers were obviouslv men I X C H A N G EO F I N F L U E N C E S : the Romanesque architectsof the West. Thcl'
in close communication with the motherland. T H E P R O B L E MO F A R M E N I A d e v e l o p e dp a r a l l c l s o l u t i o n sa t a n e a r l i e r p c r i o d ,
Many churches were in Cistercian or Burgun- a n d s i n c et h e l - t i c e d t h e i r b u i l d i n g s l ' i t h a s h l a r ,
Sir Alfred Clapham, in his exccllent book
dian half-Gothic style, though with the rerracc t h e s u p e r f i c i a l a p p e a r a n c eo f t h e b u i l d i n g s i s
RomanesqueArchitetture in Il/estern Europe'
roofs which the climate permits. The cathedrul sometimes quite similar to Romancsque. One
takesoccasion in the chapter on the Holy Land
of Beirut (now the chief old mosque of the citl ) of the most notable buildings in this respectis
and the East to consider the theorics of oriental
is fairly typical. It has a dignified nave of fi.e t h e c a t h e d r a lo f . { n i ( 9 8 q r o o l ) b . v ' I r d a t . T h i s
influence on Romanesquc architecture. Hc was,
b a y s w i t h a t u n n c l v a u l t w i t h t r a n s \ , e r s ea r c h e s quite rightly, a convinced 'Westerncr' inclined i s a d o m e d b a s i l i c a p o s s e s s i n pg; r o u p e d p i e r s ;
and a clerestory. The aisles are groin-vaultcd. pointed arches,ribs. lncl Iault; decoratire cx-
to place high discounts on theories of clirect in-
a n d t h e e a s te n d i s t r i a p s i d a l . P o i n t c d a r c h e s . r r c t e r i o r a r c a d i n g s o m e w h a t r es e m b l i n g P i s a n
fluence, except where trust\{'orthv historical
'fhis
u s e c l ;a n d t h i s , t o o , i s q u i t e g e n e r a l i n t h c C l r r - information is available'. is the case with work, and (befbre its destruction) a gracefirl
s a d e r c h u r c h e s . T y r e , C a e s a r e a ,a n d S e b a s t i c h the Templar churches, rvhere the Western imi- crossingtoner with a dome on drum and pen-
'I'ortosa 'lhe
have transepts. has chapels arrangctl tation is admittedl]' \,ery imperfect. Supposed dentives. Armenian church designs most
like the Orthodox prothesis and diaconicon; the ' b u i l d u p ' i n t o d o m e sa n d t u u e r s o f
derivations too often repose on guesswork and t\picall\
C , l u n i a cp r i o r y c h u r c h o n M o u n t T a b o r ( n o u suPerficial resemblanccs. this t1'pe.The noticeablelack ol this arrange-
destroyed) had western towers provided rvith ment in supposed imitations counts hearill'
Stress was laid by Sir Alfrcd on the point that
small interior chapels. Apses enclosed in bloclt intercourse between East and \\jest sufered no against the idea of direct influence fiom Ar-
m a s s e so f m a s o n r v ( a s i s o c c a s i o n a l l yt h e c a s ct t t interruption at the fall of the \\iestern Empire' menia on the Occiclent.
Provence)occur at Nazareth. Ramleh, Mount and that the rcconquest undcr Justinian ren- S i m i l a r d o u b t : l t t en d s t h e i d e a o 1 ' d i r e c t t n -
'I'abor,
T o r t o s a , C a e s a r e aG
. .oin-t"ulted n,t,.t dered Eastern influence in It,rl1. :rnd parts of fluence fiom -\rme nian ribbed vault construc-
 342 SpAIN, pORTUGAL, AND THE HOLy LAND

'l'he
tion to the West. h i s t o r r , o f ' t h i ss o r t o f r . a u l t o r d e r o l t a l e n ta t t r a c l e dt o t h e p r o b l e n r , : l n r l SIX
construction in Armenia begins with Surb rh. PART
\ ast resource\made ar ailable fo,
I{ripsim6 at Valarshapat (6rg), rvhere ,.rron",l
twelve 1,,1_
grammes of def'ence.
decorativeribs exist, probabll suggested 'l
M A T U R E R O N ' I A N E S Q U EA R C H I E C I ' U R E
br St h c e a r l r C r u s a d e r c a s r i e si n p a l e s r i n t .
Sophia in Constantinople, but ibrmine (in lr,.r
r r a t l r t i o n a ls q u a r e o r o b l o n g d o n j o n . .
groups of threc) the arms of'a la.ge
IN THE LANDS ASSOCIA'TEI)
decoiative a n g u l a rs u r r o u n d i n gu a l l s : t r e n g r h e n . . t" ; , 1 , 1 "
cross on the soflit of the dome. The U.,,frl
Roman_ long towers. The perennial shortage
esque-loofting -{rmenian ribbetl work ol ,rr,,n_
tenth centur\ is a passing phase fbr th
;
of the
e clcr cloo_
power lbr fighting in the Holy
Land made effi_ WITHIN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
crent design imperative. ,\Iuch
m e n t c o n t i n u e si n t o i n g e n i o u sc t , m h i n a t i o n , was lcarned
ol. Iiom local examples oi' Byzantine
ribs arrangcd (somctimes over fbur ..d \,.;;
supports) lortification, and li.om experienced
like a printer's sign for space .ngin..r",,t
ftf ) wirh a turret ar t h e a r c a . P r o g r e s s i re i m p r o r c m e n r s
the summit. centrall\ placecl. In l.act, rnclu.lirr,
the Ar_ r o u n d t o u e r s , t a l L t s e so.t h c r d e r i c e s .
menians rvere alwa\-s interested in .on..n,rii
ccntralized
r i b s c h e m c s ,a n d t h e s e h a r e h a d
a r r a n g e m e n t s ,a n d r e g i o n a l s i g n a l l i n g
bcrrccn INTRODUCTION TO CI{AP]'ERS 19-22
onlv slight in_ c a s t l e s- t a u g h t a l e s s o nt o t h e W e s t .
f l u e n c ei n r h c \ \ c s t .
Richard I Caur de Lion of England,
It is knorvn that the .\rmcnians r.ere good son of.
Eleanor of Aquitaine and Henry II,
masons.and |erftxp. somrthing after pr,rc_
ol the fine tical experience on the Third Crusade, The areas which are to be considered in Part
q u a l i t , r o l ' t h e ( . r u " - a d e rc h u r c h e s buiit thc of traclition was too strong. A certain unitl' will
in Svria is due finest o1'the twelfih-century castles in
France Six have a very loose geographical and stylistic be givcn to our cxposition by mention of the
to them; but thc Sr.rians, equall1.,
are good Chdteau-Gaillard on the Seine at I_es connexion. Thev oftbr a magniFcent architec- lcatures u hich the respective st]'lcs contributcd
m a s o n s ,; r n d d o u h t l c s s g o o d m a s o n r Andelr s.
a*rna liorn n o t fa r I r o n r R o u e n ( r t g h tural panorarna ol-local developments based to thc dc\ elopment of'Gothic architecture.
France. It is significant that u,hen 7). It had projct.riD,g
rhe French to$ers. (hrce succcs\i\ewitrds,of rhieh on the primirive Romanesque of the rcspective The order to be follorved is geographical,
patrons rvereactualh,close to .{rmenia rire
and its inner had *alls witlr )ucccssi\.c 'f
onrex nrrrier_ regions. beginning with the w o S i c i l i e sa n d p r o c c e d i n g
a r c h i t e c t u r e a n c li n d e e c lt h e r e u e r e
Armenians t i o n s t o i n c r e a s et h e e f l e c t i r e n e s s T h e y d e v e l o p e d s p e c t a c u l a r l r , i n s c a l e ,r i c h - northward through Italv and, altcr an excursion
i n - f e r u s a l e ma l s o t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l o l . d e f c n d r rr .
inlluencc fire, and a central donjon. It prefigured ness,and supcrior cralismanship from thc local to Dalmatia and Hungarl, northward again to
r v a sn i l , o r b u t l i t t l e m o r e . I n s t c a d , r v c the con-
'6cole have an centnc castlcs which were dcleloped E a r l y R o m a n e s q u es t 1 . l e sb, u t l a c k c d t h e i n v e n - the Germanic lands.
d'outrc-mcr' lvhich is verv largelr. in thc
Bur_ thincenrhccnlur\-rnd buijt. in imposing t i v e d r i v e w h i c h c v e n t u a l h . a c h i e v e dt h e d e l i n i - I t n e e d st o b e e m p h a s i z e dt h a t t h i s a c c o u n t i s
gundian and Prorenqal Frcnch. lrr.:rr.
bv the Crusaderknights in Svria (includins tive solution (in Irrance) of'thc esscntial vaulting purell topographical, and not dcvelopmental.
.{n authentic case of influence f rom the tl,.
Near. K r a k d e s C h e v a l i e r sa n d problem. Gothic architecturemight hare come L,ach locrrl group has its own historl' but the
East on the Romanesclr-reand Gothic M a r g a r ) .F u r r h e r . J . -
norlcl is velopments of machicolated galleries. out ol a number ot-the schools which we are s t r a n d s w h i c h a r e i n t e r l v o r e n r e p r e s e n ts t 1 ' l i s t i c
ol]'ered br rhe lbrtifications. .I.he bratticcs.
Crusaders crcnellations, applied to the royal about to analvse rhc components of Gothic impulses which we havc scen appearing in thc
learned ' t h c a nd noble
hrrrd waf ibout Bvzanrine and
r e s i d e n c c t ,g r a d u a l l r g a \ e t o , u . h w e r e t h e r c ; b u t t h e e s t l b l i s h c d s r y l c sh a d g i v c n great stlles the styles alreadr treatcd as our
-{rab impror ments on ancient Romln ,trr.tur..
fbrtifica_ the picturesque a f a i r l y g o o d l c c o u n t o f t h e m s e l v e s ,a n d t h e h o l d principal thcrne.
and unmistakable characttr
t i o r r , w h i c h u , a sa l l , o r n e a r l r . a l l , r h c
!tr'esterners which we lssociate
knerv. Iircnch dci.clopmcnts of. thesc w i t h r h e l a t c m e d i er . rI
Near_ chitcau. But the development was
Iiastern motil's in fbrtification becamc functionrrl.
in the cncl a n d t h e
rcal architcctural fl.atures of the French J ) i C t U r c s q u e n c sr:\ a s g c n u r n e . n , r t
chi_ rontantlc.
t e a u x , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l r .o f ' t h e c h u r . c h c s .
The With this comment on the reflex liom
increasing scrle of rvarfhre in the \\rest thc
for it C r u s a d c s ,r y e l e a v e t h e H o l l . L a n t l , : r n d
became national in scope in thc course alsoibr.
of the a ttme the regions lr,here French influencc
trvellihcenturv would inant,caschavebroueht l1rr:
paramount, in order to take up the
abuut innorltions antl impro,e*..nt, .non_ s u b i e c t oj
m a l u r c R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t c t . t u r ei n
t a n e o u s l . i\n r h e O c c i d c n r . b e c a u s e the qrc,rr
o l r h e h i e h a r c i l sa s s o c i a t end. i t h i nt h e
Holr RomanEmtrir..
 I9
CflAPTER
THE Two SICIILIL'S
A P U LTA
As to the Holl'Land, so also to south Italv and
S i c i l y ,R o m a n e s q u ea r c b i t e c t u r e c a m e b e c a u s e
o f f a b u l o u sl i r e n c h a d v e n t u r i n g . T h c m o u n t a i n
barrier of the Apennines and the Abruzzi, to-
gether with the stagnant Papal state, kcpt off
influences tiom the north - except what might
come through the pilgrimagc to Nlontc Gar-
gano, and later to Bari while the brilliance of
Byzantine and Moslem civilization was rcflected
from the south and east, then in closc maritime
and political contact with south Italv and Sicilv.
The Eastern Empire had gradually- lost the
Beneventan and Salcrnitan arcas fo local dukc-
2b4. Bari, San Nicola, undcr construction to89
d o m s , a n d t h c i s l a n c lt o t h e A r a b s i n 9 r 7 , b u t
retaincd Apulia, Crrlabria, ancl thc Basilicata.
Bcginrring about ro-jo seleral sons ol"l'ancred
of' Hautsville or Hautteville-la-Guichard, near
Coutancesin Normandv, came into thc south
Itllian areaat the head of Norman bands. and
b 1 r o . 1 rh a d a s t r o n g h o l d o n A p u l i a . O n c o f t h c
s o n s ,R o b c r t G u i s c a r d , r v h o a r r i v e d i n r o 4 ( r ,w a s
b v r o 5 g r c c o g ; n i z e da s D u k e o l ' A p u l i a a n d
C a l a b r i a ; a l s o a s f i r t u r e D u k e o f S i c i l 1 . ,a s h e
'if
said. thc grrce of'God and St Peter help me'.
The same year marks the consccration of the
f i r s t c h u r c h a t t h c a b b c v o f V e n o s a ,w h i c h w a s
built to be the famil.v panrheon. In ro6r qr
S i c i l l w a s c o n q u e r e c l ;R o g e r I I , C o u n t o f ' S i c i l v ,
 LANDS ASSOCIATED wITHIN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRI'
346
obtainedthe titlc of'King in r r 3o; he united ancl
filled out the Normirn posscssionson the main-
l a n d b 1 r r 3 7 , b u t i n r r g . 1 t h e l ' p a s s e dt o t h r :
E m p i r e . ' l ' h e a r e ap a s s e dt o t h e R o m a n l r o m t h e
Blzantine patriarchate in the pontificate of
Urban II, and saw hosts ofthe First Crusade
depart in rc96 7.
265 nnd z(16.Bari, San Nicola, r:nder construcrion ro89
FI
I The relics ofthe venerablc wonderworker St
Tllitrr
I
a end of the great nave, rvhich was intended to
ir'osrcrLIEs 3r+7
The first seriousbeginnings of Romanesrluq composition San Nicola c - r u t ' w a r ct hl r u s t o f t h e a i s l e r a u l t i n g . - \ b o r c i t
As an architectural
architecture came tt this timc, and Lombill.(l a n d e c l e c t i c w i t h t h e t r a c e so l a thcre is a rich arcaded uall-gallcrl at the tri-
is sophisticated
influencc. rvhich had played upon Normantlr. pcrsonalitv in thc design' lbrium levcl an early cxanrple ol' this motil,
matur. inaitiatral
irscll. is felr in .{pulia in rhe oldesr Nornr,rn t h e s i g n s ol derelopmenl wilhin the rvhich became very common in Lombardl' Thc
,rth.t ttttn
church of importance in the south of Itall'. 'l hc tradition' t r i l b r i u m s p a c ei t s c l f . a s a t P i s a .o P c n s u p o n t h e
frarne ofa
building in qucstion, San Nicola at Barir the first as a n a v e t h r o u g h a s e r i e so f ' t r i p l e a r c h e s u n d e r e n -
The church was planned from
l z 6 q 6 1 ,s t a n d sa s t h e h e a d o f a r e g i o n a l s t J - l i s r i c here, as earlier at Saint- closing arches; above there is a simple clere-
pilgrimage church;
Diion, that meant a large crypt, with stor!'t as at Pisa. Analysis thus shows that thc
lenign",
d e b t o f t h e b u i l d i n g t o P i s a C a t h e c i r : r li s m o r e
groin vaults az quadrille , supported on columns'
to the crypt was rcal than 2rpparent.
Lombard fashion. Access
opening into the eastern- A further debt to Tuscanf is evitlent in the
arranged by stairways
b a y s o f t h e c h u r c h a i s l e s where there were
, nare. diridcd into two mirjol bals' eachcorres-
most
part of' the ponding (as at San Nliniato al Nlonte, Florence
suitable lateral entrances' This
on columns'
church, with its superstructure, was finished
in I z 9 o ] ) t o t h r e e a i s l e b a 1 ' sc a l r i e d
As at San Nliniato there is a grouped pier at thc
rog8, when Pope Urban II held the Council of.
junction between the maior bays, and it is pos-
Bari in the building. A large part of the church
sible that a diaphragm arch was inrended (as at
was built and embellished by rI3z, but the
- San Miniaro) though nerer execu(ed'
work dragged on to a dedication in r I96 a fact
explains irregularities in the western It seemslikely that the western maior bay was
which
d e s i g n e ds p e c i f i c a l l yf o r t h e c o n g r e g : r r i o nl 1 s e r -
towers. With these towers San Nicola became, 'l'here
r ices- arc thrce portals xt the tag:rcle'ancl
in intention at least, a fbur-torver church (one
tower at each corner), and perhaps the original t h e r e i s a l a t e r a l p o r t a l i n e a c ha i s l ca t t h e h c a d o t
of a Hungarian group of such buildings' Almost this maior ba1'.The eastern maior bal of the
certainly, however, the fine great bulks of the nirr e would then serl'e specilicalh f'or the scholu
(dnturuilt of the monks, marketl oll' fiom the
western towers one Lombard in appearance,
public thus leaving the flanking aislcs and
the other hall-oriental \ ere not part ol the
first design, though the sheer prccipice ol' portals ibr accessto the pilgrimage cr-vpt'
masonry which they m:rkc, flanking the strong 1'he transept opens behind a triumphal arch
basilican profile of the church, is verl' efi-ective' rvhichfrrmes the altarand the apsc ln ldclition,
If San Nicola was indeed at first intended to thcre is iln open three-archecl screen rvhich
h a v eo n l y l h e t w o s l e n d e r s e n t i n e l r o w c r s a t t h t ' ser\es to mirrk off the monks' choir fiom the
eastern corners, be-vond thc crossing, it lvould t r a n s e p t , a n d a t t h e s a m et i m e t o s t r e n g t h e nt h e
(irn oclagtlnitl
originally have resembled Sant'Abbondio at sul)l)orls ol the crossing to\rer
Como (r. ro6J 95) l.;ool. However. one ol'the lirntern on squinches).The high rrltar' rvith a
'l'hc l c n e a t h ,a s o l i e n i n E a r l l
group localized on the east coast of Norman tower pair has never bcen completed aislcs b a l c l a c c h i n o i,s p l a c e c b
r'l
Italy'. w e r e r a u l t e t l , a s a t l h e c a t h e d r a l o l P i s : r( r o f i . j Chlisrian times.'l'he modern arllngemenl
flanking stalls kceps this area clear fbr thc clergr''
ff.). Disorders in the western ba1'sof this con-
Nicholas, bishop of \{,vra in Anatolia so much s t r u c t i o n h a r e c a u s e dt h c i n t r u s i o n o f l o w d i a - but in thc Romanesqueperiod the u'holc tran-
be
i n h o n o u r w i t h t h e G r e e k s a n d R u s s i a n s ,a n t l phragm arches spoiling the efitct of the wcst s ep t o f I B e n e d i c t i n c c h u r c h w o u l d n t r r m a l l l
d e r o t i o n s T h i s m a1'
knowntousasSantaC.hus had beenabstractctl reserretl fbr the monks'
i n S a n N i c o l a , u h c r e ' l o g i c a lh
trom his tomb in thc ancient cathedral ancl rise free. as the castern part does' to the wooden- still bc s e n s e c l
brought in ro87 to Bari, rvhcre they still are, in -I-hc t ' n o u g h . l h e r c l r e n u t r i l l ) s e p tp o r l r t l s
t r u s s e c lr o o f a b o r e . handsomc rangic ol
the
x sanctuar) rvhich was alreadvbuilding in ro[it1. a r c h e d s p u r b u t t r e s s e so n t h e f l a n k s , r a t h e r l i k e E , a c ha r m o f ' t h e t r a n s e p t h a s a n a b s i d i o l c ;
t h e E a r l r ' ('hrts-
u n d e r B e n e d i c t i n e a u s p i c e s ,t o r e c e i v c t h e m . m a i n a p s eh a s a s 1 ' n t h r o n o ni n
those ofa Poitevin church, has taken care ofthe
 348 LANDS ASSOCIATED \1 ITHTN THE HOLY ROMAN t,MPIRE

'l'rani
Cathedral,bcgun Io98' from the west
z6j (lpplsitt).
trulli (corbelledtlomcs),traditional
2f8. Alberobello,

t i a n m a n n e r , w i t h a b i s h o p ' st h r o n e o n
'l'hrone, a x i s .T h e esque addition, perhaps suglgested a t t r a c t i v er e g i o n a l g r o u p r a n g e d a l o n g a n d n c a r b o y u n a b l e t o s a l a n v t h i n g b r t K . 1 ' r i ec l e i s o n .
Bari as ir is callcd, has an interestins b-v thc 'I-his
I-ateran transept 'fhc
[283]. The wall has shallou. the coast north-rvesterll'from Bari. notable who attracted pious attention. pilgrimage
p l e c ci n t h c h i s r o r r o l R o m a n e s q u c
s c u l p tu r e ; arcading with a half-pisan, half_Lombard examples are all cathedrals. Several of them church hasa complete cr]'pt; there is a fine wcst
Ibr, dated ro98, ir is a marure u,ork look
ol.Gueliel_ ahnut it. well related to thc more stand boldly with their sentinel tolvers close to p o r c h l c a d i n g t o b r o n z e c l o o r s ;t h e r c i s a s i n g ; l e
mus, onc ol thc mcn uho first rencue,l visorous
th.,art b u t t r e s sa r c a d i n g .r h e g a l l e r y .a n d t h e p o r t a l s . t h e w a t e r ' s e d g c o n t h e A d r i a t i c s h o r e ,a n d t h u s bold western towcr. The u'ooden-roof'ed basili-
i n I t a l v . I t i s p o s s i b l et h a r I r e i n r c n t e d
rhe well_ Nor rhe leasr charm of San Nicoia a d d t o t h e p i c t u r c s q u e n e s so f t h c r o w n s . \ l o s t c a n n r \ e h a s a n i n c l u d e d t t ' a n s e p t ;t h c e a s t c n c l
known motif of'achurch portal lvith is it,
its columns hanclsome ashlar masonry. Thc closelv rclated to San Nicola are thc cathedrals has no towers or'box' only thrcc projecting
carried on the backsofanimals; at stone_wort.
anv rate the finel1.cut, has mclloived to a warnt o f B a r l e t t a ( b e g l u na b o u t r r 3 9 , u n d e r w a v i n r o u n d a p s e s .t s e a u t i f i r l l v u ' c a t h e r e c l t, h e b u i l d -
m o t i l d p n c e r si n S l n N i c o l a a r B a r i . soft grevish
wirh rhe h r o w n , a c r i re i n r e x r u r c a n d l r i t h l o , r r 5 3 , a n d e n l a r g e d i n a d i f i - e r e n ts t 1 ' l c i n t h e ing is lerl' handsome in a setting which hrrs
animals in the fbrm o1'corbels.: elr iurir.. 'l'hc
e f l c c t si n r h e s u n s h i n e .' f h i s b e a u r i l i r l . , o n . f o u l t e c n t h c e n t r . r r l ' ) ,B ' , r r i ( b e g u n a l t e r r r 5 6 , h a r d l r c h a n g c c ls i n c c i t r v a s b u i l t . detail is
It rcmains to mention thc box_like *r.
wall which gencrallv ar.ailable,and its use u n d e r w a v i n r r 7 < . ; )B, i t o n t o ( b e g u n r r 7 5 ; p o r t a l largcll l-ombrrd.
e n c l o s e sa l l t h e a p s e so f ' S a n N i c o l a , characterizes the
a n d m a k e s w h o l e s e r i e so f b u i l d i n g s t z o o ) . R u r o ( t l ' e l f t h c e n t u r l ' ) ,a n d B i t c t t o ( m o r c To this rathcr Lombard group of Normano-
r e l a t e c lt o S a n N i c o l a ,
a sheer straight east wall for the
church, cm_ vert grearl,v to their advantagc. o r l e s sc o n t e m p o r a r l ' ) .r Italian buildings ma]. be adclcd a sporaclic
bellishecl bv the rich rvinclow of the 'l'he
main arrse. g e n c r a l d e s i g n o l s a n i ' i . . o l a u . a sq u i c k l , Less clearll li'om Bari is the filiation of the d o m e d g r o u p . D o m e s h a d b e e n r r s e dt i r r a l o n g
a n d i n t c n d c r lt o h l r e t h c : l e n d e r 'hcel'
t u i n r o u c r s absorbed into Apulian cathedral o1'Tranir [:(r71, begun in rogll and timc in the of' Itrrll', as at Alberobello
r i s i n g a b o r , ei t a t t h e c o r n e r s . I t architecture, ,na ,n.
was a Roman_ resulting tlmily.of buildings consrlrutes dedicatedto St Nicholas the Pilgrim, an idiot
a \ert. [ 2 6 8 1 ,f b r u t i l i t a l i a n c o n s t r u c t i o n s . '
350 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I l H I N T H E H O L Y R O M A N E M p I R E THt.TWOSICtT.IES35r

N f o l f ' e t t aC a t h e d r a l [ 2 6 9 1 ,l i k e t h a t o l T r a n i , The repeated dome occurs also in interesting, except for a later campanile ancl a
1l1o on lhc (\teriol of the apsc.
,acept perhaps
has Lombard detail, and is set close to the cathedral ol san Sabino in Canosa,dar;n, domed tomb or baptister]-(r. r r8o).
*ifi i r s u f f i c i e n t l vl i l c t h a r o l K a l a t S e m a n i n
water. Like the churchesat Bari. it has slender f i o m r r o o a n d l a t e r . H e r e a t C a n o s ai s a l s o So far we have seen little or no l"rcnch
th" q u e s t i o n o l F ' a s t e r ni n f l u e n c e
paired eastern towers, but the na.r'eis cor.ered s u r i a r a i s et h e
t o
domed classicizing tomb (rrrr t8) ofrhc r....,- through thc Crusadesl tbl the influence in this architecture of the Norn.ran
lot n . . . r r r t i l y 'I'he
with three domes in line, and the aisles are less and laithless crusader Bohemond, son latter were fighting men, and their
ot. begun in roq.l' and uas well along dvnasts.
quadrant-vaulted: a most unusual arrange- Robert Guiscard." .hur.h *"t
entourage was lar too mixcd to havc anr'
ment. f'he date falls late in the trvelfth century Tuscan influences flowed, rather parsimon- i1 rtzT fzTol'
has artistic orientation. Moreover', when the Hautc-
(r l6z Siponto Cathedral (twclfth century)
ff., with some reconstruction about iouslv, into Norman Italy too.7 Troia Cathc_ also, but the church villes lef t Normand-v, the Norman school u as :rs
r-loo). Tuscan exterior arcading
dral, lor historical rex.sons,is Tuscan in str lc. block. \'er'\' oriental- vet hardl,r'constituted its great earll monu-
is an abrupt squarc
\Iolfctta C,athcdral,r rf)2and latcr,
2611-
fiom thc north-ucst 21o.'I' roia.Cnthcdral.begun I ot1-1,
upperPartof west far,rtle

F l:,]i
iil

looking in mass. It has a rich portal in the ment, Jumidges [:.SZ ql, dates lrom ro17 66.
-l'he
Lombard style, and thus is suitabll' eclectic for Norman French wcre then still under
the region. strong influences fiom the Loire, fiom Bur-
The great shrine of St Nlichael of' Monte gundl-', and fi'om Lombardv, on which the
Gargano, or Monte Sant'Angelo, resulted from south-Italian Normans alsodrew.
a vision of the archangel seen bl a bishop of ln the latcr pcriod atier l05o' thcf( is
Siponto in 49r. The sitc is not architccturall.v o c c a s i o n a lF r e n c h i n f l u e n c e i n N o l m a n I t a l l '
 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOLY ROMAN t',MPIRE
352
T h i s i s t h e c a s ca t V e n o s a( b e g u n a f t c r I r o o a n d
nerer finishcd or dilapidated, so that it sho*s
the technique of Romanesquebuilding) and in
Acerenza (related to Venosa). A't'ersa," not far
lrom Naples, has a cathedral dating lrom about
r r 5o, containing an archaic-looking rib-r'aulted
ambulatory, which would sccm to be ultimatell
ofFrench inspiration, though with the church
'l'cramo
of San Ciemente at Torre dei Passieri,
( r r T t l - 8 2 ) , w h i c h h a s a h a l f - - B u r g u n d i a nt r i p l e
porch, it may have acquired thc libs through
Lombard influcnce.')
Riroira believccl that thc ambulator-v at thc
cathedral ofAversir dated back to ro49 56, and
Arthur Kingsley Porter rvas lcd to give con-
siderable emphasis to the sculptures of San
N i c o l a , B a r i , a s e a r l v e x a m p l e sd u e t o P i l g r i m -
age connexions; but the remoteness 01'the
Apulian school, and the f'act that the civilization
of the Two Sicilies was hardll a Romanesque
cir,ilization, make this Romanesque really a
Romrrnesque in ltartihus, oi which the reflcx
influence elsewhere was perceptible, but not
grear.
THE BASILICATA
W o r t h l . o f n o t i c e i s a s m a l l g r o u p o f c h u r c h e si n
'Roccella
Calabria. d i S q u i l l a c e ' ,n e a r t h e s i t e o l
Cassiodorus's sixth-century monasterv o1'Vi\,a-
riunr. has an imposing ruin of rather Bvzantine
character, in some wavs like the tenth- and
clerenth-century churches in the capital. The
policv of the Normans, who acquired this
region in ro57, was countcr to the Orthodox
'I'he
Church. p l a n o 1 ' R o c c e l l ad i S q u i l l a c e ,w i t h
a crypt, a wide transept, and a lvide wooden-
rooled navc, seenrs Western, probabh of the
l a t c e l e r , e n t hc e n t u r v .I o
'La
Cattolica'(Catholicon, the chicl church
of a monasterl') of Stild, near thc coast, closell
rescmblcs the latel rustic Bvzantine rvhich is
fbund in the Balkans, and mav date fiom the
fburtecnth ccnturv, though it is otten dated
e a r l i e r . l l I t i s o n e o f a g r o u p o 1 ' c h u r c h e sw h r r . h
are basically versions of the Byzantine firtrr.-
column church.
Another Byzirntine reminiscence is that ot
St Nilus of Rossano, who, driven fiom the
region by the Saracens,carried the Eastu.l
(Basilian) monastic mle to Grottaf-errata, nrrr
Rome, where Otto III, perhaps remembcrins
'Iheophano,
his Bl zantine mother a i d ed i 1
founding a monasterv (roo4) which is srill
B r r s i l i a n .t h o u g h u n d e r p a p a l a u s p i c c s .
SICILY
The fantastic history of this island guarantecd
it an exotic architecture. \iery little ol'rcrl
importance to the histor]- of architecture $as
built. as lar as we know. between Greek and
Norman days, though the successive Roman,
B v z a n t i n e , a n d M o s l e m r e g i m e sl e f t t h e i r m a r k .
T h e N o r m a n s , w h o c o n q u e r e d S i c i l - vi n r o 6 r
9r, hare left monuments of great dignitv but
composite st1'le. Like their English cousins.
t h e l a c h i e v e d ,w i t h p a p a l s a n c t i o n , a t i g h t c o n -
trol ofthe church, and intelligently prevented
fiiction between the Latins, the Orthodox, ancl
t h e M o s l e m s . N e w e p i s c o p a l s e e s\ 4 e r c s e t u p
'fhe
and staffed with Latin ecclesiastics. hall-
charm of' the place
Nloslern-half-Byzantine
afl'ectcd them. the court. and the architects
p r o t b u n d l v , a n d t h e i r R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r e
absorbed. with much grace, thc alien elemcnts.
This mode of building was still in logue uhcn
the Two Sicilies were united to the Empirc.
r rg-+.
Court architecturelr naturally. inclined to
Moslem modcls; for the Normans of thc court
we're human alter all, and thc N,Ioslem pallccs
were designed to house a lif'e of sophisticrtecl
rsfinement such as wrs hardly known in the
north. l'he Farcra, Menani, L,a Ziza, and L;t
Cuba are knolvn cxamples - Palermitan builcl-
ings in which the oriental lords of Sicily would
h a r c b c e n r e r v m u c h a l h o m c , T h e l o e, r l
27r. Palermo.PalatineChapel,r r3z- tig
 .tf+ L A N D S A S S O ( ] I A T t r DW I I ' H I N
z7z. Palermo,the X,{artorana,
r t_1.j5r irnd later, flank
building material, none other
than the prtros N4oslem pointed
(rough limestone) which the
ancient Greeks
used
their temples, adapted irself
_-fbr verv
happih ro rhe new archirectural
mode. In it
decoratir.e Moslem arcading and pattern_wort
looked u'ell; ir combinecl
happill: wirh stucco
for panelled effects, and with
marble and
mosaic fbr rich interiors. One
finds in these
designs, without seeming contracliction,
the warmth; lbr the limestone
round Roman arch, the interlaced
Norman
arches which make pointed_arch patterns,
rhe richly contrasting with rhe
THE HOLY ROMAN },]!tPIRE
't
1'
'l
arch, and rib u.ork. ,l.here rre
d e c o r a t i v ed e t a i l sw h e r e R o m a n e s q u e ,
Moslenr,
and Byzantine motives frolic
together; ther.c
are columns of classic proportlon
takine thcir
part in composirions u.irh
Br.zantine mosair.
and Moslem domes, honel,.comb
roof art(.-
s o n a d o sa n d s t a l a c t i t ec e i l i n g . s .
All are brillianr
in A{editerranean sunshine
and glowing rvirh
walls weather to
enchanting toasted browns,
buffs, and grers,
azurc ,krl ,n.l
--r
THETWOStCrLrEs
355
bowers of orange, lemon, and palm trees. crosslng towers here. Wherever originated, the
RogerII acquired territorieson the mainland tower design of the N{artorana has been half_
of Aftica,which accentuatedthe orientalismof orientalized, and developed rowards thc fbrm
hisdominionsand naturallycameto expression w h i c h w e s h a l l f i n d i n t h e d r a m a t i c c l u s t e r s o f
11the architecture. turrets at Palermo Cathedral later on.
It has been very reasonablysuggestedthat San Giovanni degli Eremiti,r, of rI jz, has
the Orthodox in the Greek parts of the island o n t h e c h u r c h ( a s i m p l e b l o c k o f a b u i l d i n g o f
had for two hundred years been assimilating austere oriental exterior fbrm) a series of
Moslem and Byzantine archirecturalmotifs, trloslem domes which irre hemispherical, and
achievingt satoir-faireby which the Norman placed wirhout mouldings on short cvlindrical
architectsearly profited.lr drums. The tower terminatescoquettishh in a
A famous example of' l'aried architectural similar dome. There is a poetic cloister. San
combinationis the PalatineChapelin Palermol
[z7r], actuallywithin what remainso1'theroval
palacethere. It was built br,Roger II between
rr32 and rr43, and dedicatedto St peterl
really it is a miniature church, with slencler
columnsof marble dividing the navefrom the
aislesofa triapsidalbasilicanplan.The columns
and the lavish wall mosaics- applied, except
for somerestoration, betweenr r43 and r r89 -
are purely Byzantine in stlle. Tall pointed
arches of Moslem form, and an elaborate
stalactiteceiling over.thenave are the oriental
compon!nts in this design.
The'N{artorana'15 [z7zl, reallvthe churchof
SantaMaria del Ammiraglio, built and cleco-
ratedbetween I r4-tand I r5r forKingRogerII's
greatadmiralGeorgeof Antioch, wasdedicated
to the Virgin 'with much love, and as a small
andunworthy-recompense' so the inscription 273.Palermo,San (laraldo,bcfore r r6r
says.Later building has disturbedthe original
entrancesystem.An axial porch (still existing, Cataldo
[2731, essentiallv similar to San Gio-
and marked by a late tower) gave upon an vanni, was
built as a svnagogue and taken over
atrium and narthex,as in an Early Christian a s a c h u t c h i n r
r6r. Exotic and unchurchly asit
churchI hovlerer. bel.ond rhe narthex rhe is, with Nloslem
domes and decoratir.e pointed
building was arrangecland decoratedlike a a r c a d i n g .
it does not seem out of'place as an
Byzantinefour-column chur.ch,exceptthat the e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
building in Palermo.
Pointedarchesand the squinchesof the dome N{eanwhile, in rr.1r, construction of the
wereof Moslem design.The tower (fburteenth c a t h e d r a l o f
C e f ' a l i rh a d b e e n b e g u n r Tl z 7 4 l . k s
centur)')is basicalll.likethe crossingtower of p a t r o n , ( , o u n t
R o g e r I I , w a s a c c o r d e dt h e t i t l e
theMontierneufat Poitiers r]. Perhapsthere o f K i n g
[25 bl thc antipope Anacletus II. and firr
is influence from the Salmantine school of t h i s
alliance was excommunicated in r r 1q bv
 TllE TWt) srcrt.rE.s 357

but,the situation was fiom rz4o, with some rebuilding in thc htteenth
pope Innocenl ll.
in rr'lo was serrcd b1' a century.
,"iut^tirra .Celalir
of A u g u s t i n i a n c a n o ns' For them a The exterior of the cathedral is perhaps the
at-rpt.. 'l'wo
. l o i t r . . was built. in the stvlc of the 6nest in all the Sicilian Romancsque.
l..ity
to the norlh. {fter Roger II's time handsome to\r'ers, like North-African minarcts
ihurch, iust
project at Celilir languished; ulti- in design, flank an elegant columnar porch
the $e^t
rvith three pointed archcs, bchind rvhich
pately the royal pantheon was established in
palermo, and even King Roger's sarcophagus appears the faqade wall ofthe church, decorated
'lhc
his tomb- with Norman interlirced arches. nale ancl
was transf-erred there from this,
aisles are of course basilican columnar shafis
church'
In plan Cefalir Cathedral is very handsome mark off the aisles, u'hich are sroin-vaulted,
-lhe
walls are substantial. east end with lateral arcading. In the nave proper, the
[275].'fhe
has a sanctuary covered b1 groin vaulting and a roofis at a lower level than wasat first intcnded.
'Ihe
pointed semi-dome; flanking it are two deep transept is carried higher than the nave,
runnel-vaulted chapels. The transept, slightlv m o r e t h a n a t N { o n t e c a s s i n oo n t h e m a i n l a n d ;
proiecting, is covered partly by tunnel vaulting the sanctuary be-vond it, though Byzantine in
and partly by wooden roofing. These parts of p l a n a n d d e c o r a t i o n . i s R o n r a n e s q t t ci n s t t ' u c -
the church had been hnished and decorated in ture, proportion, and extcrior decolation. The
rr48, but there is much later work the nave great Christ of the semi-dome, singularlv im-
w a sb u i l t b e t w e e n r r 8 o a n d I 2 o o o n a r e d u c e d pressive, is one of'the finest Byzantine mosaics
plan, and the wooden-trussed roofing of the to be fbund anywhere. It is a perf'ectly pure
nxve was restored in rz63; the faqade dates exarnpleof the Second Golden Age, and goes

f ii

z T q , a n dz i 5 . ( l c l a l i r( l a t h e d r a lb, e u u nr r . i r
 THE TWO STCTLTES
35g

'l-he
originals in Constanlinople minor their decorative character and conscquenrlt.
b a c kr o
a r e a l s o . o fg r e a t i n t e r e s t a n d b c a u t l ' quite the reverse ol' the development in the
IuUi..ts
of Santa \4aria la \uorl in north of France, which at this verv rime was
The calhctlral
is the clin.rax of Sicilian systematizing the flying buttress and ushcring
Monrealel8 lz76-8.) 'l
a r c h i t c c t u l c . h e s e e \ 4 a se s t i l b - in the accomplished phase of F-arlv Gorhic.
Romanesquc
the cathedral huilr br King Wil- There is no sign ofthis architectural progress ar
lished and
to the po$er o{ the Nlonreale. Fires werc not so li'equent in the
fiam II as a counterpoisc

lil
ti
I
I
I1l
II archbishop of' Palermo. It was served b1-
I Benedictines from La Cava on the tnainland,
I where thc monks observed the Cluniac rulc,
and for them an intcresting conventual struc-
'fhis
t u r e w a s r a i s e dt o t h e s o u t h o f t h e c h u r c h .
building and the exterior ofthe church are in a
markedly local Romancsque sttle; integrated
so happily that one is not so conscious of
stylistic 'ingredients' as in manl ol the Siculo-
Norman edifices.
H o * ' e v c r , i t m u s t b e s a i d t h a t t h e m o t i f - sa r e a
zi6 and 277.NlonrcaleC.athedral,
begun r r74 rather riotous growth, interesting lafgcl.v for
south as in the north, so that it was admissible to
risk wooden-trussed roofing over the wide
spans. The Moslem t1'pc o1' :rll-but-pointcd
vault and the Moslem pointed arch were
sufficientll'stablc fbr the narrouer spans.
Monreale Cathcdral was apparentl) started
in r174; in t t76 decds and endorvmentswel'e
deposited on the high altar, and in rr8z the
I - a b r i cw a s s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o m p l e t e. 1 ' h e s i t e , u p
thc Conca d'Oro lrom Palcrmo, is onc ol'grcrt
l r e a u t ) ,b u t t h e c h t t r c h e x t e r i o ri s n o t a s f i n e l s
- fbr thc interlacing pointed
that of' Cefhli

L
 'lHETwo slclt.tts 36r
HOLY ROMAN TMPIRE
360 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N ' I l l E

ccnturtes
As the twelfth and thirteenth
-I'hc achiered a
where pointecl arches are used also. dr:cor.x- advance<l. the Sicilian designers
arches on the apse are overwrought Roman-
stvle - eruberant'
esque Baroque; the two blocky tower bases t i o n i s B y z a n t i n e ( i n t h e m o s r r i c s )a n d \ 1 n 5 1 . " strangebut satisfyingexotic
which g as
have disparate and not altogether pleasing ( t h e m a r b l e d a d o o f t h e a i s l e s ,t h e p o l r c h l o r y l " Jetig'i-tti.tgin spicy decoration
lts great monument \1as
terminations; and the heavy portico ot t77o ceiling). No attempt was made to tirse 16. beautifully handled'
Palermo' r'ebuiltin r r7z-85 b1

d
between the towers is very inappropriatc'r" styles: they' are here independent, anLl ;n .i. .t,ft.i."f of
ir.ftbltit"O Walter 'rhe of the Mill (Gualterio
The interior, however, is perfect. The plan coniunction.2('
The cathedral at Monreale has ;r r s1, 85) gorgeousllmodelled
is Romanesque, with nave, aisles, transept, o;;;iit",''r6q
with its rich arcading and cresting
deep sanctuary and deep flanking chapels; the beautiful cloister enclosed within the bloclr
s e r i e s o f m o n r s t i c b u i l d i n g s o n t h e s o t r r l r. 1 1 .
"""*'i'""0.,
t. prinre cxampleot thc st\lc Perh'tps
sup!rstructure fbllows Early Christian lines in irtt'f' " of the Hohen-
the basilican nave, which is divided from the of the church. This cloister is dated I 17: 89. rnt, l...'ogni" the inflrrcnct

*iillffi,J:['iri::i*
". (r194-1266) in the atn
aisles b.v classic Corinthian columns (though Possibly' refugee sculptors came here aficl thr: ,,tti." a"-i"ation
of the cathecltal'irnd
f a l l o f , l e r u s a l e mi n r r 8 7 I t h e w o r k w a s s u t e l r .rfit"* u, the four corners
with Moslem pointecl arches). The st1'le is
Romanesque in the transept and sanctuary. finished b1' rzoo. The cloister has twentr-fiie

tf
{i.,1

tl:,
t-
.ff:
t.. i3
l
fi r,i,
:,:
:i

:78. Monrcale Cathedral, cloistcr, I I7:-Et1

27() (af?oete). Palermo ()athedral, r r7z fitieenth centur\' south firgadc

 362 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
in the fantastic group of turrets joined b1' a
bridgc to the rvest faqade(r3oo 59), fbr thcl'
have strangc, belated reminisccnces of the
'Ihc
Carolingian rvestwork at Saint-Riquier.
south portal dates fi'om r4z-5, and its great
porch lrom later in the samc centurv. un-
lbrtunatelv thc interior was spoiled bt rebuild-
ing between r7[ir and r8or, but it containsthe
roval and imperial tombs of thc dynastv,
including that of the E,mperor Flederick II.
f'hev scem strangelv lost in the plastcr white-
ness of the uther austerc Baroquc inter.ior.
Sicilr''s orvn riotous, warm, mcdier al stllc
lvould fit them much better.rr
CANIPANIA
A N D N E I G I I B O U R I \ GR E G I O N S
The Normans acquired -{r'ersaand its rcgion
about ro3o, (,apua (in which rcgion Nlonte-
c a s s i n ol i c s ) i n r o i 8 . G a e t a i n r o 6 j ; t h c r e g i o n s
a b o u t B e n e v e n t oa n c lS a l c r n o ,i n c l u d i n g { m a l f i ,
i n r o 7 7 : N a p l e s ,h n a l l r ' ,i n r r 3 7 .
8 1 l - a rt h c n r o s t i m p o r t a n t s h r i n e i n t h e r e g i o n
r v a sN l o n t e c a s s i n o ,w i t h i t s a u g u s t m e m o l i e s o f '
St Benedict.
-l'he
monasterl', lbunded in -5.2g,
h a d b c e n r e s t o r c c la f t e l b a r b a r i a n d e s o l a t i o n s
(Lombards, -58r; Saracens,8[J:), and subsc-
quent to 95o it flourished again. An elegant
interprctation of the much rebuilt Renaissance
church and conventual buildings has replacccl.
on thc same sitcs, the structures dcstrol-ed in
t h c S e c o n c l\ \ o r l d W a r .
The great Abbot Desiderius assumsd ofhce
w h c n t h e N o r m a n r e p J i m ew a s b e g i n n i n g . I { e
gathered a pleiad of important churchmen,
s c h o l a r s ,a n d a r t i s t s a b o u t h i m , a n d m a d e t h e
abbey. a light to its age, as rccounted bv his
excellcnt archivist and biographer Lco of
O s t i a . : r D e s i d e r i u s l a b o u r c d t o r e - e s t a b l i s ht h e
fine arts in Itah, lvhcre '\.,IistressLatinitas had
been wantins in the skill of thcse alts . . . tbr'
f i v e h u n d r e d v c i r r s )a n d m o r e ; a n d b l t h e e l 1 b r t
ol this man, rvith thc inspiration and help of
God, merited to regain it in our time.' Dcsi-
derius imported objectsof'art lrom Constanti_
nople, called artists thehce, anclactualll. mrr11s
provision fol training Italians and others in thr
various arts.
G r e a t r e s o u r c e s w e r e a r , a i l a b l et o h i m 1 1 n
part surely fi'om the Normans), and DesidcriLrs
undertook a general re building of the monaslu.,,.
'l
in the ninth rcal of his abbacv. robb. lru
dimensioned description in Lco of Osti;r's
c h r o n i c l e l e a r . e sn o d o u b t t h a t t h e m a i n p a r t s o l
thc church and monastert, though rebuilr rn
the fburteenth centur\.and [ater, r.etainctl
D e s i d e r i u s ' s s c h e m ed o w n t o m o d e r n t i m e s . I l r
m e a n s o f p a r a l l e le x a n p l e s b u i l d i n g s o b v i o r i . -
l l . i n s p i r e d i n v a r i o u s l - e a t u r e sb \ N , I o n t e c a s s i n o '1,,f,
it has been possible to make a trustworrh\
restoration [z8o]. In roTr the church urrs ;'if :
dedicated nninto trepudio 'with the grearcsl
possible stir' in the presence of numer.oLrs z8o.MontecassinoAbbe1, restorationstud]' as ln ro75
(K.J.cl.)
r a n k i n g e c c l e s i a s t i c s k; n o u l e d g c o f i t i n s t a n t l r
sprcad f-ar, and Montecassino continued to istics were due to this influcncel and in tact naturalll' take pointed shapes' The character-
draw visitols of malk. some of these feutures are anlicipated in istic straight arrisesol thc groin vaults ol'the
1 ' h e l a 1 - o u tw a s o b v i o u s l l t a k e n f r o m O l r l existing North-Alrican work porch ol' Sant'Angelo in Forrnis [z8r] were
S t P e t e r ' ' si n R o m e [ j ] , w i t h m o n u m e n t a l s r a i r ' . F o r e x a m p l e .a b o u t l o 5 o t h e i n n e r p o r l i c o o l d o u b t l e s sf o r m e d o v c t ' d i a g o n a l m i t r e s '
propvlaea, atrium, and T-shaped basilic.r, the Great Mosque at Mahdia (Tunisia) had Abbot Hugh of (,lun1' r'isitcd Nlontccassino
t h o u g h o n a m u c h s m a l l e r s c a l e( r o u g h l l ' o n c - pointed arches and peculiar groin vaults, with in ro8l. Greatlf interestedin building (as we
third linear'; single aisle at cach side; no arrises nearly straight, as at Sant'Angelo in have seen), he, or an architect in his suite,
s c r e c n e d r e c c s s e sa t t h e e n d s o f t h c t r a n s e p r . Formis, a priory of Montecasstno. s u p p o s e t l l r t r a n s m i t t e d t h c n o r e l l e a t u r e sl t . r
which was tliapsidal; ir hcavv, stumpr. bell- Desiderius's propylaeum and church porch' C l u n l l I I , t h e b u i l d i n g o f w h i c h b e g a nb 1 ' r o 8 8 '
tower of local tvpe at the north-east corner ol each with five arches, are reported as having Unquestionabl-r- the oriental pointed arch, the
' l a n c e o l a t e 'a r c h e s o l ' \ a u l t s ' B 1 ' z a n t i n ei r n d o r i e n t a l p i n c h c d l a u l t ' i r p p r o r i -
the atrium). ^{ctual materials rvcre bror.rght fornttes spi,ul,t5
from Rome, and some ol'these were carricrl u1, with a ver-vblunt point il' they were like the nritel-v of catenarl' profile, and the straight-arris
single remaining original pointed vault in the groin rault were rationalized b-'-'Desiderius's
the great slope b1,the fhithlul an anticiparion 'fhel'
and Hugh's engineers. marked a distinct
of the cart cults o1'Gothic cathedrals. south pylon of the outer porch,r3 which I
'l'he
measured befbre the destruction porch of step forwarcl in Romanesque engineering, and
Sevcral I'catules of'Desiderius's church rvelc
Sant'Angelo in Formis,21 though later than the perhaps started the process which eventuall]'
novel, and they should be noted here. Somc ol
church of ro58-75 and more oriental in feeling, crcJtedthe nevt Gothic tlpe ol enginecring'
the builders were from Amalfi. then at thc 'fhc
is a somewhat unskilful conflation of the tll'o tbrtune ofthe pointed arch lnd vault was
summit of its powel as a widelv ramillcd
commercial republic, with stations in Cairo. porticoes at Montecassino lz8o z)' The pointed m l t l e u l t e n t h e l w e r ea p p l i e d ,t o t h c n u m b c r o l -
are
a r c h a n d v a u l t w e r e w e l l e s t i r b l i s h e di n E g l p t neirrll'two hundred, at Cluny' As f:rr as rve
Jcrusalem, Cyprus, Constanrinople, Alexln- thcre
d r i a , a n d T u n i s . T h e c i t y - ,r u i n e d s o s o o n i r ft c r ' . by the tenth centur.v' Eg1'ptian arches, eren to able to make out at present, thev went
must have sholln these oriental connexionsin this day, are constructed over a rough filling Iiom Montecassino.
carried by straight sticks forming a mitrc, and Desiderius'sporch had plaster-work decora-
i t s a r c h i t e c t u r e .I t i s o u r b e l i e f t h a t t h e n o v c l t i c : bronze
the arches, brought up to the apex ofthe mitre, tion, presumably also Moslcm, and
a t N { o n t e c a s s i n ow h i c h h a r e o r i e n t a l c h a r a c t c r -
 ,I'II}-
TWO SICII,IES J , '5
304

2 8 r a n dz8z. Sant'Angeloin Formis, fbundcd ro58, Iinishedr. ro73 5

plates fi'om Constantinople on rhe door-\,alves;
a dccorative lunette was or.cr each of the door_
wavs,in the Bvzantine manner i and the interior
was Ii'escoed in Bvzantine stvle. 'I'hus we ha,r,e
h c r e i n r o 6 6 7 . 5a n a p p o s i t i o n o f s t y - l e sl i k e t h a t
which lr'e find in Sicilv a centurv later.
In lerelling the rocky' ridgc to make a place
f b r t h e b a s i l i c a ,a t o m b u n d e r s t o o d t o b c t h a t o f
St Benedict was discovered about ten I'eetunder.
the surface. The monks at Montccassino in
thcir recent cxcar.ationshar,c corroborated this,
b u t t h e g ; r a v ew a s e m p r i e d ( i n 7 o 3 ? ) , w h e n r e l i c s
supposed to bc those of St Benedict wcre taken
to Fleury-sur-Loire afier the Lombard cleso-
lation.
'l'o
retain the ncwly--discovered tomb
untouched, the transept pavement was estab-
lished eight steps above that of thc nar.e.
I)esiderius built a cenotaph, clestroyed later,
with most of the tomb, when the high altar *rrs
moved here.
Thc paintings of the interior mav be judgcrl
b y - t h o s eo 1 ' S a n t ' A n g e l oi n F o r m i s , a D c s i d e r i a n
church (asremarked) [z8zl. Thc whole interior.
here is painted in the Cassinese style. It is
b e l i e v e dt h a t t h i s s r v l e w a s t a k e n u p b y . C l u n l :
the chapel of Berzd-la-Ville surr.ives as r
witness.l-t
'I'he
dvnamic I'eaturesof Montecassino. then.
were taken up and developed in Burgundl.
But in the main the abbey church was a con-
serr,atir,ebuilding, and the conservan\.e asDects
o l ' i t a l e r e f l e c t e di n t h e c a t h e d r a l so l ' S a l e r n ,
(dedicatedin ro84), Benevenro (rebuilt rrr.1
rz79), Ravello (by rr56), and Amalfi (Roman-
esque, to rz76; rebuilt). All are basilican.
Besides these there are many rustic rcductions
including the church of the town ture is often verl' picturesque, wherc thc work-
of the motif
manship is rustic and the air is of folk art
o f A q u i n o , w h e r c S t T h o m a s A q u i n a s * a sb o r n ,
and Minuto. On thc other hand, this architectural and
In the region therc are manv elaborate s c u l p t u r a l t r a d i t i o n w a s t h c b a s i so f t h e r e v i v a l
pulpits,rb usually of white marble rT'ith mosatc of antique st,-vlein thc works of the Emperor
rlnd opus Alerandrinum insets, in medielal Frederick Il.r; His gate at Capua (t233 4o)
. xamples dated befbre r2oo exrst
R o m a n s t - v l eE was built in Roman-stvlc ashlar and adorned
at Rarello (alter log5)' La (.ara (alier r r'1h)' w i t h c l a s s i c a lb u s t s , o f ' r v h i c h t h c P i e t r o d c l l a
-l'hev
and Salerno (between rr53 and rI8r) V i g n a i s t h e b e s t k n o w n . S u c h c l a s s i c i s mw a s
show, as does the basilicrn architectule' thrt d o u b t l e s ss u g g e s t ed b , r ' t h c a n c i e n t m e m o r i es o f
architecturally this part o('the
'I'wo
Sicilies is a C a p u a a n d t h e i m p e r i a l o l f i c e ; i t i s a w i t n es s t o
Roman province but the attentive e1'e will the catholic taste of the Emperor, and it ma)'
find Byzxntine and Nlloslem details in them' l ' e p r e s e n la l s o I r t a c l i o n a g a i n s t t h e e r o t i c '
The pulpits are parapeted platforms carricd on overblown Romanesque of Sicil-v' lt was
c o l u m n s a n d r e a c h e db 1 ' f l i g h t s o t ' s t e p s ;u s u a l l - v obliousll the training-ground lbr Nicolrr Pisano
' P c t tu s d c \ p u l i l " a u t h o r '
there is a plojection with r lecteln whele thc ( . . | 2 2 5 7 8 ) .s o n o l
rveshall
baldacchinos in
actual reading is done. XIan-'-.- ofthe classicizing lpit of rzig rvhich
p u
marble have also been preserved' Such furni- find in Pisa.
 zo
CflLPTEn

I'rALY
CENTRAL

AND THE PAPAL STATI., in 896, was rebuilt betwcen go,1 and 928 bv
ROME
Sergius III and John X as San Giovanni in
of the capital of the Empire from Laterano,without losingits rank.r It wasfurther
The removal
in the fourth century'' the barbarian dis- rebuilt alier suffcring gravely from fires in r3o8
Rome -I'he
rule of thc City as a part of the and r36r. a p s e ,t h o u g h d a m a g c d , r e t a i n e d
locations,the

'tt:Yi .*""#; B y z a n t i n ee x a r c h a t ci
Syrian P o p e
the
s ; t h e s t
pontifl.s,
r
the coming ol'Greek and
u g g l c so l l o c a l n o b l c s . t h e
and the emperors not
commune,
to mention the malaria and the burning of a part
- bulatories at the main.pavement level during
of the City by Robert Guiscard all make a
tragicstory. In such a history therc is little room
for interesting building. Architectural style re-
mained so stagnant in Rome that the church of
San Clemente, rebuilt alter Robert Guiscard's
fire of ro8a. was mistaken for the fburth-cen-
tury church on the site, until the ruins of that
building under the present church were sus-
p e c t e d( r 8 4 7 ) a n d e x c a v a t e d( r 8 5 7 - 6 r ) .
Though it figured in the military struggles of'
the Middle Ages, Old St Peter's [3] escapeddes-
truction, only to be demolished piecerneal
between r45o and 1585 to make way for the
present church. Recent excavations have re-
vealedthe history ofits apse, where the altar, iI'
present, stood until about 6oo in fiont of the
Memoria Apostolicu,asmall ancient recessat the
pavement level. By the ser,enthcentury the apse
pavement had been raised to the top of the
memoria, and the high altar cstablished abor,e
the latter. A semicircular corridor was formcd,
contiguous to the apse at the original pavement
level and giving access to an axial corridor b1'
which the memoria could be reached from be-
hind.l'I'his arrangement underlics the primitive
Lombard crypts, and contains the germ of the
arnbulatory scheme.
The cathedral of the Saviour. built under
z8l. Rome, I-atcran Church
and palace, restoration stuclv as rn r r45o (Rohault Constantine, and overthrown by an earthquake
de Fleurv)
its old ambulatory, laid out in the ninth centurl'
(or possibly' in the lburth) without radiating
chapels [2831. This august example probably
had some influence on the development of am-
the N{iddle Ages. It was destroy'edonl.v in r 876 ;
the medieval transept and navt: had been masked
b v R e n a i s s a n c ea n d B a r o q u e a d d i t i o n s .
Near by' was the Lateran Palacc, replaced in
r 5 8 5 6 . T h e v e n e r a b l eo l d c r b u i l d i n g [ 2 8 3 ] w a s
in various fbrms the papal palace for nearll'
twelve centuries, though fiom the time of'
Gregory lX (tzz7 4r) malarial conditions in
the district led to the transf'erofthe actual ponti-
fical residence to the Vatican Palace.r The medi-
eval building (resulting liom progressive re-
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p a l a c eo f t h e L a t e r a n i , g i Y e n
by Constantine to Pope N,liltiades) was much
larger than the present one, and more open in
construction. It had a great man]' rooms with
a p s i d a l r e c e s s e s ,a n d t h e s e i n c l u d e d s c v e r a l
ceremonial halls. Of all this, only' the terminal
a p s co f t h e T r i c l i n i u m s u r v i v e sa s a s o r t o f p a v i -
lion, by the ScalaSanta.+
The monastery adjoining the Lateran had a
long historl'. It was the refugc of the Bene-
dictincs of N{ontccassino, whcn their own mona-
stery was destroyed by the Lombards in -58r,
and was their first establishment in Rome. The
pretty cloister, in the Roman Romanesquc st]'le,
was built about tzz7, Pietro Vassalletto and his
s o n b e i n g t h e m a s t e r s . s ' l ' h eg a r t h , s q u a r c , h a s a
fbuntain hcac in the middle of a sarden; the
 lHl' rloLY RoMAN ['NlPIRF
168 LANDs AssoclA'lED \\'lTlllN
w a l k s . o n a l l t b u r s i d e s ,a r c n o w g r o i n - r ' a u l t e d '
'fhe
L - s h a p e t lc o r n c r p i e r s t e r m i n a t e r a n g c s o l
supports, inclucling lour oblong piers betrvccn
each pair. I classicalentablaturc with a
(irsmat-
esque liicze is carricd entirclv around the cloistcr
abore them. Each intetval betwccn t$o plcrs
has 6ve grrrcctil arches cirricd on {bur pairs ot
slentlel colunns abore a pilrapet the middle
prrirs in each case bcing twistcd. It rlas an easy'
step liom this thirteenth-centur]' work to some
o f t h e E a r l l R e n a i s s a n ccel o i s t u r s
Cosmati and Cosmatesque work, iust men-
tioned, takes its name trom a Roman family-
w h i c h f l o u r i s h e d a ft e r I r - 5 o .1 ' h c y d i d o n e s e r i -
ous work of architecture, thc portico, in the
Ionic st1'le,ol the cathedral of'Civita-Castcllana,
ncar Rome.(' rvhich is aln-rostpcrfectlv classical
in design, though built in r z r o b1 Lorenz<.rand
zfl-1.Romc. Santa\Iaria in (,osmctlin.
interior, r. r roo (rcstored)
J a c o p o C o s m a t i . I t h a s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i ct l g 1 , , t -
ative marble and mosaic ornament rvhich rr 1n
i n d e x o f t h e C o s m a t i s t - v l e .T h c l ' a n d o t l l 1 1 .
rvorking in the samc mxnner devekrptd 16.
a n c i e n t t ] ' p e o f o p u s' l l c . r t t r r t l r i n u mt s o r n i l l n r n t
fbr cloisters, pulpits, chancels, Paschal crrrl1ll1-
sticks,thrones, tombs, altars,and the likc.
'I'he
most f'amiliar t\pe ot'olrl.\ '4ltttn,ltttttrut
ilppearsin the beautilul Roman church p11c-
m e n t s . T h e v a r e m a d e o f s l a b so f w h i t e n r . r r b l e
and disks ol-colourcd marble (olien porphr 11)
w i t h l i n e s o f g o l d a n d c o l o u r e d m o s a i cs c t i n t h e
bordcring slabs as an embellishment. \bbot
Desiderius had such a pavsment maclc lbr
-N{ontecassino. A beautilul example ttnc o1'
manf in thc citl' exists at Santa Nlari:r in (.os-
m c d i n i n R o m eI i t i s d a t c d l b o u t t t o o l : \ - 1 :
s e e a l s o 2 8 5] . ;
(Ilunsen)
stud-r as in r' I roo
e85. Rome, San Clcmcntc' rcsroration

37O L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T I I I N
Cosmati work applied to church furniture is
naturally more delicate in scale than the pave-
ments, and this is true ofthe cloisters also. While
in general the columns are Corinthianesque, as
is usual everywhere in the Middle Ages, the
Ionic and Composite appear frcquently, and in
important works. Elsewhere these orders were
little used until Renaissance times. Columnar
fbrms are ordinarily much enrichcd: often the
shafts are 'Salmonic' (twisted), and straight or
spiral fluting
was regularlv garnished with
mosaics set in running designs, especially star
patterns. For a long time classicalreminiscences
were strong in Cosmati work, but it was also
used in conjunction with Romanesque themes,
as in the cloister ofN{onreale, and eventually in
Gothic designs.
Very handsome baldacchinos, sometimes in
Cosmatesque work, were made at this time.
T h e v a r e s q u a r e o r n e a r l y . s q u a r ei n p l a n ; t h e y
have four corner columns with connecting archi-
tra.r,es,above which there is a staged open-work
turret with small columns; ther. ordinarilv ter_
minate in an octagonal pvramid, with orb and
cross. f'hus a plaJ.ful 'turritus apex'took the
place of the dome which is usual in Byzantine
baldacchinos. Beautilul examples are to be seen
at San Lorenzo fuori le N{ura (rr48 ancllater),
San Giorgio in Velabro, Santa Maria in 'I'ras-
tevere, San Clemente (where the top is gabled
[285]), and Santa Maria in Cosmedin [zSa] (a
Gothic design), all in Romc. The baldacchinos
in south Italv ar Bari, for examplc lz6ql - arc
inferior in desip;n,proportion, and execution to
the Roman works, but they and the pulpits
o[icn hare a naire lush altracti\eness.
Few churches have preserved the old arrange_
ment of'stalls, namely, a chancel marked off bv
a parapet at the head of the nave. as at San
Clemente [285], with its auxiliariesof pulpits,
lecterns, and Paschal candlestick. 'I'he canons
or monks used to stand inside these enclosurcs.
though in the eler.enth or twelfth centurv sralls
began to be pror,ided, as by Gelmirez at Santiaso
ctNTRAt, ITALY 37r
THE HOLY ROMAN [,MpIRE
de Compostela. Originally- such sralls werr choir of San Clemenle' dating The church of the Santi Qyattro Incoronati
1. f h e c h a n c e lo r
stone. but wood was later introduced for 1.,,6 "'--t^,,r Rrz as already indicated' ma1 be was likewise rebuilt by PaschalII, rogg rro6
ttor" - ' or r r r2, by which time the rather stump-v cam-
fort, and canopies were built to preventdraughts atsll, because here the
r schola cantorum
T h e o l d c h a n c r .bl uilr br PopcJohn VIII 1i-.,, v^iled,
"- ' - or
' - c^ a n o n sw o u l d g a t h e r panile was finished. San Bartolomeo was also
-^in bodY of the monKs
w a s r e - u s e da t S a n C l e m e n t e . w h e n t h a t c l r r r r l \ which wassung'Suchliturgical rebuilt, about rIr3i the tower' ho$'ever,dates
lir'ri.o office, from about rzI8. San Giorgio in Velabro and
w a s r e b u i l t b y ' P a s c h a lI I . S a n t a S a b i n a a l s o l l x . t.taings from Scriptureat interr als'
l?.., ftt". Santa Pudenziana have towers which ma-vfairlv
the old choir arrangement, recentlv restoreclg ith the pulpirsuere prorided oneto 'I'he
InJfor,tt.t. be ascribed to the twelfth centur].. towers
lragments dating back to about [12.5.Occasion_ for the epistleand gospelduring
.r.ft.ia. used of Santa Maria in Cosmedin [286] and Santa
allv, in the monasteries, fald-stools (-fitnrrtrlrtst a lecternfor usein readingsdircc-
ti. rmr, and Maria in
'Irastevere
may have been built before
arententioncd; thev nrust hare becnoftcn Lrsrtl. the congregattonal space'
tedtowards
Although there was a grear deal o1'disturb_
ance in Rome during the strugglc o\rer thc In_ \laria in Cosmcdin'
2 8 6 .R o m e , S a n t a
' r2oo (reslurcd)
\.estltures, the r.igour of the Papacy.induccrl a l i 1 ; r a r ,r ' , I 2 0 . t o s c r
certarn amount of' building. Verv little recrrlls
Gregorl-VII, Victor II, or Urban II, bur sc\cral
interesting churches are connected with Paschal
II (rogg rrr8).
It was he who rebuilt San Clemente (ruintd
i n r o 8 4 d u r i n g t h e s i e g eo f t h e c i t v b v R o b e r t
Guiscard), and thc works continucd to about
rr3o. The resulting churcht [285] non h.rs
adventitious Baroque decorations, but the old
arrangements are clear. The old propl'laeurl
and atrium are not greatly changed; the orienta-
t i o n i s r e v e r s e d ,a s i t w a s i n t h e f b u r t h - c e n t L r r . r
b a s i l i c aT
. h e n a v es r i l l s h o u s l h c o r i g i n a la l r . . r -
n a t i o n 0 1 ' p i e r sa n d I o n i c c o l u m n a r s u p p o r t s . I r
'fhe
has a clerestorr. head end is triapsidal, rvith
a raised central platfbrm. The semi-dome has ir
quite lovely mosaic with patterns of'rinceaux in
gold against a dark ground, perhaps a work of'
the twelfth century. Bclow, there is a marblc
throne on the axis, with a sl.nthronon lbr lou cr
clergy extending along the apse wall to cithcr
side. l'he altar is beneath a beautiful baldac-
chino, and the celebrant, with his back to thc
throne, officiates at the west side or back ol'the
altar, looking eastward tolvard the choir in the
nave (previously mentioned) and the conlire-
gation. 1'he lront ofthe apse platfbrm is pierced,
beneath the altar, by a f'enestrellagiving upon :r
'l'he
spacefbr relics. arrangement is an unusuallr
perf'ectexample of the Constantinian disposition
of the sanctuary elements.'r
L
 LANDS ASSOCIATED WI'THIN THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRL,
cENTRAL rTAr.Y .17-l

r2oo. The tower oI SS. Gior.anni e Paolo is c h a p e lo t S a n Z e n o ( 8 z z \ , r e c e i r . e di t s

dated to rzo6, that ofSanta Ceciliato rzzo. an<l
rernri.-- I5)' well rememberednot only Pisa. Endowed with a classicalsense,and able to
m e n r o f d i a p h r a g m a r c h e si n r t . r * . t t i r , .r.tjld,.Oo46-rr
]ir- 'i)^ politicalfigure' but profit by an excellent tradition offine workman-
that of Santa NIaria Maggiore to r378. t u r l . S S . G i o r a n n i e P a o l o .b u r n e d i n ,n rgr,i'pro-papal
, :' enlighrened ruler. patronol'the arts ship, moreover, provided with good builcling
Rome has thirty-six of these campanili, all r e s t o r e d ( b y e x c e p t i o n i n t t . t - o . t r r U"' .; ,, . " , 1 t ?"'.r ,n
personalfriend ot Hildc- stone and the means to use the easily available
very true to type. The one which is most advan_ l a r g e l yb 1 H a d r i a n I V ( r r S + q , t h e o n l v S liUfopttite' the
I.,"i,'^lr Anselm She encouragedthe Lom- marble, the architects put a special stamp on a
lr tageously placed stands at rhe lbcade ol the Popc): the touer is, howerer, i" ,h.
R;;;l
ilrr'narna
and.favoured the derelopmenrof considerable number of 6ne buildings, particu-
church of Santa Maria in Cosmedin. This is an illa ,o*nt,
style, and dated rzo6.r1
1] old building incorporating a Roman corn hall.
but it is basilican; it was rhe church to which
At San Lorenzo luori le Mura a simple,
rerr
f'eschool.
ii-Europ.,
of Bologna..then
where active
amongthe greatest
progresswas being
larly churches.
Florence prospered in the age ofNlrtilda, and
austere cloister was built to. the Ci.t"r.i.n,
li and canonlaw' and in medicine' characteristic works were created there. Recent
Gelasius II was attached lrom roTg until his
about r rgo. In the monastery at St puut,, Iradein ciuil
reflect studies have brought down the very early dates
e l e v a t i o n( r r r 8 ) t o t h e p a p a c y . A l t e r G e l a s i r . r s ' s
side the Walls, a new cloisrer ,r, bu;lr
out_ Whilearchitecturedoesnot necessarily
.bout the'Roman-mindedness' ol'the ( l o r 3 , r o r 8 ) a s s i g n e d t o c o n s p i c u o u sR o m a n -
death (r r r9) Calixtus II continued repairsand
rzoo, similar to the Lateran cloister which suchconditons,
r.s made it that
natttral thc Roman esque works without disturbing the relative
embellishments. The interior, wcll restored
have mentioned.r:
qreatsovereign
lwle shouldbe rt homein her domain.It is no
w i t h a c e i l i n g an d a s c h o l ac u n t o r u m , i sa r c h a i ci n importancc ol the buildings.
The Torre delle Milizieli is a private
lbrti- - In coming to Florence we instandy encounter
l'eeling becauseol the piers in the colonnaclc
and fication dated about r2oo! or later. Nlore lessnatural given the active temper of the
the small clerestory winclows. ._fhe irrter_ - that crealive ditlerentiationsshould the controvers!' over the date o{'the Baptistery
fine pave_ e s t i n g i s t h e m i s c a l l e d H o u s e Deriod
of Rienzi, near o f S a n G i o v a n n i l r [ 2 8 7 , 2 8 8 ] ,t h e v a u l t o f w h i c h
menr darcs liom the rimc ot Gellsius or Calix_
Santa Maria in Cosmedin, a strangelv cnrbel_ .pp..t,.t theydid parlicularl]in Florenceand
tus. At the cosr ofa very folly Baroque fiontis_
lished brick tower-base where the architect ( per_
plece ln stucco, the f'agadehas been restored BaPtisterl
287.Florence, '
to h a p s a b o u t r r o o ) u s e d u n c o n r . e n t i o n a lm r u n s exterior, fifih ( ?), eleventh, and twclfth centuries
its old condition, asofabout r rzo, with a porch (partlv Moslem in inspiration?) to
enrich rhe
in front ol an open narthc\, and a chamber
design.
above. Brick is tlre constructional material,
as This completes the list of Romanesquc de_
'lhe
trsual in Rome. tower, hardly chansed in signs of importance existing in Rome, ,n.l .rn_
8oo years, has seven store_r.s abo'eihe wiidow_ p h a s i z e st h e c o n s e r v a t i v ec h a r a c t e ro f t h e c i r r i n
less shaft which reaches to the eaves line
of the a r c h i t e c t u r e .B u r g u n d i a n h a l f - G o r h i c t l i t l n , , t
church nave. Each ofthe sevenstoreys has arcad_
come in until about rz8o, and then uniquclr in
ing, u'ith the impost Iine carriecl as
a strinE Santa Maria sopra Minerra. finishetl ,1. ,
c o u r s e a r o u n d t h e ( o r l e r l e l c h s r a g ea l . o ;oo.
has a The French High Gothic is not reDrescnred
brick cornice. gr-acelirllr propor.iioned. .l.he
irt all. Br r4o: Brunelleschiand Dr.rnrrrrllo
lower storevs, logically more substantial,
have were in Rome together, studying Antiqr.rin in
f'ewer openings, and piers; the uppcr
storel,s o r d e r t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e R e n a i s s a n c e .
have triple openings with marble mia_watt
shafts. Somc of the Roman towers havc
ceramic
r n s e t s ,b u t t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s ea t S a n t a T U S C AN Y
N{ariain
Cosmedin.r(,
Florence, rvhere the Renaissance was to begin,
Santa Maria in Trastevere, with a fine tower
h a d m o n u m e n t s l e s sl a i t h f u l t o t h e a n t i o u e s r \ l e
o f r r . 1 8 , i s s t i l l e s s e n t i a l l yt h e c h u r c h b u i l t
bv than contemporary Roman *o.ks. bui hrr,llf
Innocent Il as a thankoffering lbr. his
s u c c e s s less clas.sicalin spirit. The area
covered br rhe
over the anripope Anacletus II. Ir was finished
T u s c a n R o m a n e s q u es c h o o li n c l u d e s t h e D u c l : . .
undcr Eugcne III, the first Cisrercian pope,
'Ihe Sardinia (which the Pisans conquered), irnd
about r r50. intervening Lucius II (r r44lS)
some special monuments in the northern lnd
\r'asthe restorer ofSanta Croce in Gerusalemme,
s o u t h e r n p a r t s o f t h e I t a l i a n p e n i n s u l a .E s s c n -
n e a r t h e L a l e r a n . S a n r a p r a s s e d e ,r e m a r k a b l e
t i a l l v t h e s t 1 . l ec o v e r s t h e d o m i n i o n s a n d r e p r c -
fbr ninth-century mosaics and the beautiful
sents the effective reign of the great Countess
 374 L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y RoMAN EMpTRE
cENTRAL r1'ALY 175

ol'the present huilding arc indi- sheathes the octagon o{' ro59 seems later, fbr it
construction
- mcdian ioint tliridcs thc foundation corresponds to the upper arcading on thc
Jt"a " present cathedral.
lengthwtse'
earll octagonthcre was an The latter building was planned by Arnolfo
i o t h e e a s to f ( h e
n o w . r e p r e s e n l e db 1 t h e s t r e e t . a n d h c - di Cambio about r zg6 to replace Santa Reparata.
46ium,
s t o o d ( a s b e l b r e ) t h e b a s i l i c ao f - Arnolfo's design, already started, was con-
o o n dt h e a t r i u m
Reparata, originalli' built in the sixth siderably augmented in scale about r j-55.
Santa
a long period it served as the T'hough Gothic, its interior thus became almost
century. For
The remains may be seen Roman in grandeur, and this great building
cathedral building.
an archaeological crypt which has been ar- presented Brunelleschi with his opportunity to
in
ranged near the west end of the nave at Santa construct, in r4zo 36, the first splendid monu-

Maria del Fiore, the present cathedral.
Santa Reparata was augmented in various
ways: the sanctuarlr level u'as raised; the apse
wasflanked, as commonly in Imperial churches,
by two towers. A transept and probably also a
crossing tower were built.
Beginning earlf in the eleventh century, both
churches were rebuilt on a slightly larger scale,
respecting the old locations. At San Giovanni
the core of the existing octagon was built,
replacing the earlier baptistery with a clear open
space. The u'alls sheathe an aquedtrct-like
construction bent around the eiglrt angles. The
.288.Florencc,Baptisterv, new basilica,also rvooden-roofed, was more sub-
rnterlor,supcrficiall.r'
eler.enthand trvellth ccnturies stantial but resembled the old design in many
ment o{' the Renaissance.
The Baptistery's Corinthian columnar and
pilaster orders, with entablature or arcades,and
its parti-coloured marble veneering became and
continued to be usual in the Florentine area
until the Gothic came. Parti-coloured marble,
coffered panel work, and paving slabs of great
beauty and delicacv (exemplified also at San
NIiniato, Florence) were made as time passed.
Some importation of the zebra-work of Pisa
occurred as on the corners of the Baptistery,
which befbre tzg3 showed the structural
'macigno'
stone.
The interior of the Baptistery is dignified.
Pairs of handsome free-standing columns be-

was srudied as a model fbr the .dome, ways. This work was deducirtcd in ro-59 by tween pairs ofpilasters at the angles of'the octa-
of the malll' a baptisrery would first be Gebhard of Burgundy, the Irlorentine bishop gon sustain an entablature in the lower storey.
present cathedral, the 6rst great vaultins built ar thar
enter_ time, and the familiar opinion that the
prise ot' the Renaissance. ocrason who, at the time, in Florence, was clected as the Each column or pilaster of the ground storey
was the original carhedral buildinE would reforming pope Nicholas II (ro-Sg-6r). In this has a pilaster above it, with the entablature
San Giovanni is octagonal in plan, sccrn
with an to bc unrenable. election the present rule of having the pope abo\,e serving to mark the spring of the great
oblong extension on the western side, 'I'he
where oldest documcnted remains are those (,1
f o r m e r l r t h e r e w a s a n a p s e .T h e r e a r e
e l e c t e db y t h e c a r d i n a l s a l o n e w a s i n t r o d u c e d . octagonal vault. The recessesof the aqueduct-
doors on the earlv-sixth-century basilica About the 'rear r2oo the interior of San like structural arches of the wall are masked by
the south, north, and east sides, filled of Sanrrr
respec_ Reparata. We recognized a stretch of sesnienljl Giovanni rvas giren its present charactcr and pretty bifora between marble parapets and
tively by the memorable valves of Andrea pisano
fbrrndation uall raithin the ocragon covered b-"- the existing vault. The better to parti-coloured panels. The vast mosaic above,
(tr3o) and Lorenzo Ghiberti (t4ot as rht
24, tq47 remarns of'a henricl,cle at the west end
ol. thc sustainthis r,ault, the present system ofcolumns and the extraordinary parti-coloured pavement
5z). From wall to wall it measures about go f'eet original atrium. The active bishop
Andrcrrs a n d a r c h e sw a s a p p l i e d t o t h e i n s i d e o f t h e w a l l s beneath, both belong to the thirteenth century.
English, or close to
93 Roman feet. ( 8 6 9 0 3 1 i sc r e d i t e dw i r h m o v i n g of the otlagon ol r05q, reslingon conliguotts San Miniato al Monterb [z8g grl is the most
r h e s e e ,b u i l t l -
While proximity ro the ciry wall sugglcsts
_ that ing the early octagon, and installing the f o u n d a t i o n s i u s t w i t h i n t h c o c t a g o n o f r o . 5 9 .I n remarkable Florentine basilica. It became a
the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore relics ol
mau St Zenobius, so rhat thc basilica becam.,,r the new upper structure a series o1'arches, Benedictineabbey church in ror8, and by rogo
o c c u p ) a n E a r l . r C h r i s r i a n c a r h c d r a ls i r e ,
in t.aci Pilgrimagechurch.r5 three to a typical bay, carrl' the remarkable a new church was essentially complete, though
t h e s e e w a s n o t m o r e d l i o m S a n I . o r e r r z o( a c _
Foundations show that the original octagon. cupola and the buttress-like external ribs which the fbgade was finished in the twelfth century
cording lo tlocuments broughr forward
b1 a relatir.ell small building, lackedaisles support the roofing. The exterior attica datcs and the pavement dates fiom rzo7. There is an
Franhlin Toker) until the ninth centurr,. arouri.l
Nor_ the central space. However, two episodss thc. from this period, but the arcading below which interesting open groin-vaulted crypt which en-
in
 c E N , t R A Lt T A L \ , 377

'I'ht'
navchasa seriesol-
gfls a raisedsancruary'
arcade with a mosaic above. Marble vencering
three-arched bavs with three clerestorr and the brightly painted ceiling and rrusses add
free
and tbur trussesin each,ditided br' to the colourlul effect.
lindo*r
archeson grouped piers The apse San Miniato is believed to have inspired the
dirphragrn
a decorativearcade.with a mosaicon the fbgadesof the Badia at Fiesole (late twellih cen-
f,1s

I rcoi-dome;
the fagadealso has a decorative tury, though the church was given to the Bene-

t .414:-."*

z9oand ugr. F lorcncc,San trliniato, d i c t i n e s i n r o r 8 ) , a n d t h e c o l l e g i a t ec h u r c h o l

tnterior,linished ro6z go, and plan
St Andrew in Empoli (twclfth centurl').
Smaller churches in Florence and the sur-
-f
rounding region are much simpler. hey have a
great deal of bare stone-work, but possess the
classicaldignitv and good proportion which are
generally characteristic of Florentine buildings.
a:a a a - |l' il
'I'he
year ro6z was signalized b1' an over-
'l' 1 whelming victorv of the Pisan navy in a battle o1I'
Palermo. This action marked a 6nal successin a
l long war against the SaracensofSicily, whom the
a : : :: : a a a
llr
zl!9. Florcncc,.SanMiniato, llEade, -I -T F I f ' a l
ro6: and twelfih centurr t Pisans, with the Genoese, had fought to a stand-
still in Sardinia. and driven fiom that island.
 IRAL ITAI-Y 379

Pisans began tion of three basilicas, each with a galler-v: the

'- 'ro following year' 1063' the
great double-aisled nave is intersected b1' a
.ll l,."t"raUtecathedral ltg' +l' The fbund- minor
transept formecl of two single-aisled
stte'
llt""r the churchwerelaid in an open front to front, with the domed cross-
--. "t oaptistery basilicasset
( r r 53 ff')'
--^ ^ lqrEe ftee-stanolng t h e m Each
b e t w e e n l z g 5 l
andcamPoSanto(r278ff') i n g o f t h e g r e a t n a v e
#;';i;;;- tr')' provided with an apse
make examplcs
finest of oflhe minor basilicas was
ffii i, to :l'.:f .tht outward extremit-v, and with
tJl"t* buildings of its own at the
cathedralbuildings'All the i t s i n u a r d e n d ' T h c s c rel urned
returned a i s l e sa t
with marblepanelling'arcading'and
lr. t*.0 with the inner aisles ofthe great
thel hare weatheredbeautifully' aisles coalesce
Li-nra.r, basilicas' and
to rhc nave, screen off the transeptal
l;;;t standas a splendidmonumenr lbr the oval dome (on
plovide extra support
PisanrePublic'1;
*rna.ut of the or squinches an<1 shallow pendentives) at the cross-
" lh..r,h.dttl wasdesignedby Buschetus galleries
began in earnest about ing. The aisles are groin-vaulted; the
Boschetto.Building are covere<lin wood. Except at the
extremltles'
.t.or,t".tation was perfbrmedby Gelasius
lo=ig. galleries arc continuous around
westward the aisles and
ii"in ttta. A fairly homogeneous
nave by Rainaldus was not the building.
,*t.nrion of the have
The plan is an elabora- Like man-v othcr great sttuctures which
nnirft.a trrr:Jl126r-72' cathedral ofPisa
initiated u group or school, the
the conjunc-
tion ofthe basilicanlayout really
zgzandzgj. PisaCathedral, ro61, ro8g r:72
tob3 t35o
zg4.Pisa,cathedralgroup from the air'
 C E N T R A LI ' T A L Y 3 d r
38o

zg5. Pisa Cathedral, Io63, rolil rzTz 296.Scctionsof baptisterics:

,r. Pisa,r r.5-j i265,
comparativehall-scctitlnslvith hall-plans
n. Parma, I r96, section'rvith Plan

aa.a r:1 .-:a-! E

f.,f-

L'.l
Fr-

::?

is, within an embracin!i unity, stvlistically,com-
p o s i t e . I t s b e a u t i l u l l v s h e a t h e dm a r b l e e x t e r i o r
has decolrti ve arcadesand pilaster rirngeswhich
were probirbly suggested from Rome and
Florence, rarher than (as has been suggesred)
ii'om Armenian works remote in time and place,
and dillelent in design. I'he lbur-sroried arcad-
ing ofthe faQade,Iinished in the thirteenth cen-
turv, probably' reflects Lombard lree-standinE
gallerr worl. Such arcading in marble, free-
standing or applied, becomesthc sign manual
of the Pisan school, especialll when accom-
p a n i e d w i t h s q u a r e p a n e l s s e t p o i n r u p r v a r d si n
-l'he
the tlmpana of the arches. n a v e a r c a d eo f '
the chulch is sct on a magnificentrangeofanti-
q u e c o l u m n s , p u r e l v R o m a n i n s t y l e, w i t h s l a b -
like impost blocks. f'he upper parr of the nave
has zebra u'ork (ultimately inspired from the
classical olur mittum) which becomes onlv too
'luscan
I-amiliar in Romanesque and Gothic.
A pointed triumphal arch terminatesthe navc.
b u t t h e r r c h e s b e v o n d a r e r o u n d , a n c lt h c m o s a i c
o f t h e a p s ei s c l e a r l y i n t h e B v z a n r i n e t r a d i t i o n .
T h e b a p t i s t e r y , d e s i g n e db 1 ' D i o t i s a l v i [ 2 9 . 1 ] ,
h a s l e m i n i s c e n c e so f R o m a n a n r i q u i t y , a n d o t
thc Holl Land, to which the Pisan merchanr
marine was transporting crusaders and pilgrims
at the time of its construction. 'fhe scheme is
l i k e t h a t o f t h e R o t u n d a o f t h e A n a s t a s i si n
Jeru-
s a l e m ,b u t t h e d e t a i l i s P i s a n , a n d t h e i n t e r i o r i s
vaulted. The original vault is a truncared cone,
w i t h i t s e r e n o w c l o s e d ;t h e o u t e r v a u l t ( l a t e r )i s
a dome Iz96,r ]. Both tvpes of'roof , in wood, har-e
protected the Anastasis. The older carving on
the building is very beautiful, and r,erv classical
i n s p i t e o f i t s d a t e ( r r 5 3 a n d l a t e r ); N i c o l a P i s a n o
participated in the remodelling of'the exterior
i n t h e G o t h i c s t y l e( r z 5 o 6 5 ) . t N
The great Pisan belfr.v Iz9z] is c1-lindrical like
the old belfries in Rlvenna, but much morc
elaborate, being faced rvith marble and embcl-
lished with six storel's of decorative malble
g a l l e r ya r c a d i n g .U n l b r t u n a t e l y i t w a s b u i l t w i t h
insufficient lbundations on ground ot unc\cn
resistance, and was carried fbrward in spite ol'
early settlement. Loading the uppel side and
bending the shaft (which as a result has some-
w h a t t h e s h a p eo l a b ; r n a n a )u e r e u n a r a i l i n gt o
arrest progressile deliation fiom the perpen-
d i c u l a r ,a n d t h i s h a s o n l r t t c c n t l r b e e ns t o p p e t l
by a modeln fbr.rndationThe building is con-
s i s t e n ti n s t v l e w i t h t h c b a p t i s t e r . va n d t h e c a t h e -
dral, although cal'ried fbrward as late ts t27r
( b y G e r a r c l o ) . T h e m o t i f i s c s s e n t i a l l yt h a t o f
the galleried fbgade ofthe cathedral envcloping
'I'he
the cvlindrical shali of the tower' bcll
chamber at the top dates fiom about r35o' As
thus linished the torver is r79 f'cethigh, and it ts
slightly' more than thirteen f'eetout of plumb'
'Ihe
Campo Santo [:94] is the lburth of thc
great buildings in thc cxthedral closc at Pisr.
and it is said that the earth coveringthe garth is
i n d e e dh o l y , h a l i n g b e e nb r o u g h t f r o m P a l e s t i n e
as ballast in Pisan ships Although the fianrpo
Santo was largel-vbuilt (b1' Giovanni di Simone)
in rz78-83, and has Italian Gothic archesxnd
tracer]',it is laid out like an clongatcd classical
a t r i u m . L a t e r i t w a s t l c c o t ' a l e du i t h t a m o u s l i e s -
c o e s .w h i c h m a d e i t l i k c a c l a s s i c a ls t o a p o e c i l e '
I n p a s s i n go n e s h o u l d n o t e t h a t t h e t t o r t l t t r i u m
came to metrt ((ttt(lcr.)tin medie\al Latin' Both
t h e u s a g ca n c lt h e a r ' c h i t e c t u r ea r e m c d i e r a l i z e d
in this lerr beautiful examplc (It sullered
greatlv in the Second World War')
In the citv, thc chlractcristicswhich rvehave
n o t e d i n t h e c a t h e d r r r lg r o u p a r e f u r t h e r c x e m -
 3E2 L A N D S A S S O C T A T E D\ [ ' I T H I N T i l E I I O L y R O M A ^ * E M p t R E
c E N T R A Lr r l r _ v
393

b ; r s i l i c a si n t h e P i s a n s t t l e T h e r e m a i n i n g s i t e i s n e a r S i e n aa l s o ,n a m c l r . .
man) wooden-rooled
g thcse \\e ma\ menlion San
w e r e b u i l t . A m o n'forrcs
San Gimignano, which still has thirteen tall
Porto (late eleventh centur-Y towers (out of' 48, or tladitionall.r'76) which
Gar,ino at 'double-ender'),
r r r r ; b - v e x c e p t i o n a the were raised as prir,ate fortilications liom the
to t.
d i S a c c a r g i aa t C o d r o n g i a n r t s(r r t6 and t w e l f t h c e n t u r v o n w a r d I z 9 7 l . S u c h t o w e r . si r l s o
Triniti
,. rrSo-r2oo), and Santa NIaria di Castcllo at servc as refuges fi'om the Iiequent conflagra-

Caglialrt(r. r zoo-r. r 3oo). tions which dcsolated the wood-built and

297 San Gimignano, gcncrrl r.icu of torvcrs,
I a r g e l i t s c l t i h t n ( l ( h t r l c ( . n ( lct c l l u r i c s
plified. San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno (begun about
rzro) is a smaller and sercrer r.ersionof the
great chur.ch. The r erv much be_str.ipedancl
be_
pinnacled miniature chur.ch of Santa N1aria
d e l l a S p i n a ( a t h o r n f i o m t h e c r . o w no f t h o r n s ) .
r . 1 2 57 . s h o u s h o u s o m e l h i n g o l t h e s p i r i r o l .
t h e ( . a t h e d r r l R o m a n e s t l u el i v c r l o n i n T u : c a n
Gothic.1"
L u c c a h a s a b e a u t i f i r ls e r i e so f c h u r c h e si n t h e
P i s a n s t y l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e c a t h e d r a lo f s a n N t a r _
t i n o , r l h i c h , t h r o u g h i r s p o s s e s s i o no f t h e , \ ' o l t o
Santo' lrom the eler,enth century onwar.d, be_
c a m c a p l a c eo f ' p i l g r i m a g e .T h o u g h r h e i n r e r i o r
ofthc church is Gothic, our architectural interest
is in the Pisan Romanesque I'aqade,rvith a nar.-
t h e x , d a t e d a b o u t r z o 4 . S a n N I i c h e l e ,a l s op i s a n .
dates lrom r r43 to the lburteenth centurv. San
F l e d i a n o . | | | z . 4 j . h a s a s t r i k i n g m o s a i ct n r h .
f a g a d e ,a n d i s m o r e R o m a n . A l l a r e b a s i l i c a ni n
scheme, and employ marble, as is usual in
1'uscanv.2o
'I'he'
expansion olthe Tuscan school was r erl
considerable. In Sardinia it is found with litrlc
c h a n g e . r rA n E a r l v C h r i s t i a n d o m e d c r u c i f o r m
c h u r c h s u r v i v e s ,i n p a r t , i n S a n S a t u r n o , C a g l i a r i
( f i l i h c e n t u r . r) , a n d t h e r e a r e r a r h c r r o u s h
larcl
e x a n r p l e si n t h e s a m e s r y l e , s . e l l r . u u l t . d . B u r
from the eleventh to the fourteenth centur\
On the mainland the Pisan Romancsque
spreadfar bevond the boundaries of'the Re-
public. The style is exemplilied in parts of the
cathedralofGenoa ( r r gg and later) ; at Pistoia in
the church of San Giovanni luor civitas, trvcllih
c e n t u r y ( t h r e e s t a g e so f P i s a n a r c a d i n g o n t h e
'Pieve'
long flank ofthe church) ; at Arczzo in the
or parish church (ranges ofcolumnar galleries on
the laqade of the church, above an applied
arcadei in stone, Izr6). Massa N{arittima
Cathedral was built, still in the Pisan Roman-
e s q u es t y l e , i n t z z S - 6 7 . O t h c r e x a m p l e sa r e S a n
Giusto at Bazztno in the Abruzzi, and, firlther
o n , t h e c a t h e d r a lo f ' ' l ' r o i a i n A p u l i a ( r o g t t o t h e
thirteenth centur,v) rvhich wc har c alreadr'
seen22[z7ol.
Before quitting central Itall w'e should men-
tion three sites ofspecial interest. At the abbey
of Sant'Antimo, near Siena, a Burgundian-
looking church with apse, ambulatory', and
radiating chapels, embellished, too, rvith sculp-
ture in the Toulousan st.vle, was begun about
I I I 8 . B u r g u n d i a n a r c h i t e c t u r a li n l l u e n c eb e f b r e
the arrival ofthc Cistercians is almost unheard-
o f , a n d S a n t ' A n t i m o i s n o t w e l l e x p l a i n e d .I t w a s
not Cluniac.ri At San Galgano betwcen Siena
a n d M a s s a M a r i t t i m a t h e C i s t c r c i a n sb u i l t t h e i r
chief house in Tuscanl'. The chulch there (al-
readvmentioncd) datesft'om rzz4.
crorvdcd citics of the time. At San Gimignano,
a s e l s e w h e l e ,t h c t o w e r s a r e s q u a r e i n p l a n , a n d
rise sheer with no ornament and ver]. f'ew open-
i n g s . S u c h i n d i v i d u a l c i t a d e l s , r v e rb
eu i l t i n g r e a t
n u n b e r s d u r i n g t h e i n t e n s e s t r u g g l e sa n d c o m -
petitions of medio,al cir,ic lif-e. At San Gimi-
g n i r n o t h e t o w e r s o f t h e S a l v u c c i a r c a s c r i b c dt o
the twelfth ccntury. The Palazzo Comunale
( 1 2 8 8 1 3 - 2 3 )h a s a t o u e l r 7 . 3 f - e e th i g h r v i t h a
mark bel.ond which private towets might not
rise.:r
Florence is reported to havc had r5o such
'rose
t o r v e r s ,a n d L u c c a
like a lbrest'. As the
desolatedcities werc rebuilt. better construc-
t i o n , w i t h g r e a t c r u s e o l ' m a s o n r 1 "i n t h e h o u s e s ,
rendered the towcrs less necessarr. Because of
t h c i r c o n s i d e r a b l eb u l k a n d t h e i r t e n d e n o t o t i p
when not well fbundcd. almost all the towers
have now been destrol'ed- 81, erception, thc
t o w e r o f t h e A s i n e l l i l - a m i l y( r r 0 9 - r g ; 3 z o I'eet
high; foul feet out of plumb) and the Torre
G a r i s e n d a( r r r o ; t e n fcetout of plumb; never
finished) irre to bc seen in Bologna, which
formerlr had about t8o privlte touers.
O f t h e C o u n t e s sM a t i l d a ' s a n c e s t r a lc a s t l eo n
a rockl' f'astncssnear Reggio Emilia Canossa,
so much in thc news of ro77 - practicallvnoth-
ing rcmains. In generll thc tbltifications of the
r e s i o n a r e r - e r vn u c h l a t e r i n d a t e .
 zt
CHAPTER

I1'ALY
NORTHERN

tine originals, and were ttansmitted, as wc have

V E NI C E
seen, to Saint-Irront at P6rigueux. A Bl.zantine
with thc Bvzantine East church sould probablv not have large mosaic
Constant rel'ltionships
a r c h i t e crure a Blzantine cast subjects on the pier rvalls, below the spring of
qaue Ven.tiun
" w h i c hi s a . . " . i l ] p c r e e p t i b l ea s t h e c l a s s i c i s mo l ' the vault, but otherwise the decorative scheme
'l'he
runs true to tvpe' marble veneer of the
This shows itself most fulll'
Rome and Tus.anr'.
Marco'r begun in Iob3' not interior, now patinated to a beautiful soft brown,
in the church of San
s e a t b ut asthe ducal chapel; it is is actualll- made of slabs which werc almost white
a st h e b i s h o p ' s
for relics of thc Evangelist St Mark' when applied. Much of thc furniture of the
the shrine
in 828, and churcl-r is Byzantine in style also.
brought to Venice from -{lexandria
church after 976 The old N o ' s c h o o l ' d e l e l o p e do u t o l t h e e o n s t t ' u c t i o n
housedin a cruciform
in thePiazza, which tell in r9oz, and u'as ofSan N{arco in Venice''l'he building, bcautiful
tower
as it was, had ver.vlittle direct efect a sure sign
afterwards rebuilt, lvas associated with this
t h a t i t s r r r c h i t e c t s$ c l e B l z i r n t i n e ' r n d o u t o l '
building. The ncrv church o(' lo63 w''rs dedi- 'l'he
touch with Italy. B y z a n t i n c m o s a i c i s t s ,n o t
cated in rog5, but it was not linished with its
mosaicembellishment until wcll into the twelfth so f'arremoved in sentiment, rverc more influen-

century. As first built, it was almost purely tial.

Byzantine in st-vle,and undoubtedl-v due in large
oart to Byzantine architects and craf tsmen The
standard of workmanship is verl' high, espe-
cially for the time.
The church is a good example of'the t-vpe
known as the
'cross ol domcs' or composite
cruciform five-domed church, for it has five
d o m e d u n i t s s o c o m b i n e d ( u i t h i r p s el n ' 1 n a r c
extension) as to mark a gleat cross in ground-
plan. This was thc'rrrangement of Justinian and
Theodora's imperial mausoleum church of the
Holy Apostles in Constantinople, and Justi-
nian's church built at tl-retomb of St John the
Evangelist in Ephesus, both of which hirve been
destroyed. San N1arco difters from the original
in lacking a gallerl', in h:r'r'ing the sanctuary in
'Il Santo' (the church of'Sant'An-
At Padua
tonio) lr a s l a i d o u t ( r 2 3 I ) i n s o m e l v h a tt h c s a m e
* a 1 ' , b u t i n t e r i o r l y - f a c c dw i t h h a n d s o m ea s h l a r ,
and cxteriorly carried out with l'ombald brick-
work and detail'[zg8' 299]. At Torcello, Santa
Fosca (perhaps d ated I o r i ) is a much Italianized
version, with exterior gallcries, of'a centralized
B1'zantine squinch church t5'pc Perhaps therc
is something of Bl.zantine subtlcty in the hand-
s o m eb u t s i m p l e b a s i l i c a nc a t h e d r a l( 6 ' 1 r, r e b u i l t
in 86+ and again about Ioo8)' The serenein-
t e r i o r i s s t i l l a r r a n g e d a s D e s i d e r i u s ' s b a s i l i c aa t
Montecassino was. The torvcr beside it is very
elegant, and enriched with tall dccorative irrcad-
' o m b a r d ' b u t r e l a t e dt o
ing, which is essentialllL
B1-zantine work. It recalls the original shape ot

the eastern limb ol the cross (rather than cen- t h e t o w e r o f S a n N l a r c o o n t h e P i a z z ai n V e n i c e ' '
t r a l ) ,i n h a v i n g w i n d o w s i n t h e d o m e s c o r e r i n g Pelhaps something of'the eleganceofthc church
t h e l i m b s o l ' t h e c r o s s ,a n d , o f c o u r s e , i n t h e l a t e r at Mur ano (a crucilbrm building with a beautt-
about
additions of pointed and Renaissancest1.le'The fully arcacledrnd gallelied apse, finished
fiom thc B-vzantinc contxcr also'
proiecting pierced piels go back to the B1'zln- t I.1o) comes
zgli. Padua,Srnt'-{ntonio, bcgun rz-lr
 386 L A N D S A ^ S S O C I A T I DW T T H I N
THE HOL}- ROM,{N
EMPIRI

N o R T H E R Nr r . r r _ v jg7

Romanesque,$ orks to the pcl'iod of the u , a su n d o u b t e d l y v e r y i n f l u e n t i a l . T h e p l a i n

old
cristing -,
and alterwa,ros M o n k s ' T o u c r b e s i d eS a n r ' . \ m h r . o c i o in \lilan
-Lflgue
its allurial character. the region
W c a u s eo f [ . 1 o 2| i s o n e o f t h c o l d e s t n o r v i n e \ i s l e n c c ( r e n rh
i n brick. The clar burns to enchanting century) though the belfrf is modcrn. San
builds
browns tn the ceslern pall o, thc
dnls and Satiro in l\{ilan has a characferistic cxamnle.
dley, a n d t o full, beauti[ul. brighr. rich reds in d a r e d r o 4 3 r a r h e r .t h a n c o n l e m p o r a n e o u s l _ur i r h
region about Nlilan. Sout'ces of'stone are, the church. Belfl.ies multiplied in the eleventh
dre
\erl remote, and eas-tcom-
h O W e v e rn. e v e r centurv becauseof improvements in bell castins.
municadon made it possible to use that material a n t l i n c r e a s eo f m e a n s m a t l e i t p o s s i h l cf o r r n r n ,
freely, often in combination with blick. The churcltesto hare sets ol bclls. Conspicuous
g1oneis rather grey and grittv; hence, lor better. a m o n g t h e t v p i c a l L o m b a r d t o w e r s o f e a r l 1 .d a t e
marble and breccia (also obtainable) N'ere
311ect, and mature design is that of pomposa (ro63),
'fhough
usedwhen the means allowed it. Vene- built by Abbot Guido of Ravenna
[3or]. It has
thn architecture was littlc imitated, the gaiety of' nine stap;es,marked by pilaster strips, applied
Venetiancolour and rich matelirrls had its eli'ect shaf-ting, and arched corbel rables. Orieinallv
on the mainland design. t h e o p e n i n g s o n e a c h s i d e i n c r e a s e df , . , r - o n c
Architecturally, as we har,e scen, rhe rcgion narrow loophole at the bottom to tbur generous
had international importance bt the year 8oo. arches in the bellil-.-1
Its style of that time, the Lombardo-Catalan While within the Po Vallev onc f'eels Lom-
First Romanesque, did not change mr.rch as it bardy as a great corridor, in the north one is
matured. It was used in larger, more substantial conscious of the radiating mountain pirssesand
buildings of much better workmanship, with the reflex influences {r.om Germanic lands. l.he
zgg. Padua, Sant'.{ntonio, more ambitious vaults, and enriched br, more
begun rz.1r Lombard belfry r'25 represented on the pied_
elaborate mouldings, galleries, ancl sculptural montese cathedrals of Ivrea and Aosta bv the
Rut the lict that the Lombard rnotifs, but it shows little trace of outside in- e a r l r e l e r c n t hc e n t u r ) . T h e r e i s a f i n e e x a n r p l c
stvle floocleclin so fluence.
close ro San l{arco in dor ton'ards Spain, Irrance, of paircd bclfn rouers on lhc church of
Venicels S*itzcrland, and
artistic maturity ofnorth n;.;;';; Gcrmant. Two striking features do,eloped, horveyer: Sant'Abbondio ar Como in north Lombardv
ltalv_ the squarebelfrl rower, and the rib vauh.
A magnificent rotv of Ot' | 3 o o l . h r e p l a c e d a n i n t e r e s r i n gE a r l y C h r i s r i a n
towns existetl crcn in
a n l i q u i r vj n r h c p o | a l l e 1 courseRoman towers stubby tlrrre.s- had been
. \ f t e r a d c c l i n e ,r r , r , l e structure which has been traced by excavation.
LOMBARDY derelopcd antl ther.increased built in Lombardi. Thc scricsof monumcnral 'fhe
greatll in poprrl.t_ n e w c h u r c h , b u i l t o f s t o n e , w a sb e g u n a b o u t
t t o n a n d u r b a n c o n s c i o u s n e s ^_i ^ church towers appears to begin wirh
Thegreat alluvial plain particularlr in San ro63 and dedicated in ro95.r,The deep sanc-
of the po and rhe Adige r . o r e n z oi n M i l a n ( a b o u r
whicl l_ombardv lies the eleventh and twelfth 4oo. later rcr.r exten- tuarv has two bavs ofrib vaulting and a ribbed
is r.evealed br a mere c e n t u r i e s .s o t h a l r h c l
11 uere capable of conlionring sively rebuilt). The church,
rt the map as a narural F r . e d e t . i c kl t r r r _ a qurrrefbil, has apse; lateralll' there are two groined ba1,sto each
9r"l-._. corridor. Th. t; b a r o s s aw i t h t h e i r L o m b a r d four corner torvers, with pr-oiecting
itselfis navigable lrom Leaguc (r r(rS g.l) apses be- s i d e a t t h e e n t r a n c eo f t h e s a n c t u a r l ' ;e a c hh a s a n
near the .onflu.rr.. ui,hJ t w e e nt h r e e o f t h e p a i r s . T ' h i s
River Sesia,for whenthatEmperorsoughrrorcgarn s c h e m eo f a n a p s e apsein the thicknessof the wall, and oler this
337 miles to rts mouth. This rvas r.ighru s hir.h b e t w e e na t o w e r p . i , * u . t a k e n
a great aid to trade in n a d l a p s e dd u r i n g r h e p e r . i o d up in Germany p a i r o f l i t t l e s a n c t u a r i e so, n e a t e a c hs i d e .t h e t a l l .
the Middle -tg"r, ,lr.n o l . p a p a la n t l i r n _ (Fulda, about
land transport was so perral anarchv. 7go. and manj orhers subsc- acti\e bulks of the belfrl rowers rise. The
dilicult. Ur.l,lrn. V.ri." quenrly).
connected Lombardl, I n L o m b a r d - t .t h c o l d e r church has a dignilied basilicrn lbq:adeand a
u,ith southcrn Italv and Romanesque buil(1,
lnFs prcsenr difticulr It is the tall Lombard tower built specificallv
the Near East. A system chronological p.ohl.n,.. generous clerestory in the nave rvhich, like the
of Alpin. purr...*rl as a belfry, with pilaster strips
ring upon Milan facilitared There are two schools and .o.b.l ,"b1.. d o u b l e a i s l e s ,i s r o o f c d i n w o o d . I t i s w e l l k n o w n
o f ' a r c h a e o l o g i c atlh o u g h r
c o n n e x r o n sw i t h r h e ils decoration,
North. We ha-vealready one inclincd ro stress which appears to otle something as a typical example of the use of'decorative
seen how ar.chitcctur.al cu.ly exumplc. :;r.,1,_
p o s e d l v t r a c e a b l et o to Rome, the
toeas moyed from t h e e l e \ . e n t hc e n t u r l : t h c Exarchare, ancl thc B-rzanrines. applied shafting, pilaster strips, and corbel tables
Rar.enna through this The great betfiv of Old St Peter's in Rome,
corri- othel inclined ro assign built
f h e g r . c a t e r . r h r , . ., , , fbr articulation of'the dcsign, and fbr the enrich-
into the propl'laeum
range [3], largel-r-in 755 6s, ment of the wall surface. The wooden roofine of'

E
 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
188

from the wcst

the nave is both archaic and prophctic; for alter ample is claimed against conservative protesl church and tower' Io6j'
PomPosa'
f o r t h e c h u r c h o f S a n G i a c o m o i n C o m o ( ro r ; ; 3ot.
the carthquake of'rrr7 manv fine naves wcre
roofed on wooden truss-work to ar,oid the risk of t try).i
falling vaults. W e n o w t u r n t o a c o n s i d e r a t i o no f L o n r h 1 1 6
In passing, the trefbil plan lnd the vaults of rib vaulting, a much rnorc difficult subjecr 11
San lredelc at Como should bc mentioned, fbr involves some qucstions of-date and scopc 61'
thesearc said to have been influenced lrom thc i n f l u e n c e sw h i c h m a y n e v e r b e s o l v e d , b e c a u s s
north. The aislesare carried entirely around the of'lost monuments.
t r o n s e p t s r o t h s r l ' i a p s i d a lc a s t e n d , p e r h a p s i n For us it is sullicient to say that about lo5o
partial imitation of St Mary in Capitol at there was, ovel a wide area, stretching all the
C o l o g n c ( r o 4 5 6 5 ; s o m e w h a tl e b u i l t l ; r t c r ) . 1 ' h e rvay from Armenia through the Near Easr to
date of San Fedelc apparently' fhlls, fbr most of Italy, Spain, and lirance, a eireat interest in rib
i t s p r e s e n ts t r u c t u r e ,i n t h e c a r lI ' t r v e l f t h c e n t u r v . ribbed tunnel, domical
v a u l t s o ( ' r ' a r i o u ss o r t s
I f s o , S a n F e d e l eh a sa n e a r l \ e x a m p l eo f t h e d e - o r c l o i s t e r ,r i b b e d g r o i n , a n d c o m p o u n d v a u l t s .
veloped Lombarcl caves gallerl' which we havc The original impulse was Byzantine (thc dome
notcd previously at San Nicola in Bari. The of St Sophia is the lirst ambitious ribbed rault);
earliest definitell- datcd. fully der,eloped ex- h t e r t h e i d e a w a s t a k e n u p b l ' t h e N l o s l e m sa n d

3oo. (lomo, Sant'-\bhondio,

r . r o 6 3 9 5 , s o u t hf l r n k

4
 3go LANDS.{ssoclATED WITHIN THL fiOLY ROM-\N EMPIRE
used successfirlly though sporadicalll' by them.
The Armenians first applied it systcmaticallv
to church architecture, beginning early in the
seventh century. Trdat, the Armenian architect
who repaired the r,aultof'St Sophia about 975,
was one ofthe innovatorsin the'Second Period
ol'Bloom' of'Armenian architecture. Afierwards
(perhaps in the eleventh cenrury:) the Arme-
nians der,eloped (especiallv for nartheces) a
cler,er compound vaulr with thc r.ibsarranged in
plan like a prinrer's sign for space (f ). 'fhe
narthex of the church at Casale Monf'errato, so
arranged, but dated about rzoo, is late enough
to show Armenian influence of'this sort operat-
i n g t h l o u g h t h e C r u s a d e s ,b u t i r i s n o t p o s s i b l e
to trace definite influence from Armenia either
at the critical rime (about roso) or upon the
critical form (groin vaulting).t At most, oriental
contacts mal har,e stirred thc originalitv of
W e s t e r n b u i l d e r s , a n d l e d t h e m t o d e r el o p t h e i r
o w n e s s e n t i a l l \R o m a n i n h e r i r a n c .e
'l'raccs
of a Lombard ribbed groin vaulr
claimedfor ro4o existin the ruined older part of
t h e f o r m e r a b b e l ' c h u r c h o 1 ' s a n n a z z a r oS e s i a
( n o r t h - w e s t o l N l i l a n a n d N o r a r a ) .T h e o r i g i n a l
church, reported as fbunded in ro4o. has becn
r e p l a c c d .b u t t h e r e a r e r e m a i n so f a b r i c k n a r t h e x
with two-storer groin-r'aulted aisles flanking an
o p e n n a v e , a n d c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n st h a t t h e t r i b u n e
was (as at V6zelay, about rr4o) carried across
t h e o p e n n a v ea t t h e e a s te n d o f ' t h e n a r t h e x . O n l v
t h i s a x i a l t r i b u n e b a v h a c lr i b s , a n d t h e v r e s t e d
on terracotta capitals of archiac lbrm. Herring-
bone work and pebbles in the construction also
give it an archaic air. Such wall-work usualll'
indicates a ninth-, tenth-, or earlv eleventh-
century date. Restoration work has shown that
this wall was not integral, and that the narthex
may be of the twelfth century. While Sesia is
on the border of the Milanese area, the first
Lombard ribbed groin vaults were most prob-
ably built farther east, in or near Milan."
In view of Nloslem rib constructions. it is
w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t t h e p i e r s a t S : r n n a z z a r oS e s i a
are rather like Moslem piers turned thron[\ interior.buttresses rising from the
f o r t r - f i r e c l e g r e e sA
. gain, the aisle and rrih,.11," Theshaft-like
p i e r s s o m e t i m e s .c a l l i e d d i a p h r a g m
vaults still existing have strongh'salient ar.rises ooup.a
* h i . t l u r t h e r e m p h a s i z c dt h c b a v c o m -
I n t h e o b l o n g g r o i n v a u l r b r i d g i n g r h e n a r c , 1l " irches.
T h u s - t h e w a v w a . sp r e p a l c d l b r l a r g e
addition ofdiagonal ribs produced a much bctter I'osition.
Ilurt. u r 1..of groin vaulting' resembling in
s y s t e mo f i n t e r s e c i o n s a n d m a d e t h e v a u l t e a s i c r
thc large raults ot thc Basilica of
-, JM*r. * r n* tryi ut .
ro construct, in addition ro enriching it. Odcllr
and Constlntine and thc rhermll
cnough ar Vezela) the high raulr aborr rhe
in Rome'
establishments
tribune actually has diagonal ribs also, thougtl fiom
The square vaulted bays, inherited
the other bays do nor (dated about rr.lo); ar history in the cr1'pts,
Rome, begin their medieval
Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, as well, the narthex
quadtille (as in Moslem
where they are used en
h a s r i b s , t h o u g h t h e o t h e r b a - v -o
- sf t h e a t r i u m men-
work). Agliate, near N1ilan [65], already
(dated about rog8) do not eleventh-century ex-
tioned, has an archaic
Note should be taken that Ivrea Cathedral. i t s e l f i s in rubble, with
ample. T h e r a u l t i n g
twenty-fir'e miles from Sannazzaro Sesia, .nas these are
erchesbetween the bays. In earll'' work
rebuilt after 96z and before r oo r on a large scalc, ,disappearing arches'at their base, for the im-
and with an ambulatorr'. Without minimizing
post blocks of the columnar supports were
the importance of the mountain barrier, rvc mat
relatively small, and wall responds were shallow
sa) that the interr,ening Kingdom of Arlcs
or lacking. For the arches belween bays ol'
united lather than divided Lombardl. and
a i s l ev a u l t i n g i n t h e c h u r c h e s , t h e p r i m i t i v e T -
France, for by the year r ooo very interesting and
shaped grouped nare-arcade pier developed
clever structural work (including a remarkable
spontaneousl!'!since there \rcre three arches 1br
n a r t h e x ) w a s d o n e i n t h e L o m b a r d s t 1 - ' laet S a i n t -
it to support. When transverse diaphragm arches
Philibert, Tournus, scarcely 25o miles norrh-
w e r ep l a n n e d r o s p a n l h e n a r c . l h e r e u c r e f o u r
west from the Nlilanese area. William of Diion,
a i c h e st o s u p p o r l . a n d t h e p i e r t h e r e u p o n q t t i t e
who did such important architectural work at
naturally developed a cruciform plan (SS' Felice
Saint-B6nigne(roor-r8), came from Volpiano e F o r t u n a t o ,V i c e n z a , . . r o o o ; L o m e l l o , . ' r 0 2 5 '
(forty miles distant) and Novara (only twenrl' with diaphragm arches resembling Carolingian
miles distant from this same region). Hovrer.er, flying screens; San Carpofbro, Comtl' rozE
t h e s ew o r k s a t T o u r n u s a n d D i i o n d o n o t p o s s c s s
4 o ; r 0c o m p a r e S a n N l i n i a t o a l N l o n t e , F l o r e n c e
rib vaults, and would seem to show that the
[z9o], where the applied elements are round,
Lombard ribbed groin vaulr doesnot date back r. lobz ff.). Further development in the rault
to the earll years ofthe eleventh centur]-. suggestedthe addition oflogical elements in the
In Lombard churches the aisle arches arc piers. Nook sha(ts on the diagonal appeared
ofien paired, with an intermediate column be- when diagonal ribs were introduced.
t w e e n t h e s u c c e s s i v ep i e r s . T h e c o l u m n s a r e Since the :risle bals vaulted without ribs
\ e r V p r a c t i c a la n d u n o b s t r u c t i v e s u p p o r t s , w h i l e o b v i o u s l y 'i n d i c a t e r v h a t u n s u p p o r t e d a r e a t h e
the piers provide bases tbr interior wall but- engineers could convcnientlv vault, it is worth
t r e s s i n g .C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e l , o m b a r d d e s i g n e r s noting that a criss-cross ot ribs in the dotrblc
o f t e n t h o u g h t o f t h e i r n a v e si n t e r m s o f d o u b l e bays of the n:n'e would divide such bays into
bays the more so becausethe aisles were abottt four triangles. each equal in area to a squilre
half the width ol'the nave, and divided into a i s l eb a y . A s t o u t a r c h e d c e n t e r i n g w a s e r e c t e d
s q u a r eb a y s .T h e n a v e ,i f i t h a d d o u b l e b a y s ,l l a s under each arch and rib; false-work bstween
rhythmicalll divided into nearlv square units. provided a suppolt fbr the rubble of'the Iault
NORTHF.RN ITALY lgl
while it was being constructed,and also in the
period of' lveeks or months during which it
'I'he
Lombards built these vlults as
solidilied.
ponderous dome-like affairs which were not
g o o d t o l o o k a t o r e a s yt o a b u t [ S o : 6 ] . A c t u a l l v
the ribs neutralized the advantage of domed
construction, for the.v brought to the angles of
the vault strong concentrations ofthrust which
'l'his
were neither understood nor prepared for.
was particularll dangerous in large-scale high
vaults. and in consequence such vaults have not
behaved well. Partisans of earlv dating suppose
that man] earlv vaults of this tvpe failed during
the severe earthquake of rI17, but that ex-
amples continued (though less fiequently) to be
built. Partisans of later dating assign such
rauk, in general to a generationor morc after
r r I7. Lighter vaulting' built more or less in the
French Gothic manner, superseded the pon-
derous Lombard type late in the thirteenth cen-
tury. Many important churches which had been
rooden-roofed were successlully vaulted at
that time.
There is no specific documentarl reference
t o e a r l y r i b b e d h i g h v a u l t s ,t h o u g h , b y w h a t o n e
'historical dead reckoning' con-
might call
sidering thc whole great revival of the mid
elerenth ccntur] thesewere due to appear in
sonre imltortant btrilding Proiects aboul l065
o r 7 5 o r 8 . 5 .B u t i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e
original examples are lost, and the more conser-
vative methods of studl indicatc a later date'
For the creation of the fbrm, it would only be
necessarv, as we easily perceive, for an en-
gineer to imagine auxiliarv ribs like the usual
arches ofthe little groin vaults in the crypts, but
p l a c e d o n t h e d i a g o n a l a t t h e s u g g e s t i o n ,p r o b -
abl,v, of Roman groin vaulting (where, to be
sure, the arris ribs are not auxiliarv construc-
tion, but integral). Since the engineers were
alrcad.t building substintial centering under
t h e a r c h e so f c o n v e n t i o n a l v a u l t i n g , t h e d i a g o n a l
the
centering which is so uselul in facilitating
construction of big ba1's was easil-vimagined'
 392 L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW r l ' H r N THI] HOLy
:oz. X{ilan, Sant'.{mbrogio.fiom thc *e.st.
t e n t l tc c n t u r l a f i e r r r 8 r
along with the nook shafrsin the piers fbr the
permanent support of the diagonalribs.
-I-he
historically important church of Sant'
Ambrogio in Milan L:oz .Sl is a convenicnr
erample ol'rhe developedfbrm ol'this architec_
t u r e a n d e n g i n e e r i n g .H c r e t h e L o m b a r d K i n g s
and German Empcrors were crowned with the
Iron (,rown, rvhich is nou, at Monza.
Unfortunatelv the clating of the church is
largelv conjectural, but it is usuallv accepted as
r e p r e s e n t i n g w h a t t h e I , o m b a r d e n g i n e e r sa n d
d e s i g n e r sw e r e a b l e t o p l a n a n d u n d e r t a k c a b o u t
ro8o.r1As early as r196, however, the vaults
llere being repaired, and the high vault mav
ROMAN [,MptRE
3o3 and -io.1.Nlihn, Sant' \mbrogio, ninth. elcr cnth. irnd twcllih ccntrtries (rcstored I li63)
n o t a c t u a l l v h a v e b e e n b r . r i l te a r l i e r t h a n r r r ; .
We have referred to the building preriou:lr
b1'mcntion of thc old apscwhich u'ith its intnr-
ductorv bal of tunnel vaulting (an earlr cr-
a m p l e ) w a s l e f i i n t a c t , r v h i l et h e s o o d e n - r o r r l i d
basilican nave was replaccd by' a complcrclr
vaulted, aisled str.ucturc of bricft u.ith stuccoed
brickandrubbleraulrs. Itisapproachedrhror.rgh
a spacious atrium with bold arches and snLr'
'l'his
b u t t r e s s e s[ 3 o z ] . s e e m st o b e d a t e d a b o r r r
l o g S b 1 , a n i n s c r i p t i o n ,t h o u g h i t h : r sb e e n t , -
built to a certain cxtcnr. It joins the church in ,r
handsome narthex, which, u.ith its tribunc. ir
i n c l u d e d u n d e r a w i d e s u ' e e p i n gg a b l e .
 rERNrTALY -195

tharofthe to have been in use in rr3o lvith the altar re-

nave wasnot,for its north wall ioined
'rirr.r,
rrults of tht aislesrnd trit<-rrium h a b i l i t a t e c l ,t h e d a t e o f r r z 8 f b r t h c f i r s t c o m -
rna the
built against the pletion of Sant'Anrbrogio appears to be reason-
*"tt.subsequently
*rii.tt a b l e . F r a n k l , h o w e r " e r ,d e l a . v si t u n t i l r r T l l ( w i t h
wall. Accordingto documents'the
l"rUi*a repairsas earlv as r r96).
wasstill in u^se-in ro67I and (he new
oiJnt". Sant'Ambrogio has a richll carled and em-
in rog j'1' We must admitthis and
iru. rtt.uay
specialconditionsprerentedcom- brasured main door-wa1.. Upon cntcring the
,uppot. that

3o6.Rivoltad'Adda, San Sigismondo,ro99(r)

elevcnthand trvcllih centuries

pletion of the westernmost ba]' of the nave, builcling, the visitor seesthrec great ba]'s ol'
T h e c h u r c h w a s s e r v e c ln, o t a l w a r s p c a c e a b l l, s h a f i i n g , w i t h c o r b e l t a b l c s t o d i v i d e i t i n t o f r rc
where it joins thc tower. d o m e d - u p r i b b c d q u a d r i p a r t i l e\ a u l l i n F ' m u c h
bv a communitl' of monks and a chapter of s t a g c sa b o r e t h e e a r e so f t h e c h u l c h . T h c o n i r
I n t h e n a v eo f s a n t ' A m b r o g i o , d o u b l c b a y s o f rebuilt, but probrbl-r likc the original late
c a n o n s .E a c h h r r c a
l c l o i s t e r .T o t h e s o u t h s t a n d s l a r g e o p c n i n g s a r e t h r e e i r r c h e so n e a c h s i d c o t 1'}re
-lower '.I'he domed-up rib vartlting were plannecl fiom the e l e v e n t h - o r e a r l v t w e l f i h - c e n t u r ' , Yr a u l t s '
thc lerJ' simple N{onks' (tenth centur'1) the loftl' bell chamber. late date explarrn like
first. Conservative archaeologistshesitate to put fburth ba-v, be-vond, was formerlv covered
and to the north the verv handsome Canons' i t s s i m i l a r i t v t o t h e b e a u t i fu l b c l f i l . o f ' S a n F r a n - u p a s an
'I'ower their actual construction befbre the earthquake the others. but subsequentll'can'ied
o f r r 2 . 1 ,i n t c r r u p t c d i n r r 2 8 , a n d f i n i s h c d c e s c oa t A s s i s i ( a f i e r r z z 8 ) . c o r e r e e h
l t
o f t r r 7 . I n r r z 8 r e v e n u e sw h i c h h a d g o n e t o t h e octagonll lantern. T h t a i r l e s l r e
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o r i e i i n a ls c h e m e a l i c r r r 8 r The masonrl indicates that the atrium *rts .ttn-
a
rrronks, presumabl-v tbr building' were reas- ribbed groin laults; so also is the tntorlum
sophisticateddesign which is much admired alreadJ. finished when the tower was unde:'- tne
s i g n e dt o t h e c a n o n s ,a n d s i n c e t h e n a v e a p p e a r s galler,-v,rvhcre thel' are ill placcd to rcccl\e
a n d r . e r vt y . p i c a l .I t h a s p i h s t e r s t r i p s a n d a p p l i e d taken in r rz3, but the wcsternmost bav of'tltc
 3go L A N D S A S S O C T A T E D\ \ r T I l t N T H E H O L y
t h r u s t o f t h e r . a s tr i b b e c l b l . s o f t h e n a r . e . ' I ' h e
supports are logicallr clesigned,and conse-
q u e n t l v t h e ' s l s t c m ' i s a h e r n a t e ,w i t h s l e n d e r e r
intcrmediate supports not columns, but ilp-
p r o p l i a t e l r a r t i c u l a t e dg r o u p e d p i e r s . E a c h p a i r
of'main piers supports not onlv its shareof'the
r a u l t i n g , b u t a l s o a s u b s t a n t i a lb u t t r e s s i n g u a l l
uhich riscs to rhc roofing. clirectly abore thc
tlanslersc arch. Such rvalls, bl isolating the
separate ba1,s of uooclcn rool' construction,
'fhe
would arrest a fire thele. big vaulting ba1..s
arc harmoniouslv composed, but lack thc proces-
s i o n a lq u a l i t v o f t u n n c l v a u l t i n g .U n q u c s t i o n a b l v
the church was \.ery dark befbre thc construc-
t i o n o f - t h e l a n t e r n ; f o r t h e r e i s n o c l e r e s t o r t . .'r
l\lention should be made ol'Earlv Christian
churchesin Nlilan. rebuilt in the mature Lom-
bard Romanesque stvlc thc Basilica Aposto-
lorum and San Simpliciano particularly.
Rivolta d'Adda has in the church of San
S i g i s m o n d o , d a t e d r o 9 < yi () , a u t h e n r i c e a r h ,
Lombard domed-r.rp rib-r.aults [3o{rl. The
church is instructire, in that the east end is
cor cred by two windowless bays of semicircular
tunnel vaulting with transvcrse arches. Beyond
these come tr.o navc-bays of rib vaulting, which
are vcrv irregular in curvaturc - in parts almost
c o n i c a l - T h i s s h o w s i n e x p e r i e n c ea n d , t h o u g h
a d m i t t e d l v r u s t i c , c i r u t i o n su s a g a i n s ta c c c p t i n g
very earlv dates for the rjb construction. Here.
o $ i n q t o s m a l l n e s s ,a c l e r c s t o r y i s p o s s i b l c . r l
I n t h c g l e a r c h u r c h o l ' S a n \ | i c h c l c a r P a ri a '
[3o7] rvehave a stonecounrcrparr of Sant'Am-
brogio in Nlilan. It was built slowly, li.om about
thc vear r roo to about r r6o, over a crucifbrm
plan and uas providcd originallv wirh a small
'I'he
clerestor\'. church has a semi-dome ancl a
big single quadripartite bal. at the east; rhe
t r a n s c p t h a s i t s a b s i d i o l e ss i m p l y c u r i n r o t h c
subst:rntial east wall, with a crossing cor-cred br
a n o c t i r p S o n adlo m i c a l v a u l t o n s q u i n c h e s , a n d
arms hy tunnel vaulting without trans\,ersc
a r c h e s ; t h e a i s l e sa n d g a l l e r i e sa r e c o v c r e d b v
ROMAN Et\tptRE
unribbed groin vaulting; the nave was inrcndcd
t b r t n o b i g d o n r e d - u pd o u h l c b a r s o l ' r . i br ; r r r l t _
i n g , b u t w a s a c t u a l l y ' c o v e r e db v o b l o n g s i n q 1 .
baysin the French manner. The clill-likc srrin.
fbgadc, with a single sweeping gable fr-onring
b o t h n a r e a n d a i s l e s .i s r c r ' l l a m o u s . a n , l , . r ,
i n t e l e s t i n gl b r i r s f r i c z e so f b e a s t s c u l p r u r . c |. 1 1 .
jo7. Paria, San Xlichelc, r. r roo 6o, from thc rvcsr
fagade is articulated by shafiing and dosscrcrs
w h i c h l b r m s h a l l o w b u t t r e s s e s ,a n d i s a d o r n c d
at the top b1, a fine arcaded gallery. There is
singular power in this design; and this com-
ment mav be made gencrally on works in the
Milanese area.
Quitting the region about N{ilan fbr F,milirr.
we find two excellent examples nl Lombald
s t t l e i n P i a c c n z aS. a n S a v i n o , d c d i c a t c d
in r ro;.
h a s a n a p s cu i t h a t u n n e l - v a u l t e d s a n c t u a r ) b
- al.
f b l l o w e d b 1 't h r e e b i g d o u b l e b a 1 . so f r i b v a u l t i n g - .
each with a single clerestorv window on cach
side, and accompanving unribbed aisle bals.
'fhe
interior has much r,igoul and harmoniou'
proportions. The critics who date Lomblrd
l a u l t i n g c o n s e r \ a t i v c l v a s s i g nt h c d e d i c a t i o n o l
rIoT to the cltpt, which is a fine and spacious
3o8. Parma Cathedral, twcllth ccnturv
example. The date might better be applied to the
t u n n e l - v a u l t e d s a n c t u a r v ,i n w h i c h c a s et h e b i g
double bays of rib vaulting might be later
perhaps (inevitablyl) after the earthquake of
rI17. It is an admirable example of the large
Lombard parish church.r"
P i a c e n z aC a t h e d r a l , l Tb e g u n b y r r 2 2 ' i n u s e
by r r58, and finished, with somc rebuilding, in
the thirtecnth century, is one ofthe grand row of
E m i l i a n c a t h e d r a l s .I t h a s a w i d e t r a n s e p t w i t h
a p s e sa t t h e e n d s , l i k e t h e t r a n s e p t o l ' l ) i s a , a n d
'l'he
screened, as at Pisa, lrom the main navc.
bold exterior forms ofthe church at the east are
d r a m a t i z e d h a p p i l l ' b y a s e r i e so f ' G o t h i c p i n -
n a c l e s( i n b r i c k , l i k e t h e l a t e l c o n s t r u c l i o n si n
the church). There is a single big brick tower,
'l'hc
ofthe usual sort, to the north of the nlre
NORTHhRN ITALY 397
lbqadeis, like the older work in the cathedral'
carried out in stone. It has thc usuirlsweeping
w i d e g a b l e ,g a l l e r i e s ,a n d t h r e e p o r c h e s w i t h t h e
columns carried on the backsof animals. Each
'I'he
p o r c h h a s a r e c e s sa n d t r i b u n e a b o v e i t .
Gothic st-vleappears in a dignified rose window.
Here ancl there in the fine m:rsculine interior
t h e r e i s a t o u c h o f t h e G o t h i c , b u t t h c e l l e c t sa r c
R o m a n e s q u e . l ' h e n a v e h a s b i g r i b - r ' a u l t c c lb a v s
with a clerestoly (except fbl thc traditional
t u n n c l - r a u l t e d s a n c t u a r v b a 1 - ) ,a l s o t h e u s u a l
octagonal domical vault on squinches at the
crossing, and a spacious cr1'pt under the raised
choir. Thc efl'ect, both extcrior and interior' is
v e r v i m p r e s s i v e.
I n P l r m a ( l a t h c d r l l ' " l - i o l { l u e h a v ea t t o l h c t '
s p l e n d i t lc r a m p l c . T h e r e u a s a d c d i c a t i o ni r r
 .LANDS HOLY ROMAN F-MPIRE
N O R T I I E R NI T A L Y 399
jg8 ASSOCIA',IED \[I'IHIN THE

short i n c o m p o s i t i o n a lm a s s . ' I ' h eb u i l c l i n gi s l a r g e l r o t

with the nllc' but planted lt ir
tarr,a" *t e
nd.. ' ' r tS t r n t ' b r i c k , r v i t h a f a q a c l eo f s t o n c . T h i s i s i n p u t
from the church. likc the prir
'f
in l\lilan he toners har e thcir t'ear Romanesque, but it is adorned b1' a Gothic
irl.ogi" portal, pierced b-v a Gothic rose rvindow, and
uith r h e f a l a d ew a l l o t t h e c h u l c h '
*rffr i"fin.
p r o i e c t b o t h in widrh antl in dcpth' capped by huge scrolls of Renaissance design
,Jtlrt tft.u
in colouri tbr only the corner w i t h a R e n a i s s a n c ea r c a d e , p e d i m e n t , a n d p i n -
ih.y . o n r t u t t
trtipt. thc corbel tables' and tltc open- nacle on the axis. A vast torver of Gothic date
flrrt.t
t,on.. thc restbeingot led blick Thc r i s e st o t h e n o r t h , a n d a l a r g e b : r p t i s t e r l ' o 1r r 6 7
lngrrr. in 'I'hc
\\ carried up onl.r hal I ;r stage : the is set at the south and rvest. cnsemble ]ras
no-rtttao*at iIS
oi the other is capped b1' a Gothic bold scale a n d i s s i n g u l a r l r a p p o s i t ei n s h o u i n g
fourth tt"g.
in stone, and that in turn bl.pinnaclcs and h o w t h e g r a n d q u a l i t i c so f t h c L o m b a r d R o m a n -
belfry
active profilc but late csque lived on into the Gothic and Renaissance
a tall pyramidal roof'of
periods.
date.
To the south-west near this towel stands the T h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e ,g r e a t n u m b e r s o f s m a l l e r

b a p t i s t e r vo f t h e c a t h e t l r a l , b u i l t o f b r i c k l n d buildings, each with somethinq of interest,

stonein the tw ellih-century' st1le, although not rvhich cannot be taken up in a general work ol'
finished until the thirteenth [296e, .ioSl' I'here t h i s s o r t . P a s s i n gm e n t i o n o n l y c a n b e m a d e o f
'Bene-
are rich portals and other sculptures by thc substantial rotunda ol the old cathedral in
3og. Parma C,athedral, trvellih ccnturl Brescia (about r I r 5) ; San Pietro in Cielo Aurco
detto miscalled Antelami' (in X'{r Porter's
phrase). The sculptor is believed to be the a t P a v i a ,d e d i c a t e di n r r 3 2 , f i n i s h e da b o u t r r 8 o ,
a u t h o r o f t h e b u i l d i n g , w h i c h w a sb e g u n i n I r 9 6 ' S a n t ' E u s t o r g i oa t M i l a n , w i t h f i ' a g m e n t sd a t i n g
r I 0 6 , b u t t h e e a r t h q u a k eo f l r r 7 w a s d i s a s t r o u s , L o m b a r d s c h e m ew h i c h r v e h a v e f b u n d i n S a n t ' I t h a s ,a b o r e r h r : g l o u n d s t o r e r . l b u r s t a g e ' o f back to ro4o, but made over into a vaulted hlll
and only parts ofthc old work were retainedin Ambrogio and elsewhere; it is in line riith gallery colonnades between strong spur but- church. with unilbrm domed-up groin vaults'
'l'hc a f t e l r r 7 8 ; F c r r a r a C a t h e d r a l ,w i t h a f i n e p o l t a l
t h e m a g n i f i c e n tr e b u i l c l i n g . c h u r c h w a sl a i d French developmcnts, though in France all thc tresses(at the corncrs); a decorative arcade and
olrt as a great cross in plan [jogl, with a huge vaults would be ribbed, the constructionllould arched corbel table, plus corner pinnacles, ter- of'rr35; Verona Cathedral, with sculptures b1
cr_r'ptrecalling that at Spel'er Cathedral. The b e l i g h t e r , a n d t h e c l e r e s t o r vw i n d o w s w o u l t l o f minate the design. Perhaps the colonnaded Niccolir. dated about rr35i the cathedral of
c r l p t i s c o v e r e d b 1 ' a q L r a d r i l l co f ' g r o i n - r ' a u l t e d necessity (on account of the climate) be lalgcr. galleries were sup;gestedb1-'the fagade of Pisa Borgo Sirn Donnino, with sculptules bl.Bene-
b a r s . H e r e , a s a t t h e p r i n c i p l l l e r . c l ,t h e c r o s s i n g . The weightiness of Parma is in the ltaLan Cathedral, which was being finished at the time. detto Antellmi; San Pictro at Asti and San
t h e s a n c t u a r yb a r , a n d b o t h a r m s o f t h e t r a n s e p t tradition. The interior also has colonnadccl galleries, two Salvatoreat Almcnno. both circulal churches
a I c p r a c t i c r l l \ s q u a l ' c il h e t l a n s e p t t e t m i n a l e s A t t h e f - a g a d teh e d e s i g n , b u i l t o f s t o n e ,m r i n - in number, coming above the portals and their ofthe elerenth centurY (a rare fbrm in f,onl-
i n a p s e sa t t h e e n d s , a n d e a c h a r m h a s a n e a s t e r n tains the Lombard characterintact. I'here is a intervening niches and below a ribbed vault bardl').2"
-l'he
a p s en e a r l v a s l a r g e a s t h c p r i n c i p a l a p s e .O n t h e precipitous great wall carried up to a tremcn(lous of eight compartments. font is of convcn- As ,r fine example of thc twelfth-centurv
extcrior this ploduces a powerful composition sweeping gable, boldly accentuatedby a rich tional form, with steps and an octagon:rl parapet. wooden-roof'cd church in [-ombardv' there can
of serniq,lindrical and cubical fbrms building cornice and a continuous stepped gallerr bc- Monumental baptisteries of'this sort are rare in be no happier choice than S:rn Zcno Nlaggiore
'l'he 'l 'Ihc
u p t o a n o c t a g o n a ll a n t e r n . a p s c s ,t h e t f : t n - h. the Middle Ages; they recall the timc rvhcn i n \ c t ' o n l r r [ . i l o . . 1r r l . s t fu c t u r c i n c o r -
trveen pvlon-like verticals .t th. .orn.rr.
s e p t , t h e s a n c t u a r v b a 1 ' ,a n d t h e t o r v c r a l e a l l horizontal is masterfullv intloduced b1'trvo less baptism was an episcopalfunction, and when p o r : r t e sl r a B m e n t s d a t i n g b a c k t o a b o u t t o . 1 o ,
enriched bv galleries. open horizontal galleries and the threc port.rls' large numbers of' catechumens were baptized but the building which we know took character
T h e w e s t e r n l i m b , r ' : r u l t e di n r r 6 z , h a s s e v e n w h i l e t h e p r o i e c t i n gc e n t r a l p o r t r l l r i t h i t ' t l i - together at Eastertide. a b o u t r r 2 3 3 - 5 ,a n d w a s l o n g u n d e r w a 1 ' ' .F i n e
b a v s w i t h s q u a r eg r o i n v a u l t s i n t h e a i s l e s ;t h e r e bunes and buttresses,and the big oculus pielccd Cremona',rhas a similar cathedral group marble. now beautifullv patinated, was used
'['he
are uniform oblong ribbcd bavs,now sustained begun in rr2g-.+-l with the church, but the licelf in its construction. f'aqadeis much
between the latter, give a vertical accent.
by tie-rods, over an arcacled tliforium gallerl 'I'his
striking flqade was augmentcd bv t\1o transept arms date onlv fiom r 288 and lverc not aclmireclfbr its harmonious pl'oportioning, with
ancl a clerestorr', in the nave.
'l'his
unilbrm t o w e r s , s t i l l r e p r e s e n t i n gt h e o l d t r a d i t i o n o t t l r c finished unril about r342. T'his transept) the b a s i l i c i r np r o f i l c : i t s e n r b c l l i s h m e n t si n t h c l b l n r
s\stem marks the surrcnder of'the traditional free-standing belfry, since thev arc not inte- c r o s s i n g ,a n d t h c c h o r r a r m a r c \ c r \ i m p r e s s i t e ol' marble relief.s neal the door (dated abottt
 ; 1 O O L A N D S A S S O C I A ' t E DW T T H I N T I I E H O L y R O M A N E M p T R E
1 r o. \'erona, San Zeno, r. r r zl and latcr
I r 4 0 ; b y a r t i s t sn a m e d N i c c o l d a n d G u g l i e l m o )
and bronze door valvcs (incorporating earlr
eler,cnth-ccntury elements) are wcll known.
Familiar also is thc soaring; tower, set to thc
south of the church near its eastcnd.
The interior is basilican, with a relatir,elv
small clerestorv and no trilbrium. The nar,e,
covered by a beautilul Gothic rrelbil ceiling, is
l a i d o u t i n a s e r i e so f b a y - s ,d i r , i d e d b y i n t e r i o r
buttrcsses which rise from compound piers.
T ' h e s e b a v s a r e i r r e g u l a r b e c a u s eo f ' t h e d e l a v s
in building. Thcre is a vcry narrow single bat
just inside the fagade; then there fbllow, be-
tween compound piers, a three-archod bar, and
thrce two-arched bavs, all with columnar shafts
a s i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p o r t s . T h e s u c c e e d i n gb a v
i s s i n g l e - a r c h e d .T h e a b s i d i o l e sa t t h e h e a d o f '
NORTHERN ITALY 40r
3rr. Verona,San Zcno, r. r rzl and later
t h e a i s l e so p e n e d i n t o t h i s b a y , w h i c h s c r i e d r s joining church of San Pietro is more or less con-
The arrangement iust described is, of course,
a sort of dwarf transept. The same bav anclits the fullest possible and most monumental de- temporar]'. The interior of San Pietro is dis-
neighbour, plus a vaulted squaresanctuarr bar velopment of the old crypt and high choir appointing, but the fagade is one of the best of
and apse of Gothic date, lbrm a line Lombar d scheme which we saw in its.beginnings at Old its kind.
'high
c h o i r ' . B r i d g e - l i k e s t a i r st o i t , i n t h e a i s l e s . S t P e t e r ' sl a b o u r 6 o o ) , S a n t ' . \ p o l l i n a r ei n C l a s s e . With this we conclude our general study of
s p a na d e s c c n d i n gf l i g h t w h i c h e x t e n d st h e $ h o l c Ravenna (ninth century), and Sant'Ambrogio the Romanesque church architecture of Lom-
width ofthe chulch and leadsto a magnificent in Milan (about g4o), all places of pilgrimage. bardy. But we must go f'ar in order to reach the
c r ) , ' p tb e n e a t h t h e ' h i g h c h o i r ' . T h e c r y p r o p en s fbrthest limits ofthe style for echoesofit pene-
This further reference to pilgrimage may
through three gencrous arches upon the stair'- serve to introduce the group known as Santo trated to Dalmatia (and on into Serbia as we
way leading liom the nave, and a large part of it Stefano in Bologna,:r rsall].a Lombard Roman- have seen), Hungary, Gcrmany (and on into
is actually visible fi'om the nar.c. 1'he litulgr, esque red-brick version ofthe Holy Sepulchre. Russia, as already mentioned), the Netherlands,
s e e n a c r o s s t h c d e p r e s s i o n ,g a i n s s o m e w h l t i n The octagonal church representing the Anas- Scandinavia. and even, in some degree, to the
dignity' because the sanctuary- platlbrm is clc- tasis has a twelr,e-sided central structurc. It is north of France. It shared eastern Italy with
vated and somewhat remote. Lccterns fbr thc rather rough wolk, dating h'om about rr5o. designs partly dependent on the'liuscan style,
readings are efl'ectivelr placed on the parapcl Adioining it is a court of tr4z which represents all the way to Apulia.
here and in a number of other churches uitlr the Holy Garden (covered, in Jerusalem, b1''the One Lombard monument will be best under-
similar crvots. -I'he
Crusader transeDt dedicated in rr49). ad- stood in this combined Lombardo-Tuscan am-
 W I'I'H IN'THE HOl,Y ROMAN EMPIRL,
LANDS ASSOCIA'I'ED
402

rather than sup-

w i..:.:. Miniato [zgr l and San Nicola [:.661 in irs 1sx,
l:'l.::: big double ba1--s,with intermediate colurnnr,
supports, a trilbrium (though lalse) rvith t1io1.
rn in feeling encloses,
ias at B"ri;,
ive triple a
I
r c
gallerv
h e s i n e
This,
a c h b a
rvith rather
v, makes a
i.l1i'li
a . a r c h e su n d e r e n c l o s i n ga r c h e s ,a c l e r e s t o r r ,4 1 u -
rr",.'.i
phragm arches, and wooden rooling. F-rch dia-
phragm arch carries a parapet which hrrs bqq.
built up well above the ridge lcvel irsa precau-
tion against the sprerd of fir'e starting in 15.
3r2 to -lr+.
intermediate wooden looling. I-ike San \icolr N{odena Cathedral,
'inch.rded' begun togg,
at Bari, Nlodena Cathedral has an
t i m e s ( r 4 - i 7 , r - 1 4 ( ra, n d e\tcrl0r, rntcnor!
t r a n s e p t .O n l f i n G o t h i c
ancl plan
later) did the church receire its vaulting.'l'hcrc

&t {
$
I
g,
$ t:
$$

bient n a m e l y - ,t h e c a t h e d r a l o l t h e c i t v o 1 ' i s o n l r o n e t o u e r , o l L o m b a r d t t p e . s e l t l o t l l tr ' 1 N E I G H B O U R IR

NEGG I O NSSH O W I N G
c o M P o N E N TosF M A T U R L srYLE
Eo M B A R D
Modena, which, though Lombard. \{'asactuxll-v the transept. It carries:rGothic spire.'lhc stn-
within the dominions of the Countess Nlatilda tinel towers of San Nicola are reduced to ir pllr
of I'uscanl'' and thus particularl)' open to Tus- ol tulrels abore the apse. Easternand Middle ltalT
can influence [3I.2, 3I31. The building was Lanfianco was the architect, and, to jrttl$c Lombard
Anagni CathedraF+has a strong
bv his building, an independent and ver\ pcr'- EchoesofLombardl in Liguria (GenoaCathed- chalacter'
begun in rog9.23 e"terio-r,but the interior is of Roman
r
s o n a l r l e s i g n c r . L n d e r h i m c l o u b t l e s st h c t t l ' l ral, twelfth to thirteenth centurv)and Sardinia. Vassalletto'
Tuscan influence, and doubtless the success- possessinga throne of lz63 b1'
f u l d e s i g no l ' S a n N i c o l a a t B a r i ( b e g u n r o 8 7 o ) was finished (r ro6), and he is supposabll .r'c- (Uta, twelfth centur-v)areslight' In Rome itself cloister of St John
*ho- *J have met in the
sponsible fbr the ordonnance of thc iI)teft()r' SS. Giovannie Paolo(about rr55) is the onl-v the'Pier e' (parish
[264, 265], explain the other\4ise surprising lack ex- Lateran in Rome. At Arezzor5
of Lombarcl rib vaulting in this important work which isall in uarnt rctl blick, asrrellastirl lhe example;howeret' in the regionnear by' is Pisan'whilethe
and thel' often show Jrt.fti rttt tt exteriorwhich
which has rather emphatic Lomblrd stl.listic e x l e r i o r , t h i c h i s a l l i n t i n c a s h l a r ' S r tu r r ' : l J trrnplesare more nurnerous with double ba1's and a
i;i"; is Lombalcl,
details. Actualll-' the plan [3 r 4] recalls San malkcd alcadinc uhich is Pisan rather tb'ttt interestingcombinations'
 +o4 L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y R O M A N E M p I R E NORTHI,RN TTALY +o5

raised choir. Ancona Cathedral (dedicated in dated about ro8g-gg, and three later larly vigorous effect, and the view to thc raiscd
511n." -. ,:^ Messiore at Tuscania (formerly called
rr28, largely linished in rr89) has a crucifbrm a b o l e . { p p a r e n f l )f h e r ew a sa s o r to l . u " r , " , * sanctuary is indecd imprcssrve.
T ' - ^ ^ - " t t " t . ' o S a n P i e t r o I 3 I 5 | a p p e a r s( o b e t h e
plan with apsidal ends on the transept, and r r a n s e p rw i r h s o m e r h i n gl i k e a . t t . t n , t , r u r l Santa Maria Maggiore [116], with a frce-
^"a archaisms have led Riroira to
zebra-work masonry, all of which recalls pisa, irii"r,
aboreit. The surviring constructions ar..1.r,i-, of it to thc eighth centurr ' It is a standing square Lombard tower, has a similar
but the general feeling of the superstructure, irtrn otro
simplein fblm and Lombardin lecling. .a, wooden-roofed col umnar basilica' though simpler and finer fagadewhich has been
\ ,xi_ ilr.""-;tf
with its lion-backed portico, is Lombard. The much copied in modern times. It has a rathcr
fine church of Santa Maria di portonuovo near
Ancona is Lombard (twelfih century, some_
[:H:ll,
;ffil::J;"i,,::'1il:;.,
be rewarding.
ll;,hi bJt, of on.'
the e n d
t
o
t
f t h e
There is an interesting crypt of
eleventh centur)' supporttng a barn-like nave with exceptional dw:rrf- transcpt
arms at the head; beyond is the sanctuary, with
triapsidal raised sanctuary'
times dated earlier) with a dome, but arranged arell-proportioned
At Spoleto the f'agadeof San pietro:; (trrcl{ih baldacchino dates from iog3 Con- a Moslem touch in the cusped arches of the
in plan like a Norman church. The main
to fourteenth century) is rich with work on the church continued to a baldacchino, and a Byzantine touch in the
Farfa (Fara Sabina):o is a disappointment, ".cldiug "nJ structional 'I'he
sculptured panels, somewhat in the the west front' extensive painting above the chancel arch,
though there is now, once more, a monasterv
manncr of. conclusion about rzoo at
San Zeno in Verona. Over the main door is r e m i n i s c e n c c so f which matches the transept arches and thus
e s t a b l i s h e da r r h e p l a c e w h e r e r h c f a m o u s C o n _
an f a g a d ei s o v e r w r o u g h t . w i t h
tympanum. .[.hs
e x c e p t i o n a lh o r s e s h o e - s h a p e d
Burgundy, Tuscany, Lombardy, and even suggestsa centralized scheme. Santa N{aria was
suet'udinary of ro43 was tbund. Architecturallv three portals are flanked by proiecting bcasts. begun, it is believed, in the eleventh centur]''
perhaps Spain in the rose window and its
t h e r e i s n o r h i n g r e c o g n i z a b l vC l u n i a c i n u . h a t but without the Lombard columns and hood. and finished in rzo6.
flanking ajimez windows. The best effects at
remains. There is a single old tower, with three A,{ost attractive and best known among this Influences projected forth from Lombardy'
San Pietro are in its powerful nave, where the
Clarolingian lower store1.s.an intermediate staee gloup of churches are San pietro and-.Sanra and Tuscany, which engendered the interesting
p r o t r u d i n g v o u s s o i r so f t h e a i s l e g i v e a s i n g t r -

-;l-;. Tuscania,San Pietro, rr6. Tuscania,SantaN{ariaMaggiorc,

clcvcnthand twcllih centuries and tower
ilenenthce.turv-rzo6, l'agade
 i+oo LANDS ASSOCIATED WITHIN THE IIOLy ROMAN EMpIRE NOR'T'HERN ITAL\ +o7

local works iust reviewed, also operated across Empire but for the struggle over the Inrr:sti_ in artistic orientation befbrc
the Adriatic Sea, and thcre produced a number -"rking a change
tures, was able to abstract itself lrorn i n r 2 8 5 ' S a n C ' r i s o g t ' n o^ t T a d n r '
of interesting churches in mixed style, but (as 11. Tli.ai.trio"
troubles by becoming a ficf of the Holv is a more c.nsistcnl Lombard
in ltaly) with strong Lombard emphasis.
S,.., l' rt juf ifor ,n . 't n I t 7 5 .
under Gregory VII (ro76). and,o.onq,,.1- Rab i \rhc) pl.:t"ntt anolhcr am-
Croatia - thus acquiring a stretch ol. .*^-Plt with an ambulalor\
16i lluor,
Dalmatian coast during the ensuingconfusign
Croalia and Hungury century.). inspired perhaps from
( r r o . z ) .L a t e r r h e k i n g d o m a l s o iri."."tn
included'l r,rn_ at Verona (qgo)' ln general thc
In the period which concerns us thcse two areas [.nro S,.funo
sylvania, and it extended almost to Craco$ m c l h o d s a p p e a rt o b c L o m h a r d
wcre architectural provinces of I_ombardy- and in ilnraru.,ionut
the north, almost to Vienna in the west. In material is good ashlarslone and
this ii. Uu;faint
eastern Iraly. Architectural influence fiom great region the Hungarians constructed,
uirl '-There
rubble'
Burgundy began with the Cistercians, in r r4z,
a local savour, buildings basically relared are rich doorwavs also, more or less
but monuments earlier than rzoo har,e not t6
Lombard, German, Burgundian, and other. 'I'he
finest of them, though
survived. Villard de Honnecourr had r,isited Lombard in form.
French models. The plans, however, er,en Gothic leafage, is essentiall-vtardv
in i h., ,o-.
Hungary by r235, and French Gothic influence
ambitious buildings, remained relatively simplc. of r z4o This is the
doubtless came in with him. Some German 'fhe eclectic Romanesque
mounrain barrier hasaluavs forbidtlin,:_ doorta-v of Trogir ('Irair) Cathedral
architectural influences had come durine the i.rt..n
ly hlocked off rhe inrerior of Croatia from a Slav sculptor' The door has
reign ol King .{ndrew and rhc bv Radovan'
eueen Gerirude Adriatic, but the coastal region was alrcacll
(d. rzr3), but with a srrong Lombard imrrrint p r o l e c t i n gl i o n s . b u t . a s a t S p o l e l o i n l t a l r ' t h e r
u n d q r L o m b a r d a r c h i t e c t u r a il n f l u c n c ee r e n -l
in h.ne no columns abole them he t)mpanum'
upon them. Influcnct:s flowed naturallu alons
the Carolingian period, as already noted. .I.hc recalls Venetian work' The rough
the Danube, and later through Croatia. r Nativity,
stream of Lombard influence continued to flo\i. a
We have heard of'the Hungarians before, as execution and thc late date makc it essentiall-Y
in the mature Romanesque period, when it was in its place; in
piece of folk art. It is charming
unwelcome pagan r,isitors to Burgundy in -l'rogir
937 augmented by that of Tuscany, as in the case, is a place ol enchant-
and 954. In g55 Emperor Orto the Great iaa the island of
St George' I r4z fl
ad_ already considered, of middle and southern
ment.30 3r7. Prague(Bohcmia).
ministered a crushing defeat to them, and thev
Italy. The Croatian area, though theoreticallr Turning now to the properlv Hungarian
were converted to Christianitl,- as a rcsult
of 8 1 z a n t i n e . w a st h e n t o o r e m o t e r o b e i n f l u e n c e j
monuments,rl we note that the Benedictines
stipulations in the peacc treatv of g73. The
by Byzantine architecture, except through the A curiositl' of the region, from the eleventh
came in ggg ancl afterwards as genuine agri-
ions'
reigning Duke was baptized, and the Church
Exarchate. Easy navigation of the Adriatic en_ c e n lu r \ o n . a n d k n o w n P a r t l \ f r o m e r c a r a l
cultural colonists, and greatly improved thc
was organized under his son Stephen, whose of round and pol-v-
couraged contacts with all of eastern ltal\.. economic basis of the still distracted countr-v' is a relatively' large number
reign began in 9g7. Pope Svlvcster II (Gerbert. and
D e f i n i t e A p u l i a n i n f l u e n c e( i t s e l f p a r r l r T u s c a n The rvestern connexions oi these monks arc Ibil churches, often with Lombard detail,
whom we hare followed from Reims to
and Lombard) can be rracedalso,especiallrin archirecturallvacknowledged in the oldest ol' usualll' connected with local courts' Romanes-
these
Catalonia, to Otto III's entourage, and finallv
t h e b a l d a c c h i n o so f r h e c h u r c h e s . their abbeys, Vdrtcsszenkereszt (or Vdrtes, west que architecture has an eastern fringe of
t o R o m e ) ,r e c o g n i z c dS r e p h e na s K i n g i n , o o , ' . which extends, by wal'ot
There is a succession of striking cathedral of Budapest ; r r 46), and in the second cathedral central-plan churches
S t e p h e n d i e d i n r o . 3 U ,a n d w a s c a n o n i z e t l i n Bohemia. as far as Bornholm'
towers on the islands and mainland of the coast. of Kalocsa (suuth of Budapest; alier r r5o)'
prc-
Io83. In his time ten dioceses wcre created.
which mark it as the twin sentinel towers mark where tracesof ambulator-v and radiating chapels Lombard influence shows strongl]'in the
a n d a n i n t e r c s t i n g s . v s t e mo f c r o s s r o a t lc h u r c h e s ( F i i n l L i r c h e n ' n e a r lhc
the coast of Apulia. Thev are Lombard in h a v eb e e n r c r c a l c d b r e r c a r a l i o n s ' s e n l c a l h c d r a lo l ' P d c s
was instituted, with ten villages responsible for Drava River and the old boundarl. of Croatta)
general character. One of the best known The Cistercians, welcomed and much fav-
o1'
each church. A palatine church was built in ro64, restored
at these towers was built beside the mausoleum oured beginning about rr8o, did their usual [3I8]. The church was burned
Sz6kcsfehdrvdr (Alba Regalis, or Stuhlwcissen_ ,r5o' and in r8[Jr gr' The plan is tri-
of Diocletian at Split (Spalato), rhen, as now, part, as in western L,urope, and the other orders "boo, (br the
burg, south-west of Budapest) for Kine the cathedral; another, in the Ravennate stvle, 'l'he
olclest surviving
('istercian aosidal. with seven big ba-vs three
ioined them. 'fransl'l- fbr the
Stephen. His great sarcophagus no* hr,
, ,".,",urr,n and Lombard cry'pt, three
was constructed at Zadar (Zara) Cathedral in work. at Kcrcz (fbundecl in rzoz; in
vestibules
place of honour in the museum there,
but all r r05. vania, now a ruin), is of the usual tvpe, except open nave, and one, at the west' lbr
like that of
his buildings have been destroyed. The
kine_ and a tribune.'I'his plan looksrather
St Mary, the cathedral of Zadar, has a that the church apse is polvgonal; Apitfalva but
dom. which mighr hare hecn conquerecl San Nicola at Bari or Modena Cathedral'
for the Lombard east end, but the west end is pisan. (founded in r z3z) is normal Cistercian work'
 4o8 L A N D S A s S O C T A T E DW T T H T N T H E H O L y ROMAN EMpTRE NORTil[RN tTAr.\' +og

Gothic. and rcminds ttsthat Queen r2+2 was not rapid. It was still under q'irr in
ransirional
Later a dditi otts * r , F r e n c h : l i k ew i s e , l a t e r . Q r e c n l \ l a r - r287, and one feels that bv then thc Gothic of
Ann.
Hungary, likc its Romanesque, had become a
q u e r i t e .a s i s t c r o t ' P h i l i p \ u g t r s t u s . l n d e r : d ' t h e
through papll interlention' bccame sort of folk art, delightfullv local in feeling. Yet
lrnrrtu,
in r3o8' it is said that a Frcnch master, John, son ol'
f,ngevin '-flno
T h e c a p a b l cH u n g r r i a n a r t h i s t o r i a n G . E n t z of Saint-Di(', was at work in r287. Villard
from the upper Rhinclancl, de Honnecourt's visit was in rzt<.
identifies influences
flep Alsace, and fiom South Germanv in the
'l'hc
twelfth centurv and latcr times. principal
(-1tptr Burgund.),and Neighhouring '!re as
existing architecturaI examples showing a tinc- (S a.-o.1,,S n,i t zerI a n d)
flrre ofthese influences in our period arc a series -I'here
of important Beneclictinc anrl Prcmonstraten- is a special charm to the mountain chur-
sian abbel' churches, almost all near the rivcr' c h e si n t h e n o r t h o f L o m b a r d y ' a n d o n t h c A l p i n e
These with their dates arc : L6b6n1' (not r er-vf ar slopeswhich descendtowards the north. The
fiom Vienna, rrgg rzr2, tzlzfr'.),JMk (orJik, region had treen a part of thc old Kingdom ol'
almost south of'Vienna, near the fionticr, r : t o A r l e s o r o f B u r g u n d l ' , w i t h b o r d e r i n g a r e a si n
portal Italv and Swabia. Here, as in Catalonia, -\n-
Lctter atl d.itiitrt-, 56, with an elaboratehalf-Romanesquc
dated about I z5o), f iirje (south o1'L6b6nv, near dorra, and rural Burgundl', the fbrms ot the
Lake Balat6n I about I 24o), and Zsirnb6k (ncar F i r s t R o m a n e s q u e p r o v c d t e n a c i o u s ,a n d t h e l
3rll. P6csCathedral,r. r r5o li-. B u d a p e s t ;b e f b r e I z 5 8 ) . l ' h e s e w e r e ' S i p p c n ' still give ch:rracter to thc countr]'sidc. On thc
9 s lsxr.
F+!+-]-.|-+= 'barn'
\) l/oster' (nobles' toundations). Thcv and their upland slopcsthe modest church with r
25 - 5 ( )F f . .
d e r i v a t i v e sa r c b a s i l i c a ni n p l a n . s i n g l e a p s e d o r singlc toll'cr. as wcll as thc navc-and-chancel
-l'he
without the rransept and wirhout columns triapsidal at the east. with no transept. church lrith a similar to$er, eonlinue in ust,
be_ b u i l t t h e p a l a t i n ec h u r c h ) a n c lE s z t e r g o m( G r a n .
tween the piers. It is a fbur_tower chtrrch w e s t e r nt o w e r s a r e p a i r c d , a n d s e t o v e r t h e c n d and are adrnirable in silhouette against thc
rhat $herc St Srcphennas htrried; it lics nc,,r 'f
is to say, a church with a to\r.er on rlr,. b a y s o f t h e a i s l c s ,w i t h o p s n i n g s i n t o b o t h t h c gigantic mountain masses. he steep rool-s
each of its grcat bend in the Danube norrh of
four corners. There are rwo towers Butlancsr. n a v ea n d t h e a i s l c s .a s a t t h e c a t h e d r r l o f ' S t r a s s - necessitatcdb1' screre wcather give thcm a
attached a n d i t s R o m a n e s q u cc h u r c h i s k n o r * , r l i . , , n ,
o u t s i d e t h e a i s l e sj u s t w e s t o f t h e a p s e s , burg and its extensire related group in middle s h a r p l v i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t er . T 1 - p i c a l l v , t h e
and two excavations). At Szdkesf-eh6rYdrand F,sztersonr , nd thcl
flank rhe main fronr in a similar vrav. Germany. c h u r c h e sa r e w e l l c o n s t r u c t o do 1 ' s t o n c a
(This t h c t o w e r sa r e u i t h i n t h e r c t . t a n q l eo f
arrangement looks ocldly. like an augmentation 'lhe thc nl;rrr. The cathedral of G1'ulafl'hirvir (Karlsburg :rre often vaulted, though in manv crrses the
l ' o u n d a t i o no f t h e s c c h u r c h t r i s a s er i b , i t l 1 , , or Alba Julia in l'ransllvania) rvasfinished in l a u l t s w e r e b u i l t a f t e r t h e R o m a n e s q u ep e l i o d .
of the scheme for the west front of.the 'fhe
Ottonian G i i l t t r r o 3 o ( r o .b u r i t i s c e r r a i nt h r r r h e
rcrLr,rl. its original forn-r shortll bc{bre the Taltar in- towers. also, often reprcscnt ir latcr mo-
cathedral built afier
994 ar Augsburpi, nor lar existing structure)- rverenot begun earl1.,
or scion vasionof r24r 2. It lrs partlv rebuilt altcr- nent. f o r t h c s o u t h - G er m a n a n d A u s t r i a n
from the Danube. 'fhc
euite unusually for Ger_ linishcd. Though we ma\.recosnlze
many, this building had a pair of square the sourccs wards, but the new work does not disguise a Baroque flourishcd in Switzerland too.
belfrv of Hung'arian Romanesque, we
t o u c r s s c t n o r t h a n d s o u t h ,r c s p c c t i v e l r . are alwirr s Romanesque plan, Lombard and German. The belfl'ics of the mountain churches ofien hare
ofrhe c o n s c i o u so l i t s r i g o u r a n d i t s l o c a l t b c l r n e . sanctuarl has becn lengthenecl, but the tw<.r ver!' prettv rncl cffcctire Baroquc silhoucttes.
wesr fagadc, with a rvestern apse terminating
Esztergom Cirrhetlral, ltrr instlncc. oa, ,.- semicircular trrnscptal absidioles reniain as -\part liom the mountain churches,thc rcgion
the nave between. The similaritl, between -l'he
Augs'_ btrilt under Bela I I I ( r r
7 3 9 ( r )a n d l a t c r . a n c lh r t i before. 'l'he sancturrr bal, crossing, irnd trvo hardll' has an architccture of its own.
burg and P6csmay be fortuitous.) In
a portal lvith columns on the backs ol' lions t r a n s e p ta r m s a r e c o l e r e d b v s q u a r e r i b r a u l t s ; towns wcre not large, :rnd no great movement
t h e c h u r c h a t I ) e c sh a s m a n r . l e a l u r e s " n u . i . .
which are (rzoo-g), showing a confinuation ot Lomb:rrrl
Lombard, even to the raiseclchoir. The
the nar.e has threc double ba-vs,with alternatell' was centrcd here. The abbcl' of Allerheiligcn'
westcrn
gallery, however, is characteristic
i n f l u e n c c . I n c o n t r a s rt h e r e i s B e l a I I I , s n a l a t i n e stout and slcndcr strpporlsil\ro big $(stern SchallhausenIr361, was undcr (]luniac infltr-
in the Hun_ c h a p e l ,w i t h t n o p o r r l l s o l B u r g r r n c l i : r.n. h u r . , . -
plarianRomanesque.
towers rise boldll' wirh a high open sqtrare ence, and, lvith Cluniac Pa-v*erneI r 3-sI and
'fhe
'I'he tcr. Burgunclian componcnt, n.hich clnrc E r o i n - r ' a u l t c dp o r c h s p r u n g b e f r v c e t rt h e m , a n d R o m a i n m 6 t i e r , r e p r e s e n t st h e t r a d i t i o n a l C ' l u -
striking scheme of fbur rolr,ers was uscd
c a r l v t o f l u n g a r i a n a r c h i t e c r u r c . w a s \ . e r \ .D e r _ a s t i l l h a l f ' - R o m a n e s q u cp o i n t e d m l i n d o o r w a v n i a c l b r m s . r h o u g h w i r h G r : r m a n i ct l i t l e r e n r i a -
also at Sz6kcsleh6n.dr (whcre St
Stephcn hacl s i s t e n r . ' l h e a p s c o l t h c
c h a p e l ,l l n r r . r . r , i , j n is set in the f'aqadcwall. 'l'he re construction afier t i o n s i n s u l ) e r s t r u c t u r ca n d t l c t a i l C i ' r r r t i c o 'r t
 +ro L A N D S A S . ) ^ O C I A T E tDv t t i l r N TilE HOLy ROMAN Et\IptRE

mounrain church rvith paintings (r.. r roo), is t h c b u i l d i n g l r a s r e p l l t . e da l i e r a f i r c

r,1I 11_ 22
strongly Lombard. and the ncw intcrior is raultcd.poinr.,l QHAPTER
T h e c o m b i n : r t i o n o f i n f l u e n c e si n t h i s c r o s s _ ,,,,.1,"t

ilff 'l;*|.".':'"'j..",T,ili..i:.l,',:
h c i n g u s ed , a s i r ) n e r r - h \ . B u r g u n d . v . WITH THE NETHERI,{ND.S.\ND FLANDERS
r o a d s a r e a i s e a s i l yo b s e r y e da t t h e l a r g e s to f ' t h c f Li. j,,.i'
GERMANY'
Romanesque cathctlrrls ol' thc rceion, thltt o,.
Bascl,r: at thc border of'the old Kinedom
ol.
Iil,,li
t i o m S t r a s s b u r ga. l i t t l e l a r t h c r d o u n t
\r'lcs or ol Burgundr. 'l his chrrrch hls h . , r r, , r r n
the hql The elaborate ,Grllusptbrte' ., part of this I olunle we have gir en them. There are mrnv other e\anrples none
general f'eeling of a Rhinelancl church. f;.,r.li In rn earlier
which Cathedral is named fbr St Gall, th.
pi,,n.,.',, of the chief monume nts of German more imposing than St Gertrude at Nrf-els or
indecd it is. ln it thcre arc somc remlrns
of a dl account
m i s s i o n l r t o f ' t h e r e g i o n ; b a s i c a l l , rg, u r g u n , l ; a ; N i v c l l e s r l j r g , 3 z o l , n o w h ' i n g 1u i t h i n t h c B e l -
up to the end of the Iiranconian
lireat church consecratcd in thc prescnce of i n d c s i g n , i t i s a h a n d s o m eb u t r a r h e r u n i n s p i r c 4
Romanesque
Under the new Hohenstaufen dynastv, gian borders, vct related, perhaps (through its
H c n l u I I i n r o r g ; l b r r h i s e d i E c er h e l , r m o u s rule.
twelfih-centurv work, somewhat rebljll massi'r'e lagade) to r group of churches in
golden altar fiontal now in paris was 1nj which ruled fiom rr38 to rz(r8, the country
made. flut augmented.
rchieved greater maturitv in political matters, Saxonl, [1": Sl. The building was burnt out in
rnd embarked upon a large programme of ex- the last war. It has a great wooden-roofed nirle
pansion, colonization, and elangelization. (now handsomelv restorecl), an interesting
There was a regularly authorized crusade vaulted sanctuarv,and an imposing westwork,
against the Slavs in rr47, followed by- a long dating basicallv fiom thc eleventh century. Thc
processof expansion at the expensc of these Palatine Chapel at Aachen also served as an in-
neighbours which rvas onl,v-undone rvhen the spiration in this period; the octagonal Ottmars-
Third Reich fell. heim in Alsacc (dedicated ro49) is an example
Frederick Barbarossa(rr5z go) considercd i n t e r m e d i a t ci n d a t e i N i j m e g e n i s o f t h e t w e l f t h
himself the heir of Constantine, Justinian, and
Charlemagne; and he did something after the 3 r g . N i v e l l c sS
, t Gcrtrudc,
elercnth century tnd latcr, liom the south-uest,
manner of each to make German-v powerful and
as restoredafter rvirrdamage.
prosperous.His son Henry VI ( r rgo-7) brought
the Holv Roman Empire to its maximum idealll.
'lhese
rnd territorially. two great nloments are
faithfully reflected in architecture. But the Em-
perors had dreams ofgeneral union lnd univer-
sal dominion which could not be realized be-
causeofirreconcilable Italy, and the competing,
mutuallv exclusive ideals of the papac1,,cspe_
c i a l l yu n d e r P o p e I n n o c e n t I I I ( r r 9 8 - r z r 6 ) .
The diverse architectural influences which
had been interwoven to fbrm German Roman-
esque became mature in the course ol' the
eleventh century and wcre brought to a fuller
maturitr.in the twclfth. under ir new irnd lbr.cc_
ful plal' of influences from L,ombardv and
Burgundl.
We find the powerful Carolingian architec-
tural strain continuing. Proot'of this is the
Beneraldesign, comparable to Saint-Riquier, of
tlany ofthe greatest churchcs in thcir larcr lirrm
-
Mainz, Worms, and Spel,cr C-athedralsamong
 4I2 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I ' I H I N T T I I ,T I O L Y R O M A N E M P I R E
centurl'. Something of the influence of Aachen
survives in thc two-storel' opcn-rvcll churches
a n d c h a p e l so f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r r ' .
The Lombarcl international First Romanes-
que component of the old architectureopcncd
the wav for mature Lombard influcnces.
The influence of Clunv continued, thoush
with diminished force. It had comero Germanv
-i:o. Nir ellcs,St Gcrtrude, interior ol sancturrr'.
declicrtedro-16
u n d e r t h c a u s p i c e so f t h c E m p e r o r H e n r v l I ,
Bishop i\Ieinwerk ol' Paderborn, and Abbot
\l'illiam of Hirs:ru, who refbrmed about r lo
h o u s e si n S w i t z c r l a n d a n d G c r m a n v , v e t e \ . e n
t h e n t h e s p e c i f i c a l l va r c h i t e c t u r a l i n f l u e n c e h a d
not been strong. The 'Hirsauer Schule', based
partlv on Clunl II, is reallr, German in manr
w : l v s ,a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o r e c e n t o p i n i o n , p e r h a p s
not sumcicntl)'closc-knit to be callcd a School.l
M e n t i o n s h o u l d , h o w e r - e r ,b e m a d e o f t h e h a n c l -
s o m e c h u r c h o f A l p i r s b a c h , a s s o c i a t e dg e o -
graphically, ecclesiastically, and stvlistic11l,.
with Hirsau; the date of foundation is r095,
and
after a preliminary dedication of r ogg const..s-
tion continued unril r r27 or later. Paulinzclh
a little later still, shows some influencc f10nr
Clunl'III.r
'I'he
special influence o[ Burgundl, caq.
strongilv to Germanv with the Cistercians bejbr"
t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t w e l l t h c e n t u r v . +K a m p , n e a r
K r e l ' e l d , r v a st h e f i r s t C i s t e r c i a n f o u n d a t i o n r n
G c r m : r n r ' ( r r z 3 ) , a n d i t s p l a n a p p e a r st o h i r \ c
been thc simple earll' plan used by the Oldet
B u t f o r s o m c t i m e . i n t h e e a r l vp c r i o d ,t f t s r l r , l r i -
t e c t u r e o l t h c G e r m a n C i s t e r c i a n s$ : t s o l t ( n
l o c r l i n t r p e . \ { ; r u l b r o n n ( r r - 1 67 8 ) | r \ +
m a r k e d a n e w e r a b v l b l l o w i n g t h e t u l l r , 1 .' c l -
o p c d , w c l l - e s t a b l i s h e t . l .s t r o n g l \ B u r g u n , l i . r n
C i s t e r c i a nm o d c l s , t h o u e h $ i t h G e r m a n u t i r :l t l -
i n e s si n m a s sa n d d e t a i l .
GERMANY. WITH TIIE NETIIERLANDS AND FLANDIRS '+r3
ot'it as arrangcd st'herntttelongohurdiwt.5Richcr
mouldings and greatcr elaboration of parts re-
sultcd liom Lombard influence. lior cxample,
the handsome two-storev church of Schwarz-
rheindorf," ncirr Bonn (crucifbrm, trefbil' rvith
a central well,,. rr5o), hrrsrvhat is said to bc
a n e a r l v G c r m a n e x a m p l eo f t h e f u l l l - d e v e l o p c d
e a v e sg a l l e r l o f L o m b a r d c h a r a c t c r [ 3 z r l , a n d
q z z .I l u r b a c h , a b b c l c h u r c h ,
3zI. Schwarzrheindorl.tloublc church.
r. rr5o t \ c l f t h c e n t u r r( n l r e d e s t r o r t c l l
In France, meanwhile, Cistercian architec- thc motif had been used on the \'{inster at Bonn
ture absorberl the somewhat inert rib lault of b e f b r e t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f I I 6 ( r ' - \ t t h e s a m et i m e
the Burgundian half-Gothic' which was repre- t h c r i h r ' ; r r - rul ta s m u k i n g i t s p r o g r e s s : u i t n e s s
s e n t e db y a b o u t r r 6 o a t C l a i r v a u x , a s w c h a v e St Patroklus, Soest, belbrc the dedicrrion ol-
seen, and the authoritv of this design brought rr66i Worms Cathedral, after rrTr ; Schwarz-
ribbed construction into German1.. r h e i n d o r f, i n t h e e r t e n s i o n o f r r 7 3 ; M u r b a c h ;
onlr d liagmenl ol
Concurrcntly there u'as an influx of nlaturc l . l z , z l .r u e l l i h c e n l t r r \ n o u
Lombard Romanesque motif-sto German.v. The thc beautifirtll proportioncd lireat church which
rich
trefoil plan has becn thought (doubtfully') to be fbrmcrlv existed at this historic sitc with
a n t l p a i r c d t o n c r s c o m p a r a h l elo lhosc
a casein point; at any rate the medicval descrip- arcatling,
tion of the trefbil of'Klosterrath (Rolduc) speaks ol sant'{bhondio in Como l.iool'

L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T I I I N
114
-l'he
Romancsqucthus matured is character-
i s t i c a l l y ' w e i g h t v ,s o m e t i m e sa l m o s t t o t h e p o i n t
of' clumsiness. N[any' of' the examples sufl'ered
greotly from over-rcstoration in the nineteenth
centurv, but thc mass of' accomplishment in
Romanesque belbre the true Gothic bccame
d o m i n a n t i n G e r m a n y -( n o t b ef b r e r 2 q o , t h o u g h
Magdcburg Cathedral, begun in rzog, shou.s
the first Gothic lbrms) was verl grcat: so llreat
i n d e e d a s t o i m p r i n t i t s c h a r a c r e ro n I h e c o u n t r y .
It is no accidentthat St Gcorge at Limburg on
the Lahn" is in*ardll rather likc Laon Cathe-
dral, whilc extcriorly it is a notablc example of
Gcrman Romanesque, elegant and beautilully
composed and its dedication date is rzj5.
In order to deal untlcrstandabll with such a
large number and variety of buildings over so
extended an arca and chronological scale,it will
be necessary to dir,ide the subject geographi-
callv and morphologically.
'I'he
a r c a sa t t h e e a s t a n d n o r t h o f G e r m a n y
within thc Empire have relativcll little to con-
tribute to our studv; we therefbre all but omit
Moravia, Bohemia (excepting Prague [rr7])
and Prussia from our considcration, and dir,idc
the remaindcr into (l) South Gern.rany, rvith
Baiaria and Swabia, inclucling Alsace; (a)
S a x o n y , w i t h W e s t p h a l i a ,E a s t p h a l i a ,a n c l h u -
ringia; (c) the l,ower Rhinc and the Nlain
countrv (Franconia, Upper
Lower Lorrainc).
S O U T I IG [ , R M A N Y
This region is traverscd by thc upper waters of
the Rhine and thc Danube, natural connecting
links with Lorraine and llungary respectively.
Thc parts of the south-Gcrman rcgion which
are most important architccturally lie in the
e c c l e s i a s t i c a lp r o v i n c c o f M a i n z . T h e m c t r o -
politan archbishopric of' Mainz also includcd
the important central and northcrn bishoprics
of Speyer, Worms, Wiirzburg, Paderborn, and
H i l d c s h e i m ; a l s oS t r a s s b u r g .
( ; E R N I A N \ " \ \ .I T H T T I } ,N } - T H [ , R I , A \ D S A N I ) I ; I ' { \ D F ' R S +I5
THE TIOLY RoMAN ['MPIRE
r'ery often carried abo\ e them. This produces a
The important south-German churchr. as.at \ll Saints' Chapcl' Rcg-cnsburg
1y,, exteriors. tall, rather flat, but bulkl and strongh profilcd
b a s i l i c a ni n l b r m . b u t t h e r c a r e m a n t s m r r l 1l . n _ . . I | 5 0 ) , a n d C u r k C ' a t h c d r a l 't o
iilso a trefoil: mass which tcrminates the church at the west in
t r a l i z e d s t r u c t u r e so f t h e t w e l f r h a n d t h i r t c r l l S o n t " ,' * o a n l o n g a c o n s i t l t r a b l c n u m b c r largc
[rnrion ' r n o n u m e n t a l f a s h i o l l ,a n d , i t t h c c h u r c h i s a
cenluries. Some are chapcls satellite t,r l,1p*.
of examptes one, it cleclares itself stronglv in the silhouette
churches. Others. well reprcsentetl br .r 1;n. hirvc
of the whole citv. Somc ol the examples
example of rzro, with an apsidal elemcnt, 11
A N D N L I G H B O U R I N GR I I G I O N S alread,v been mentioned, others rvill bt: tbund in
Hartbcrg in Styria, are cemetery chapels61 SAXONY
(with Wcstphalia' Eastphalia' and t h e L o w e r R h i n e a r e aa n d i n S r v c d e n '
charnel houses. Still others are palace and casrle In Saxony At Wimplen im Tal,r: Iiranconia' the middle
chapels. These latter are tvpicallv of two storcr,5, iiuringit) there arc several groups ofchurches
'Ihe structure is emphasizcd in that it is pl:rced as it
\s in the south' thel arc basilican
l i k e S c h w a r z r h e i n d o r f[ 3 2 r ] . i d e a g o e sh n s f t , inr.r.tt us. on a bridgt orer thc wcsl porchi lhi\
s e r c r a l r a r i e t i e so l r h e b a s i l i c a n 1 \ e r e
to thc Rhineland and Aachen, where, as regularh. in tryou,.with clateof-
give them great savour arrangiement is cxccptional, but thc early
in chapels of this sort (including the Sirinte- olan. Local variations
Wimpfen (befbre 9q8, but rebuilt in the twelfth
C h a p e l l e i n P a r i s , t h e C h a p e l a t V e r s a i l l c s .1 1 6 andcharacter'
is interesttng century) sugllcsts it as an intcrmediate cxample'
St Stephen's Chapel in London), the ruler and The'Saxon f'agade'in particular thc
to the laqade tvpe Gandcrsheimlr in Saxony' has pelhaps
his suite are provided fbr at thc uppcr lcrcl. and imposing. It is relatcd of thc faqade tlpe u'hich
(Strassburg, roI5) handsomsst crample
Thcse south-Gerrnan churches are smaller than o"i h,*o integrated towers 'fhc
church
prominence to rn intermediate w e h a v e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n[ 3 2 3 ] '
the eramplcs iust mentioned. Thcy often con- [7g], but gives
was rebuilt atter a fire which occurrcd between
to\ucrs' and is
sist of nine compartments, with the middlr one ,riu.tu." which is as dcep as the
open fiom the ground floor up through thc
second level, and carried, above this opcn \\csl lrunl' rzr. \linden (lathctllirl,
3 2 3 .G a n d c r s h c i me.h r t r c l t ' .l"i.nth and lwclfth centurics'fagade
ccntral space, upward to a dominant central late eleventhcentun
towcr. It has been estimated"that over roo o1'
these ccntrllized chapels existed in Bavaria, thc
'l'hc
Austrian provinces, and Bohemia. rlpc f.
was represented in the castlc at Nurcmberg^. { m
s i m p l e r p l a n , t r i a p s i d a l , w a s r c p r e s e n t e di l S t f
George, Regensburg.
'f
S t J a k o b ( o t h e r w i s ec a l l c d . f r o m i t s i b u n t l i n g
by' Irish monks, the Schottenkirche), Regcns-
Lorrainc, and burg (dated about rr8o), has a lateral port:rl,
q u i t e u n u s u a l l y ' e l a b o r a t ef b r t h e e r a a n d t h e f c -
'l'his
gion. church is a columnar basilica,sith
groin-r'aultcd aisles and vaulted triapsidal sirnc-
tuarv; there is, however,no transept: the build-
i n g i s , s o t o s p e a k ,c o n t i n u o u s f r o m c n d t o e r r , l .
l i k e t h e H u n g a r i a n c a t h e d r a l n f P 6 c s( w h i c h i r a
p a r a l l e le r a m p l e . d a t i n g l i o m a b o u t r r 5 o , , r r r J
possibly related to this German type). l)ccs.
h o l r c v e r ,h a s p i e r s l a n d i t s h o u l d b e r e m a r ' L . J
that simple piers lre of licquent occurrene. in
t h e s o u t h - G e r m a n c h u r c h e s .1 o
In Latc Romanesquetimes South G..*.nt
p r o l u s e l yc m p l o y e d L o m b a r d d c c o r a li r e m o t i l '
'fypical
a r c a d i n ga n d b a n d s e n r i c h t h r c h u r t h
4I6 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

'l'here
1063and rog5. is a great show of'arcad-
ing in the lower register, and abovc that a veri-
table precipice cut by simple horizontal string
courses into fbur stages, bevellcd at the corners.
These bevels arc carricd up into octagonal
towers, each with a shaft, a bellry stage, and a
pyramidal roof. Between the towers, and just
below thc shali, there arr: three twin openings
with mid-wall colonnettes, admirably placed
with respect to the similar opcnings in the
belfries and the tunnel-like portal directly
below.
The N,linden Cathedral of ro6r had two
towers, betwecn which, in thc twellth century,
a taller oblong belfry was built, forming a hand-
'Ihis
somelv stepped mass [jz-1]. same process
changed thc liont part ol'the Carolingian west-
work of Corvcy on the Weser into somcthing
likc a'Saxon faqade'.r'
At St Patrolilus in Soestl5[325J the corner
towers are reduced to the mcrest pinnacles
b e t w e e n t h e g a b l e so f a s t o u t b e l f r v t o w e r w h i c h
has a porch and gallerv wrapped around three
sides of it. The eristing church wirs built, rvith
groin raults, in the sccond half'of the twcllth
century, and the astonishing great westcrn Iully prolilcd great westworli the nave and aislcs
tower just mentioned is ascribed to the !'ear o1'the church extend to the transept. bevontl
r zoo or thcreabouts. w h i c h i s t h e s a n c t u a r vf l a n k e d b y t r v o t a l l s q u r r c
Freckenhorstr'' has an equallv astonishing towcrs.
f ' a g a d e ,d a t i n g f i o m r r 1 6 - z 9 . A p l a i n g r o u n d The evident love of towered masses rccrlls
storer, with a single relatively small portal is the primitivc examples of the type which *e
flanked by the bases of'two cylindrical towors, h a v ee x a m i n e d i n S a x o n E n g l a n d . E v i d e n t l v t h c
each advanced slightly, and provided with an same spirit informs thern all, allowing Ibr thc
'lhe
entrance doorway. central mass rises sheer sophisticationsand outside influences in thc
to a tall hip roof, with thrce stagcs of bclfiy mature Romanesque of Germany.
openings. Each stage has two twin mid-wall- I t i s h a r t l t o d o u h t r h a t s o n r e t h i n go l ' t h e , r l t l
'l'he
shali windows. cylindrical towers, enve- s p i r i t u n d e r l i e s t h e w a r m y e t a u s t e r ec h a r m t , l
loped at thc base by decorativc arcading, are the fine basilican constructions in Saxonr. Sinr-
plain through a part o1'their height, above which p l i c i t y o f f o r m ; w e i g h t i n e s si n d e t a i l sl i k c m o u l d -
the cylinders (now disengaged by a sct-back of' i n g s a n d c a p i t a l s ; e x c e l l c n t n r a s o n r y ,a d h e r e n c c
the main belfry) rise to two stageswith twin mid- to traditional even Carolinsian idcals: thcsc
wall-shaft windows. Their conical rools are set are the notcs of'the style. 325 (olposttt). Socst, St Pxtroklus, wcstern to$cr'' ' I2oo
upon eaves a littlc higher than the caves of'the Hildesheim Cathedral (dedicated in I o6 r ) htts
main bclfry. Behind this imposing and beauti- 326 (ahrrce). Hildcsheim, St Godchard, r r.13 7z
bcen rcbuilt, hur Sr Michael [84J, alrcrtl'

i+
 GERMANY. WITH Tt{E NETHERLANDS AND FLANDTIRS ;+I9

partly remodelled under Bishop qualities of' German twelfih-centur1. architec-

=-.....-./,/,/ 6escribed.
recentlv' ture may be discerncdhere.At the south end of
il.log f , r 7 r-qo) and well restored
-- for the accomplishmenl ol'the school' the building there are imperial rptrtmcnts.
iiandswell
impressive' It had a wooden- which include the interesting two-storcv chapel
It i, tingult.ly_
,,?, . p t . , which is unusual. and a painted of St Ulrich. cruciform in plan, and balancing
ilfrd
medieval date' Important among its the older Chapel ofour Lacll'sct near the north
a:- . g i t i n g ,o f
remarkable sculptured choir- end of the palace. The cathedral boundcd the
;ertures as a w
d a t i n g from Bishop \delog's period east side of the assemblv area
.oeen
richlv decorated cuhical A n o t h e r g r e a t h o u s e ,w i c l e h ' k n o w n t o o p e r a -
lr186). Examples of 'sangersaal', is the Wart-
-:= on the pairs of columns between goers because of the
/18-= Lpitals occ,.tt,
oierswhich su
pporl the na\ e u all in'l r ei u t hsi gem burg, picturesquelv placed on a height near
phrase has E i s e n a c h .A c t u a l l r E l i z a b c t h ' s ' t e u r e H a l l e ' w a s
Stiitzennethsel,as the neat German
common in superposcd on thc original residence of-the
it. This type of support is ol course
(St Michael twelfth centur--v[329] not long after the Iirst con-
the German basilicaslT [82, 83].
severelY in the last war.) struction. It addcd grcatll'to the amenitv ofthe
suffered 'I'he
building. structure rs first built had three
S t G o d e h a r d ' a t H i l d e s h c i m( r r 3 . 3 7 z ) l . 3 z 6 l
spacious rooms in enlilade on each of'two levels,
is a similar building, differing in that it has a
-- masonrv apse vault, an ambulatorl.with radiat- fronted bv a graceful arcaded galler-r of lighter
ing chapels, an octagonal crossing towcr' and c o n s t r u c t i o n , u i t h d i l ' c e t e r t e r i o r a c c e s sl i o m
'I'he
the courtl'ard. main room on the ground
paired western towers. It has preserved a stucco
tympanum which is a notablc example of that floor (central and largcr than the others) was a
sort of sculpture seldonrsecn at pr('senl. htlt kitchen, and the larEle room abole it was the
'fhe
practisedimportantl-r'b.v the Germans fiom the original hall. structurc was much rebuilt in
' r838 67.
timeof Saint-Riquier onwards.
. l r 7 l n d . 1 2 8 .G o s l a r , t h c P f l l z , r c h u i l t r t t e r r r - i : , r c s t o r a t i o n s t u d J ' i s i n r . r r - 5 o l n c l c - r t c r i o r ; s c c a l s o ( r - 1 In Goslar, the old Imperial Dict town' the
cathedral (dating fiom about ro4o and later, 'i
destroyed in modern times) was vaulted, in a
heavy manner, at a rather late date. Its rathcr
archaic'Saxon tragade'stood svmbolicallv at thc
'^-:::-
l
foot of a long easterl-vslope which was used for i;(f
l
vast offi cial assemblages. I
P l a c e dt r a n s v e r s e l va t t h e t o p o i t h e s l o p e ,t h e ii i
/-l\ ]
old Pfalz,'z0 dating originalll', asalreadv reportcd, tll
f r o m a b o u t r o 5 o . a n d r e s l o r e da f t e r a c o l l a p s eo f
r r 3 z , s l i l l e x i s t s( o v c r - r e s t o r e d ,r 8 7 3 ) [ 3 2 7 , j : 8 1 . ffiffi
f f i F i H

The ground floor is enclosed, and could be frE#l Ed

ffiai w
'fhe trffiti-
heated upon occasion. main hall, on the - f f i s f f i
ffiAH ilI
u p p e rl e v e l ,i s a t r e m e n d o u s t w o - n a r e d r v o o d e n - ffi'&fi
qE{ ffi
H
roofed afi'air with a central throne room marked ;ffi m+F+ffi effi
offby parallel arcades, and communicating with
a b a l c o n y .T h e t h r o n e r o o m a n d t h e l a t e r a l p a r r s
o p e n u p o n t h e o u t d o o r a s s e m b l vp h c e t h r o u g h
characteristic double and triple arches, now qz9. liisenach, Wartburg, twelfth ccnturr
glazed, under enclosing arches. 'fhe sober bcst restorltion stud!'
 L A N D S A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOI-Y ROMAN EMPIRE cERMANY, WtTH THE NETHIIRLANDSAND !I-ANDr'RS !+2I
J2O

I n T r i e r t h e F r a n k c n t u r m ( c l a t e da b o u t r o q o ) ing Gothic influence. Charming and ingenioLr5 RHINE-l\'tAll What remains is to show how in the pcriod ot
THELOWER
shows what the Romanesque tower-house was translations ol the Gothic elements were ntl(lc full Romanesque maturitr the architccture hcre
'Carol-
like, with single sup-erposedrooms. One is likell into brick and rerracotta fbr thc embellishnrtnt l\leusc l\loscllc Rhinc rcgion. w a s ,a s S i r A l t r e d C l a p h a m s o l p t l l ' s a i c l .
The Scheldt
to fbrgiethow rvidelv distributed and horv impor- of the buildings, and srucco panels brightcntll its extension along the Nlain, is the old- ingian (brms clothed in Lombard guise'' Son.re-
with
tant this cit_y-'t)'pc
of rcsidence rsalll.was, becausc t h c w a l l s w i t h n e a r - G o t h i c p a t t e r n s .T h e C i s r er _ part of Germanl', wherc Roman how the placid spirit of Hersf'eld and Limburg
established
so f'ew er:rmples have sun ir,ed. cianabbevsof'Lehninand Chorin} (rz7j r.i.iqy and fine building has its on the Haardt, along rvith thc frank grancleur of'
traditions are stronger
In Saxony the vaulting ofchurch na\,escomes are both good examples of this, as are rhc gr-r1r and most distinguished history' The Wiirzburg Cathedral and St Gertrudc at Ni-
'Ihe longest
tardilv. oltlcr vaults are hall'-Cistercian. churches and town halls o1'Danzig and Liibe cl ccclesiasticalpro- velles[3rg, 120], was transmitted to theselater
territories lie in the venerable
hall'-Lornbarcl, with domed-up rib vaults or.er Bockstcingttil,is in fact the first reallr. succes,- I n earlicr buildings.
v i n c e so f C o l o g n c ' T r i c r . a n d ' \ l a i n z ' 'l'he
double bavs, and thc churches thcmsclves, er,en ful German Gothic lbr the imitatir.e works in this volume man]'of the most important Franconian cathedrals ofT'rier Ij3ol and
parts of 'Lomb:rrd guisc' onl-v in
l t a l a t e d a t c . a r c R o m : r n e s q u ci n c o n t . e p t i o n , stone of'the earl-vpcriocl invariablv I'all trrr shor.r because first- Speyer acquired their
Luildings have been mentioned,
with relativelv simple cxreriors, heavv wall- Nlaturitl' the latcst works of' construction' Worms and
oftheir originalsin the il.-d.-Frunce.
'l'eutonic rate works appear earl.v in the region'
work, relatir,elv small windows, and 'mural The Knights logicalll' adoptccl the is early here as well' Maria Laach, Mainz were more profbundll. affected b-v the
of style
v a l u e s ' i n t h e i n t e r i o r d c s i g n -M a g d e b u r g C a t h e - B uck s tei ng ot i k . r s t h e i r a r c h i t e c t u r e ,a n r l i m p o s - i n I o g 3 , h a s a l r e a d l ' b e e n d e s cribed; new morement.
founded ()f
dral, begun in rzog, counts as a true Gothic and The earll elerenth-centtlr\ calhedral
ing monuments like X{arienburg (r276 ancl ,. the church (largely built bctween Ir3o ' l i v e
church, the first in Germanr,. Ycr ar Miinster in Worms:(,[33 r j is said to on' i n t h e p r e s e nt
rjzo l4oo) and Nlarienwerder(r. rj4o)r.t spcal, rr56) [92, 931 is accomplished t h o u g h a u s tere
W e s t p h a l i a ,u h e n i h e c a t h c d r a l w a s v a u l t e d i n a mature one, in that the lbundations are the same A con-
mutely o1-their action. A large number of tht' in style, and the latest parts have, as
r e b u i l d i n g o f r z z , . 16 5 , t h e r e s u l t r e c a l l sF r c n c h Hansa cities were in north Germany, and in has, a Lombard s e c r a t i o no f r r 8 l m a r k s a s t a g eo f t h e r c b u i l d i n g
German Romanesque generall,v'.
t r a n s i t i o n a lc h u r c h e sl i k e t h e c a t h c d r a lo f : \ n g e r s neighbouring rcgions subiect t<l north-Gernran at the east; the polygonal westernchoir was be-
dnge.
(nave vaulted about rr5o) [zr5], though Miin- i n f l u e n c e ,a n d ; f t h a t i n t e r - m u n i c i p a l m e r c a n t i l c
ster has aisles, and Germanic detail.rr commonwealth ma1- bc said to have a national
Under Lombard inspiration and Burgundian a r c h i t e c t u r e ,i t r v a st h e B , t c k s t e i n . q o t i k . 33o.Trier Cathedral,
auspices, brick construction appeared in north eleventhand twelfih centurics'from the west'
Ia"rgely
In our iudgement the best of the Batksttitt-
Liebfrauenkircher. r21o-53
G e r m a n r , a n d , l a r g e l v b e c a u s co t ' t h e p e n u r v o 1 ' {r/il is not surp:rssedbv anv but the finest of the
g o o d b u i l d i n g s t o n e ,s p r e ; r da l l a l o n g t h e G c r m a n late, mature, and charactcristically German
Baltic coast, into Poland, and cven to regions 'fhe
Gothic buildings. qualities which thr,'
n e a r P s k o l i n R u s s i a ,b e f b r e r z z o . I ' I ' h e a v a i l - carlier Gcrman Gothic inherited through thc
able clar s burn to a fine red brick; good mortar R o m a n e s q u ef r o m C a l o l i n g i a n b u i l d i n g d o n o t
is obtainable, and from thc beginning the Ger- olien combine well with the G:rllic qualities ot
man bricklavers possesseda map;nificent sense Irrench Gothic. But the Germanic qualitics,
of their craft. The church at Jcrichow, not lar under the limitations of brick-work, are at rn
fiom tr{agdeburg^and on the borders ofBranden- xdvantxge in the Backsteingotik. The winc-
b u r g , w a s b u i l t a b o u t r r , 5 o ,w i t h m o s t a d n r i r a b l l ' coloured precipices ofbrick breaking into sharp
ser,ere lines and good proportions, fbr a Pre- spires and pinnacles of copperl green arc irt
m o n s t r a t e n s i a nh o u s e o f A u g u s t i n i a n c a n o n s z r every wa!' as fine as the massive stone \a'allsol
'l'he
I r 8 2 , r 8 - j] . building is wooden-roofcd. t h e R h e n i s h c a t h e d r a l sa n d a b b e l ' s . T h e e x c c l -
b a s i l i c a ni n p l a n , a n d r o u n d - a r c h e d . l e n t p r e s e r v a t i o no f t h e b u i l d i n g s a f t e r p e r i o c l s
Brandenburg Cathedral, onll ab6s1 16111' lrom 6oo to goo years should also be countc.i
miles lrom Jerichow, hrrd bricli construction heavily in their favour. Symptomatic is the lict
u n d e r w a - yi n r r ( r 5 , L i i b e c k C a t h e d r a l i n r r 7 3 . that great architects of the twentieth centurl
It was natural that the pointed arch should like Ragnar 6stberg, Josef Olbrich, and Domi-
soon appcar, and with it the name of Buck- nikus Boehm have drawn on the Backsteingotil'
s t e t n q o t i k ;t h e r i b r a u l t w a s i n t r o d u c e d ( L c h n i n , stvle, sensing its elemental force and authentic
t. r2oo 70); tracery motifs came with incrcas- grandeur.
 L A N D s A S S O C I A T E DW I T H I N THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
422

centur-1(Kautzsch)
restorrlionstutly as in the tweltih
-^ '!{ainzCathedral,
tt"'
much rebuilt alter r r8r
, .., Mainz Cathedral,ele'enth ccnrury'
4nu rrt
JJJ

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t'llli",'
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,-
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it' ' i;r

I t t
3lr. Worms Cathcdral, eleventh, tu'clfih, and thirteenth centuries, fiom the south-west

gun in r 234 in Lombard half-Gothic. The nave
has five very sturdy clouble bays with rib vault-
ing above an arcade s]-'stemrather like that of
Speyer. Tie-rods have been neccssarv in order
to keep these vaults secure, as flying buttresses
have never been built for them. The belfiy of
the north-west tower is frankly Gothic, but the
architect respected the old scheme, which called
for round towers of equal weight flanking an
octagonal tower of larger girth but inferior
height. These round towers are on a transverse
axis, flanking a sanctuary bay with (exception-
ally) an octagonal tower over it, whereas those
at the east are staggered, for the round towers
are one bay east of the transept and its corres-
ponding octagon. The apse is included within a
straight east wall, and the towers are tanpient to
the line of this wall, which again is unusual.
1'his arrangement results in a very successful
tower system.
Mainz Cathedral,rt the grand old metropoli-
tan church of middle German-v [78, 332], is
about equal to Speyer Cathedral in magnitudc,
but the effect is rather different. The red sand-
stone gives it warmth; the richness of' thc
twelfth- and thirteenth-century articulation
givesit movement [3J3, 334]. This work on the
building was done between rr8r and rz.l9,
t h o u g h a c r u a l l ] t h e e a s t e r nc r o s s i n g f o \ ^ c r \ \ J :
carried up in Gothic and then replaced In
Romanesque Revival style, the top of the
western crossing tower having meanwhile becn
-l
rebuilt in Troubadour Gothic (I769-74). *tt
o l d r o u n d t o w e r s d a t i n g f r o m t h e c a r h e d r a l, ' f
roog j2 at Nlainz terminate the axis of the
western transept, which with its central octago-
nal tower and western apsemakesan imposing
front. At the easl there are a more impo:i:tg
transept and octagon, with a trelbil sanctuir-)-
bel'ond, accentuated bv a pair of slender oct-
agonal towers, all enriched by arcading and
g a l l e r i c s .T h e h u g e b u l k o f t h e c a t h e d r a l s t a n r l :
up grandly abore the town, and is visible iot'
''ts
man-v miles in the valley of the Main, which'
 424 L A N D S A S S O C T A T E DW t T H T N THE HOLy RoN,rANEMpTRE
G E R M A N Y , W I ' I H ' T H E N E T H E R I , A N D SA N D I L A N D F , R S T2<

it approachesthe confluence with the Rhine.

flowsncarly straighttowardsthe church. church by Pope Leo IX in ro4g was t h e ( n o w l r r r g e l vr e b u i l t ) c h u r c h o f ' S a n L o r c n z o
tion ofthe
1-he interior, covercd bv rib vaultine to a wooden-roofed nave antl aisles i n \ l i l a n . T h c r e t h e m a i n s p : r c ei s . s o r o s p c a k ,
in ,rached
d o u b l e b a . v sa h o r e a g e n e r o u s c l c r e " t o r r . . about ro-1o. Befbre the definitive con- u n i f i c d , r o u n d e d , a n d c e n t r a l i z c d .S t \ I a r v l a c k s
h L r sa [egun
frementlous aquetluct-like arcatleon cach Io69 the old apse had been replaced g a l l e r i c s ,w h i c h i n S a n L o r e n z o a i d i n b i n d i n g
side s!crationin
of-the nave, with vaulted aisles beyond.
The by a new chevet, consisting ot a vaulted apse in the central space; St Nlarv has a strong axial
efl'ect is overwhclming because of its
vast scale, 1nd a transept with crossing tolver and vaulted movement, both longitudinal and transYcrsc,
which makes one fbrget the rarher
dry design. lpses. The nave rcmainccl unvaulted, but w h i c h i s l a c k i n ga t S a n L o r e n z o .
The trefbil which has just been
_.nrion.ji, groin-vaulted aisles were carried all around the S t M a n , i n C a p i t o l b e c a m cm o r e L o m b a r d i n
sometimes thought to have replaced 'l'he
an earlier building, except at the west end. f'agade, charactcr during a reconstruction at the end o[
one; at any rate the trefoil motifwas
established with its projecting tower ancl lateral stair turrets, the trvellth ccntury or the beginning of thc
in the Rhineland by the eleventh
..n,u.y, ,nJ r e c a l l st h e P a l a t i n e C h a p e l a t A a c h e n . W i t h t h e thirteenth : the exterior, formerly-rather austere,
rt underwent a special development -l'he
ihere. construction of this fagade St Mary became an was enriched with arcading. vaulting of'the
Supposedly the trefbil scheme transept and sanctuary was completed at that
came fiom Lom_ example of the old church type with two axial
bardy - Early Christian Lombardy _ time, and thc nave then receivcd the first ser-
ro the towers. Like a Lombard church, it has a vast
region.?8
crypt, which, however (unlike a Lombard partite \,ault in Germanl' ( r z r g).
In the Rhineland the key church crypt), is closed at the west - being approached T'he church of the Apostles in Cologne is a
of trefoil
plan is St Mary in Capitol at
Cologne:e [::S_Z]. by narrow stairways liom the transept arms. r,ariation on the theme ol St Mary. in Capitol,
A sanctuary which was the scene Actually the e{l'ect at St Nlary in C:rpitol is dated about r rgo and laterr" [j38]. In spite ol'
ofthe dedica_
very different from that of its supposed model its tartly date.the chevet is rich with Romanes-
jJ5 to .].]7.Cologne,St Mart,
in Capitol.
.. ro4o 12r0
i I -i
tlrl o
'o,
lot _ - .la[
I ll'

* tt fi'
+ f

uI
 426

fi8 (belon,). Cologne, Church ol the Apostles, t t to' chcret t t65 3.1r.Andcrnach,church, r' Iuoo
r^,rrnai Cathedral' narc
r. r rgo and later, fiom the east
cenrur)' narc r aultmodcrn
(small cupola and castern spir.esnot replaced ill ,io;;-'n
in post-war restoration)

y9 ( right ) . Tournai Cathedral, nar.e and rranscpr

fi'om the south-west, rrro, rr65 fi.

que arcading and Lombard eaves galleries. The

the tower from each gable. Sometimes therc is gallerl'), and clerestory. All lbur of these levels
THENETHERLANDS
rIb5
trefbil does not have an ambulatory. Its main only a single roof--slopebetwcen adjacent gables, were carried into the trclbil begun about
Earlv
apse is flanked by a pair of slender cylindrical as in the western tower of the church of thc From Cologne the trefbil passed b1. wa-v of with rib vaulting a good example of the
stair towers which are carried high above the Apostles; otherwise there is a vallcv betwcen. Flanders to a number ofcathedrals that ofthe Gothic fbur-storev interior elevation
'lournai
crossing tower. At the west a deep bay under is also notable Ibr its exterior derel-
. { p a r t i c u l a r l yo u r r a g e o u se x a m p l eo l ' t h i s I l r r u r former Merovingian capital cit-v of Tournai on
and behind the axial entrance tower opment of the trefbil by means of towers' This
ioins thc sort of roofing was built over the central oct- the Scheldt (then iust o\rer the border of the
miles
western transept in making a sort of angular
agon of' Charlemagne's palatine Chapcl rr Empire, in France, and flourishing with textile is not surprising, lbr it is only seventy-five
in a countrv which
t r e l b i l . ' l ' h ee a s r c r np a r t o l t h e c h u r c h i s r a u l r c d
Aachen [7, 81. The facets are carried up in .r prosperity) and also Cambrai, Th6rouanne' b-v air lrom Saint-Riquier
days
like that of St Marv in Capitol, in the Romanes_
curve to a central pinnacle. '_fhis type o1'rool is Noyon, and Soissons. The cathedral of Tour- has loved its towers ever since Carolingian
'Iournai
que manner; the nave has sexpartite vaults and reproduccd the Rhenish two-towsr
little admired and rarely imitated outside Gcr- nai32[33g, 34o] deserves especial mention fbr
end of
the west cnd quadripartite and seven_Dart many. its remarkable Early Gothic development of the apsidal f'agadein tall proportions at each
'fhe presumably at the root of thc
raults. rather iike those of thc much earlier
trefoil had a much happier historv. Ir trefoil. As at St Mary in Capitol, an old nave the transcpt and
'l'he w h i c h w a s d c s t r o y c d i n r z 4 z : t h ert'ts
church ofSainte-'lrinitd at Caen. was used in other churches at Colosne Gross w a sa u g m e n te d t o t h e e a s t . n a r c i s a n a s to n - main apse
thus the
The axial tower and the eastern stair turrets S t M a r t i n 1r r 8 5 f f . ) . a n d ( o n e m i g h r m e n r i o n i n ishingly consen'ative round-arched wooden- also a lantern tower at the crossing:
'Ihis Moreovcr'
have each individual f'ace finished ofi' with a passing) the Romanesque St Gereon,3rwhcrc roofed construction of r I Io' nave, which trefoil was planned lbr scven towers'
signs that two towers were rn-
sharp triangular gable, as is usual in Gcrmanv the sanctuary extended eastward from a oolvfbjl still exists entire. has aisles, gallery, trifbrium there are clear
rather than thc existing pinnacles' at
al this rime. Ridgcs risc sharpll. to the apex oi n a r c h a l t - G o t h i ci n s t y l e( r r 9 r ) . p a s s a g e( a l t h e l c r e l o f t h e r o o f - s p a c c o \ e r t h e tendcd,
 '+29
GF.RMANY, WITH THI Nl]THERLANDS AND FLANDIlRS
LANDS ASSOCIATED WllHlN TIIE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRF,
428

'Ihat
vel'y tact rs ot coursc an l n morc and more in
n e w a c t i v i t i es w e r c c ; r r r i c c o
t h e w e s t c n d o f t h c n a v c . T h u s w a s c r e a t e d ,w i t h intcriors in the Rhenish style of' rhe r$'cllih $ral kaleidoscope' '.rnd thus the Empire
of lhe essentiall) heterog(ncou5 thc vernacular language,
true logic of placc, the pattcrn of the nine- centurv, with Gothic vaulting. The Ntiinsrcr 11 a*pra.tion
Iost its eommon L:rtin fonguc' l hc strength
ol-
r h . E m p i r e . a n d t h c g r o u In g d i r c r ' -
towered cathcdral which lvas in the mind of' Roermond is a more active, Gothic-r,aulrrd ihrrr.t.t uf b c t t e r e x p r c s s d
e t h a n in
r v h i c hm a d c the Empire is nowhere
more than onc great French designer o1-the v e r s i o no f t h e A p o s t l e s ' C h u r c h i n C o l o g n e ( . r l r 1 r o i t n . u l t u r l l a r c a sw i t h i n i t
c
"iv i t s e l l i m p r r c t i c a b l e ' L n itr in :rrchi- t h e i m p o s i n gc h u r t h e s l r h i c h r ' r ch a r e i u s t r i s i t -
thirteenth centur]-, but never lull1, realized. twelfih ccnturv); Rolduc2s (rr69) makcs ong ,i. f-pit. porvcr
. o . . . o f cultural unity' Cultural unitl ec1in the Rhine country, rvherc its basic
(I-ujan Cathedral. in Argentina, lacks but one think of Speler, with its substantial picrs .rnd ,..,ur. 'l'hese
residcd alwa)s. g r c a t m o n u m c n t s can
ofcourse, but it lvasnot
spire.) heavy Romanesque vault. St Peter at Utrecht in the Church existed' t h e g r a n d e u r o f the
'l'his to hold the European arel still help u s t o u n d e r s t a n d
inclusive enough
excursion lrom the Rhincland has in a a n d t h e f b r m e r a b b e y a t S u s t e r e n h a \ - es o m r ( ) t '
in the Church had.its meclieval imperial ideal, and to lbrgct thc n.ris-
way pointed out a lack which one f'eels,in the the savour of Hildesheim, for both are in 1 tog.th... Exclusivism
movements ot declslvc fbrtunes which prcvented the ideal fiom being
cnd. in German Romanesquc a lack of sophis- simple German stvle, both date back in origin t9 effect in putting new
'adresse'. outside the ecclcsiastical pale; the realized.
tication and what the French call about ro5o,and both areunvaulted.3-t importancc
W h e n o n e r e a c l st h e c o m m c n t s o f ' G e r m a n c r i - N{uch reconstruction in the prosperous (io-
tics on the great Gcrman works, it is clear that thic period has left us only a few great Romancs-
their overwhelming simplicity and strength call que monumcnts in the Netherlands and Fl;rn-
forth thc deepest response.Therc is a sip;nificant ders, beyond the examples already mentioncd.
'l
difi'ercnce between ournai Cathedral and the but there are a number which merit a passinr
fine Romanesque church at Andcrnach (dated ref'erence, such as the church of Soignies, neru.
about rzoo) [34tJ.tt Andernlch is a fbur-tower Nivclles,r(' which like the great church at the
church strikingly silhouetted, but basicalll latter place, alreacly mentioned, stands up
naivc in arrangenent. Tor.rrnai CathetlraI also glandlv with its bold towers.
has the lbur towers, which are contempor- LidgerT was important in Romanesque timcs,
a n e o u s ;t h e y , l i k c t h e t o w e r s o f A n d e r n a c h , a r e and notable for two churches in particular St
built up ofmany stages,but are subtly arranged John thc Evangelist (a rotunda of g8z inspircd
to cmphasize the vcrtical florv of their line, and lrom Aachen, but quite made over) and Sainr-
thcy break more easily into the sky. They are Barth6lemy.'l'he interior of Saint-Barth6lemr
composed within the indir,idual tower, and in has been rebuilt, but the exterior has retainecl its
'-f
respect to a ref-ercncepoint, the crossinpltower, Romancsque character. he church was fbund-
which by contrast makes thcm appear taller and ed in I o r o ; however, the present basilica is much
'I'here '['lie
more graccful still. later. is an imposing westwork.
G r a n d c s t , p e r h a p s , a m o n g t h e c a t h c d r a l so f i n t c r i o r p r c s e r \ c si t s o r i g i n a l a r r a n g e m e n tn i r l r
t h c N e t h e r l a n d s i s S t S e r v a a sa t N l a a s t r i c h t . s l t r a n s e p ta n d t h r e e a p s e s .
Like thc other churchesto be mentioncd, it re- In various places,like Huv (near Lidge), thcrc
flects the twclfth-centurv prosperity in the a r c G o t h i c b u i l d i n g s w h i c h p e r p et u a t e R o m a n -
Rhine country. I t has an apse rvith paired towers, e s q u e s c h e m e s ,o f t e n b J ' t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o l '
as is so frequent in the Rhine country; the west a c t u a l R o m a n e s q u cr e m a i n s - T h c v a r c a t r i b u t c
end has a spacious narthex with an elaborate to the influenccs which the area received fronr
'fhe
c h a p c la b o v c i t . w e s t w o r k , h e a v va t t h e b a s e Carolinp;irn Saint-Riquier and thc impcriai
l i k e t h a t o f S t P a t r o k l u s a t S o e s t ,b l o s s o m se n e r - Rhine, rather than evidence oflocal creativeness.
getically into three towers. Our Lady at N{aas-
tricht (largely r. rr.5o) has, similarly, an apse
bctwecn two towers, and at the wcst a remark- With this we close our exrrosition of thc Roman-
ablc precipitous westwork of blocky form datcd esque architecture in the broad lands controlle(l
about rooo, which is flanked bl anorher, b y t h e H o l l ' R o m a n E m p i r e . A s r v er e m r r k e d i n
rounded. Drir of towcls. Both churchcs haye the beginning, it has been a view ofan architec-
 SEVEN
PART

MATURE ROMANESQUEARCHITEC'['URE IN
SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN F.RANCE

C H A P T E R2 3

SCANDINAVIA

Referencehas alreadv been made to the remark- and vigorously characterizcd art.
able framed wooden churches of Scandinar,ia, During the fbrmatir,e medieval pcriod, Den_
pre-Romanesque in style, though showing mlrk was in thc ecclesi:lstical l)rovince of'
Romanesquc influences. In Sc:rndinavia rvood H a m b u r g - B r e m e n ( f r o m a b o u t 9 . 5 or l n t i l r r o . j ) ,
has continued to be an important building and thus was basically- influenced fiom Ger-
material for structures of all sorts, and, as in many. The Norwegian Church was set up ab.ut
Russia, solid log-wall construction was devel- gg5 lrom England, and the architcclulq qh6\,1.5
oped and widcll used for both sccular and t h i s , t h o u g h e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l rN o r r v a r , r v a su n d c r
e c c l e s i a s t i c aslt r u c t u r s s , e s p e c i a l l vi n t h e n o r t h . Hamburg-Bremen, and then ul)der Luncl
The advent of Romanesque architecture is (I ro3 5z). Swedcn, untler Lund (rro1 64),rvas
marked bv the use of masonry, at first almost i r r { l u e n e e dl i o n r G e r m a n r , l n d a l . , y ,r h r o u g h
'l'he
exclusivell fbr church buildings. Its coming N o r w l r r ' , b 1 -E n g l a n d . re arc sulliclsnldi6e1-
c o r r e s p o n d sw i t h a n e r a o f - i n t c n s c a c t i v i t v a n d cnces in the architectule to iustif'v considering
wide foreign contacts, including thc temporarl' t h c S c a n d i n a v i a nc o u n t r i e s s c p a r a l r l v .
political unity achieved under Cnut.l An in-
effaceablecharacter was given to Scandinavian
DINN,lARK]
R o m a n e s q u ea r c h i t e c t u r e b 1 . t h e h e a v y w a l l s ,
steep roofing, and simple fbrms necessitated bv T h e m o n u m e n t a l m a s o n r l -t r c h i t e c t u l c 6 f f ) . r -
the climate, and bl thc fict that carlv mason- m a r k b e g i n sa t t h e s a m e p e r i o d a s t h l i n 6 l t r a r i o n
w o r k w a s c a r r i e r l o u t v e r l ' l a r g ; e l yu
, nclernorth- o f ' N o r r n a n R o r n a n c s q u ci n t o E n g l 1 n 6 . A s * i t h
European infl uence. Indeed Gothic architecturc L , d u l r d t l t c ( . o n l e s s o r ' s\ \ ' c s t m i n s t ( . rh, . * e r e r ,
i n S c a n c l i n a v i as h o w s s t r o n g s t r r v i v a l s o f R o - 'l
thc buildings have becn replaccd. he carliest
m a n e s q u ef i r r n - r sa, n d s u c h s u n i r a l s a r c e a s i l l Danish group centred in and abonl Roslildc,
recognized in Rentissance and modern work near (irpenhagen, on the isleof Ze1lnnl1.'1'hs1s
also. Scandinavian critics lre right in safing the cathedral, duc to the labour 61 llishops
that, while the elements tiom abroad bccome \iilhelm(ro6o 7.1)andSvendNordnancl(ro7+
s i m p l e r < . r t t e nr u s t i c , : r n d i n t h e c a s co f ' s c u l p - 8 X) .s h o s c c lG e l m : rn i n J lu e n c er i n i t , 3 1 , 1 r 'nq1l r 1 . ,
ture, crude thel'are combincd to nrakea nerv i t s a i s l c l e s sc h i r n c e l , a r r d i t s s q u a r g $ c s t c n d ,
 432 S C A N D I N A I , . i A ,B R t T A t N , A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E
ScANDTNAVIA 4-l.l

jqz ( htlon ) tnd 3+1 ( rieht ). Lund Cathcdral, consccrared

r r46,
much rebuilt later; c\terior, and interior btrbre nrodcrn ,restoratron'

t++ (Jir rr,glrJ. Qsrcrlar, Bornholm, church, twclfth

ccnturl. ( i)

:.. ;a..,...,.
.aa,::..,...:.aa.)a::a,,:a::::..),:

projecting berwcentwo rowers..l.hc

rcbuildinq I l c c t i o n so f D a l b y a n d t h e w e s t w o r k
o l - R o s k i l d ci n h r i c k G o t h i c , b " g u n t h e m e. I l i i r e arbitrarily, in thc nincteenth centurJ, when w er c b u i l t b e l b r e r z 5 o . S i n c c t h i s i s a p e r i o d o l '
aborr , ,7i (,. rrio) recallsthe Romanesquc
o n a m u c h l a r g e r s c a l e ,s h o u , sa c o n t l n u a t r o n ofColognc. there was a gencral restoration. l'he westcrn strong German influence, there is a marked
of but with an echo of the old pagan
G e r n r a n i n f l u e n c c ,t h o u g h t h c i n t e r i o r art in rhe pairoftowers, begun about r r 50, werc finished German Romrncsquc imprint on the ecclesi-
is French carvings of the porral. Viborg,
in spirit. Venge church, Benedictine, latest of. rlrc in Lombard st1.le during the restoration. Old astical architecture o1'the whole country. A
is bclievcd group, and built in granite,reflects
to shon'English influcnce because Lund (rhcn, photographs make one rsgret thc simplcr, more Dutch nuance is introduced by steppcd gables
of.its small and ibr a long time atlcrward, still
tr:tnscpt lvith narrow entrances, and Danish). austere,and obviouslv provincial building which in brick. Netherlandish fhshion.
its square Luncl is a complcx building .l.he
chancel. [342, 34:J lost so much of its local savour at that time.r A series of'round churches mrkes an interest-
schemc of r. ro8o was augnented
Germ:rn and Lombard influence a f i e r the T h e s m a l l c h u r c h e sl i e q u e n t l ) ' h a v e t h e t r a d i - i n g e p i s o d ei n t h e m e d i c v a l a r c h i t c c t u r c o f ' D e n -
became church becanrethe seatof a metropolitan -l'heir
paramount in the constructionof.the ( r r o.j ) l tional northern barn-like nave anclchancel fbrm. m:rrk.5 plan may perhaps be :r result of
cathcdrals Donarus,presumablv
o 1 ' D a l b _ (v, . r o 6 o ) a n d L u n d ( c . r o g o ) , a L o m b a r d , w a s t h c a r c hi , oftenaugmented b1'a tower. Manv rre in brick, King Sigurd's great pilgrimage to Jerusalem
in Skine tect. J'hc altars of a rcmarkable crvpt 'Ihere
( a c r o s st h e S u n d f r o m Z e a l a n d , in Lonr_ which Dcnmark owcs to Germanl' and ulti- (r lo7 r r). are lbur important and char-
now in Sweden), b a r d s t v l e w c r c
d c d i c a t e di n r r z 3 , r r z 6 , a n t i
of \,'iborg (in northern mately to Lombardl. a c t e r i s t i cD a n i s h r o u n d c h u r c h e s o n t h c i s l e o f
Jutlan<J) and Ribe I r-l r ; ths high altar, in a tunnel_r,aultecl
(southcrn Jutland). Their influence, sandLr_ Brick architecture $as introduced into the Bornholm, dated betwecn Io5o and r3oo N-v,
in turn. a r y , w a s c o n s e c r a t e di n r 1 . 1 6 ; t h e
r a r l i : r t c tlli o m t h e t h r c c c o r n c r so f t h e handsontc Danish church under Waldcnrar the Great N 1 ' l a r , S t O l o f . O s t e r l a r [ 1 4 4 1 .T h e s e b u i l d i n g s
countr\. a p s e( o l ' t h a t d a t e ) h a s f i n e e x t e r i o r
Dalbv has a Saxon jook abotrtir, a r c a d i n g ,i n _ (rr57-8:) and Archbishop Absolon (d. rzor). har,e single central piers and annular vaults,
thoueh a c l u d i n g a n c a v e sg a l l e r 1 . T . ne navc hrs a doulrlc
$ e s r u o r L o l I l 2 + . 3 4 ,b u i l t a l r e r Good examplesof this pcriod exist on the isle apsidal extensions, and upper stages (now
. \ u g u s r i n i a n bay_s1'stem,and
is supposcd to har.c had groirr o f Z e a l a n d R i n g s t c d ,S o r o , \ b b c l s ; a l s o V i t - covered by conical roofs) which were fitted for
canons took over, oddly resembles
Cluniac l a u l t . s ,b u t t h c r . a u l t w a s -b u i l t o n a
architecture. In the region thgre are vrrious Wcstphali,rrr s k o l ( i n _ J u t l a n d ,( , i s t e r c i i r n ) . r I t i s s a i d t h a t o f def'cnce. Others are more elaboratc. At Horne
rc_ modcl alter a 6rc of r:14, 'I'orsager
a n d : l g a i n ,s o m c w h r r r 2ooo Darish churches in Dcnmark, ovcr I8oo (on l-ven), (of brick, in Jutland).
 \

scANDlNAvlA 435

434 scANDINAVIA, BRITAIN' AND NORTHERN FRANCE

their
of the sanctttaries and
Romanesque'the screening-off
is unmistakably
Biernede, near Soro (on Zealand), and Store barn-type nave and chancel church with 5o;,1 ^^rhicwindows, with an anguur weighti-
Heddinge (octagonal, on Zealand) the churches Iog walls.- of rheHotvSpiritis a norelinrer- ;;;;;;d,,osether examples'
flll'.i'"t.n - n t oinu .plan,
ness a recall Anglo-Saxon
have interior piers, an upper stage,and a central As in Denmark, there is an interesting florr.,,1 ]j:;;i"t of the motifof Schwarzrheindorl" r r j 5 f r o m Sigtuna to the,old
pt?li''t"n. nearLake a b o u t
mtinrand'Sigtuna'whichis (old) Upp-
t:*rj,
""rr r"::T:
tower. They would be like the German palace influences lrom abroad in the masonr\ archi_ centre of Uppsala' now Gamla
rovrl
chrpels but fbr the fact that the central area is
vaulted at the level of the lorver aisles. Ledoje
tecture. The work is often rrther crude hut
novel, eff'ective, and energetic cornbinatil;n,
r-,ri,.l
--e
:, il"ill:'il:
in from Lnglano
wtt mi" ,tt. .". b.."*t archiepiscopal In rt6.+:
prn"".l .. were still held as late as ro84 in
the
w e r e m a c l e ,a n d t h e p r e v a i l i n g s i m p l i c i t r o f 1 6 , ,
iansiatanr tt:: tnt t":1:Ln 'glistening with gold" which was
o n Z e a l a n d ,h o w e v e r ,h a s a n o p e n w e l l . K a l u n d -
borg on Zealand has the most monumental works gives them an austere charm. o'l1::':-::lT::
Il"r"it*stt"ainar
i',i"'r"' l:i:
)."JHl' rutns' t
oiir.-pr.
i.pf"..a,'o" the same site, by thc ne w
cathedral
example, fbr there are four tangent octrgonal The coming in of foreign influences is pe1- the two church L i k e S t Peter'
in
t"i"ttrt but , r 3 4 - - 5 o r ' rI f + 2 , : + S l
towers on the major axes in addition to the cen- Ibctly exemplified on the isle of Gotland, which The stone-workis vigorous' "bout church had sanctuary and transep-
Sigtuna, the
was Swedish from about the year rooo, and of compartments with
tral tower.6
an o dditv ,"i"l<a..t1."t in the form
centred in Visby, one of the Hansa cities.' \'isby "$Jtx:?l ,"8o-r Ioo) is 'actoisttnni crossing comparl-
aoses. rlhilc the screencd
c h u r c h , r li t h t w o a \ i a l t o \ e r : the basilican nave' were
had active relations with all Scandinaria, ths orlo.O,"-tnted ment, with tower, and
S WE D E N u n d e r t h e c r o s s l n gc o m . . . ' u n l - however' on a targer
Rhineland, Westphalia, France, Englancl, iha.o-put,*tnt br like those of St Ohf : all,
'I'he t h e narc b1 a narr,w door' and b u r n e d a b o u t I 2 45' ano
Nledieval Sweden aroselrom a union of Scan- Russia, Byzantium, and even Persia. ;;;;i; s c a l e .T h i s c h u r c h w a s
uith the sancluan and lwo church of
dinavians and Goths. 81-the year rooo there Russians had a church there. and Russian in- il,.. .ialf"t doors as an aisleless 'aulted
l - h e r c l;, ;.." rebuilt
'icon c h a p e l s 'e a c h w i t h a n a p s c ' formerlv occupied bv
was a strong kingdom established in and about fluence may account for the churchcs',
r e p l a c e d bv an oo*.rtul form on the area
'fhe " . " r * i r t U . s o r t o f w e s t t ' ro r k ' n o *
Uppsala. first xpostle to Sweden was St with carved exteriors (like those ofthe School of ;;. th. c.os.i.tg and the sanctuarv'
accessto the nale is lateral
Ansgar (d. about 865) who laboured in the Vladimir). which once existed on the Island. Its ,lrrr raa"r., so that At Husaby in Skaraborg[:+g]the
memorres
(r I roo-3s) [345'
r e g i o n o f L a k e M i l a r w i t h e p h e m e r a lr e s u l t s . I t h e r o i c a g e e n d e d w i t h D a n i s h c o n q u e s ti n I t 6 r . il; ;;t. ambitiousSt olaf ' but the
st slitia rna his companions'
crossing towcr still preserved' "r" "i
;f ;rt; has the cornes in the period
was two centuries later that St Siglrid and others Visbv Cathedral, the finest of all the manr old
cach side of. it church, clateciabout Irqo'
from England established here the first Christian c h u r c h e so n G o t l a n d , i s t h e o l d G e r m a n n l t r o n r l ii.r. ,r. tg'o archesuncler *h.n G"r-r" influence was strong' The west-
giting upon a short nave'tnosc
settlements of importance in Sweden, not f'ar church ofSt N{ary, first built in the twelfih cen- thoseat the west rvork looks like a Saxon lagade' a common
a sanctuarv of nearlv equal
north of'the prescnt Stockholm. t u r y ' , r e b u i l t a n d d e d i c a t e di n t z z 5 . I t s w c s r e r n at the east upon in Skine'11
thc to$er feature
.- esPeciallY
Lngth, whilc thoseat the side under have
-{s in Norwav, there wcre wooden churches, t o w c r a n c l i t s p a i r o f ' s l e n d e r e ' re a s t e r n t o \ \ c r s ,t,Vrrttt,.- Abbey,12where excavations
bound the
but none has come down fiom the earliest period. flanking an angular sanctuarv now h:lve Baroque takl tfreir placesin the arcadeswhich of the conventual
lateral entranccs' brought the substructures
inner sidesof the The
aisles'
S c i d r aR : i d a ,t l a t e dl b o u t t j o o . s u r r i r e s : i t i s a bclfries, but tlre (brm of the building, dcspitc

fbundations'
a. Na.c. aisles. transcpt
traced bl excarations
still usctl rs a church
t,.'ntr"ni p"*, ut tathcdral'
to closc tn
i. -{delitions, largcll medicral'
rnrl augment thc Present church
crthcdral'
3+7and 348.Gamla Lppsala' former ).
't
t..:.. of t..pl", lburd br c\ci\ ations i sce 3fr
t. Ir34-5o, thirteenth centur]'
3 , 1 .a5n d 3 4 6 .S i g t u n aS
, t O l a l ,r . r r o o 3 r
 SCANDINAVIA 437

FRANCE
436 scANDINAVIA, BRITAIN' AND NORTFIERN

examplcs' both aug-

Ringcbu and I'om are
elements
I n t h e s m a l l e rc h u r c h e st h r o u g h o q rnl r , . , r ; Ut'tog-wall or vertical planked
'""nlli;"..tnd
-..,,.a
Sr+edenthe same charactcristic\ ,t. n;:r::i' b-vtall GothicspiresUrdal'
twice lengthened
E r e n a s l a t e a s l h c f o u r t c c n t h c e n ru r r . . i , r r . i , l
also thirteenth-century'was
o l R o m a n e s q u ec h a r a c t e ru e r e h e i n q L , , ; t r in 1684), and becamecruciform
ur, i l.
matter of course, rnd ther fit bt.autitirllrinrn "n."*r RingebuandLom) in rTzo'
iiti.,i.
'"Wt.n;-po'tant
""r-"nted churchbuilding in stonebe-
the northern landscape.1'hev usuallr 1n1..,
the Norse Wcst
round apse, a higher sanctllar\, comp,lrtmrnt,
a ean in Norwav about rroo'
still higher nave, and ordinarilv a lairlr tall "-..*"i tt t derivatire Anglo-Norman style'
tower. Except lbr the towers, thc morcment 6i i..i*..u is fbund at St NlagnusCathedral'
thc thirtecnth cen-
the designs is strongly horizontal, and surpris_ Kirkrvall, Orknerl (r r17 to
ingly r e c a l l s s u c h t r a d i t i o n a l b r . r i l t l i n g sx 5 understanclablesimilaritiesto
turvL which has
piers' square
Aurbche (tenth century) in the Loirc countrr nur'iu. Cathedral (c1'lindrical
Stavrn-ger Cathe-
l . z o o l ,1 h e i n t e r i o r r a u l t i n g i s h e a r r , ' r r , , n g i r .hrp.t, castof the transcpt)'
r e m i n i s c e n t o f R o m a n e s q u e ,a n d n c i c r c a r r i e 6 r large aisled Anglo-Norman
l.ul ..."-blt'
r c r r h i g h . s o t h a t t h c i n t e r i o r p r r ) l ) ( ) r l i r l \a r ! .il-- +f *'-i"1f"iin'."-11
iil..i,0., -'thanamplc
spacious.
'lhis
description applics to the filur- 'il:Y]^:.:.:1t'
(about^rr5o;
rl 'l. ', . lt '* ". 1 fn io',*n"o' ornanking':"':"
teenth-century church at Lrirbro on the isle ol' i ' ' " -1
H
' [ ]I" < ^ ^-
:{ ;;";;ih'" pair
[ 1:]-':l t h e
G o t l a n d , l s a l r e a d y ' c i t e d a s p o s s c s s i n gs t i l l a ,6=Ji{ = " " 'Bcrgen cathcdrll' so1e1 r h a t t h r t h e r t o
Romanesque-t)'pe \.ault with its centcrins ;ntact
.. . \--l
roharebeen a srightrrearrier .. .r:-htl\. earlie(
-fff:-.ffit rt,)r \ ."*:;;;;; uur the
but rrrL
i'rl.{ i FIl,;I E .,*' l rs .'"-i"'.Ji^::,t-:-i".fl1l,il,tli'"*'
[ : 5 o , J S t ] . I n s u c h l a t e b u i l d i n g s t h e v i r u l t i n gi s lntluence'
,$ examplc of \nglo-Norman
at most half-Gothic except in metropolitan ^'to ,, .:.tF vault is of the thirteenth
centur\"
examples.
'Ihc
ornament is sparc lnd sobcr, a 1r .i-]"'";; il;"' (Trondheim)
"'T"ll-:n::'hll.1
fblk alt. of st olaf bl olaf
the tomb
o.;;;;;;;;r'er
T h e S w e d c st o o k t h i s s t y l c t o F i n l a n d . a st h e l it.'. i' "uoq:)'Thcsee^was :ilYj,: i::i:-
expanded their power on the eastsholc ol the Ldrb*r.c:llT1:u..cnrh
35oand35r. ':
Baltic. The oldest Finnish churches il) nr;rs()nr)
cenru^. il;;;i;;'';:
chrrreter ] :,:-,.1fflil::',;:i:.*
\\asIhcnbtrr
Norman
:llfl#:fU**lill',1;""il;o'ismut "n'"ing at least partll'
come after I2oo, but in man-v wr)'s thc\ lre stlll
'f ,t. t'o-U-.t'urch' This was
R o m a n e s q u e . l| h c s t y l e l i v e s o n u n r c c o g l . l l r c d l transeptal
i"'tri.i- *n." onc of the existing
but really unforgotren. in much of tlrt l;rtcr i n t l 6 r ' Thc corrcs-
.ito"t. \\its c o n s e c r a t e d
349.Husaby, Skaraborg,church, r. rr5o ga\e wa]'to a
architecturethroughout Scrndinavia. never completed'
O o"ai"g navei
'Cothic"construction' was
buildings to light south ofthe church, the mona- and the tomb-church
Gothic
stcry was lbunded about r r5o b1'a colony from NOR\4'AY]5 iti"i"il. *t thirteenthcentur'bv ir
of.the rotunda of
.\lrastra, the first Cistcrcian monaster\ in ;;;;;;"' complcted bv r3zo'
been
Diion' as has alreacl-v
S w e d e n ( r r . 1 j ) . T h e c h u r c h . d a t e d , . r 2 3 5- 6 o , It is to be remcmbered that the Shcrl'rrrd:' ititi-tie.tr*,
smallcr in Olknels, and northern Scotland $er( r'lll(l(r it was a great place of
is a kind of Northern Pontigny noted I like Saint-Benlgne'
s c a l e ,b u t r e l a t i v e l y h e a l i e r a n d s i m p l e r . Norse control in thc elerenthcenturr. trr lilrt nilsrimage' "'
In Ostergbtland, Vrcta monasterv churchr: t h e B r i t i s h I s l es s e e m e d l e s s r e m r t t c f r o r n ""li""r". t.n (perhapsoperating t hrough
"ence England)wasf.cltin thc
was begun aftcr r Ioo as a simplc littlc basilica \idaros ol Trondheim than Denmark rrr'l lhc H;;;, ii;"t No'ma"
cn- liom
with transepts;befbre r r6z a small royal burial C o n t i n e n t .H e n c et h c c o m i n g o l ' E n g l i s hc h L t r ."uitr r"a Norwav' whereinfluencc
men lo Norr.rar in the middle ol lhc tttttn "",'of Dcnmark was necessarill-rcrl'
chapel of centralized plan and a nerv crucilbrm ;;;;;; and
c e n t u r ] ' . I t i s d o u b t f u l i i a n v s t r u c t r r r e so f
con- King Sigurd wrs
east end had becn addecl. In the ycar mentioned Jt""* *n." the pilgrim
f c f i r r c tt55' wasalrcad-'-
Cathe<lrai
a Cistercian monasterv was fbundcd here, and s e q u e n c cw e r e b u i l t f b r t h e C h u r c h i.rJ,n"* tt r r 3o' Oslo
u s e , r l i t l r r'ttt- building with transept'
the monks doubtless fbund thc austerity of thc \{ast c h u r c h e s c o n t i n u c d i n
;;;;,t; u,' li'1"1
church to their liking. a t i o n s . e v e n i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r f i r n c ll ' t t c : '
 438 S C A N D T N A V T A ,B R r T A r N , . 4 , N DN O R T H E R N
!RANCE

central tower, sanctuarv, and apse with flankinE

slructlon, ordinaril,v wootlcn_roolerl
c h a p e l s ;H a m a r C t t h e t l r - a l .b u i l r a t i e r .r r 24
S : . , ra l t i m e s * i t h r i m b e r g a b l e s .B a s i c a l l r cflLPTEB'
a someu har similar builtling u.irh ge'nerous ;1,,,,:^.
t,
c v l i n d r i c a ln a r . ep i c r s , a n d r w o * . r , . . , i
b a r n - s h a p e dn a \ c . w i t h a s m a l l c r
b"__.'.' F . R A N C EA N D N O R \ I A N E N G I , A N T )
,o*.rr. chancel berond a narrou chanccl N9RTHERN
Both these buildings are in ruins. More ,r.1,'r1l,d
fbrtun_ o l i e n i n S a x o n E n g l a n d .I n c o n t r a s r .o
a t e i s R i n g s a k e r( r r r 3 ,,,,u .l]
3o and later), an unusual c h u r c h c s ,t h e s ed e s i g n sh a ' e a
building, with quadrant-\.aulted aisles, srrongh ,;.;:"i:
tunnel_ molemenl. To thcir brri.
.lemcnr, .,.,]"10, E OF screens between the nave rnd aisles) have a
v a u l t e d n a v e ,l o n g n a r r o w t r a n s e p t , ROMANESQLT
d e e ps a n c t u _ added a barn-liLe wcsrernporch, 9RENCH
Frcnch talltrcss ol nale proporlions and are
FR{\('E
ar.r, and crossing touer. Hcrc ,rnd a ,"rni; ;::,.,t. Uott' OR RHI\FL{\D
clsewhere, a p s e ,a w o o d e n p i n n a c l e. T h e O,""U
casill grouped u'ith Saint-Remi at Reims
w . h e nr a u l t i n g i s p r c s c n t .i t i s n o r orieinal ,,,;;:1"
ca.rie.l,ertl w e r c n e i r h e rl a r g en o r n u n l c r o u . ( r o o 5 f f . ) [ r r r ] l b r t h a t r e l s o n , a n d b e c a u s co t
high. so rhar the inrerior proporrions l" i",.,.::;lJ F]1n:t rre still uithin thc
,.. broud In Rhineland ".: anrches'
cxample ol ,. ro5o or a little
lrt"l.,,,irr."rl the old Cirrolingian {ustrasia The t h c r e l : r t i r e l rl o u a i s l e a r c a d e s a n d s c r c e
and spacious. bord.r, o f
Hlaler, with trusses of Ro: i t s -a r c h i t c c t t r r e a s t h c The ambulatory and radiating chapels of Vi-
NIanv rustic churches dot the
Norwesian membering; l-od.rn .l.ttifr.alionot
'fher it is more o t t h c F ' a s ld o e s n o t d i s g u i s et h e gnory are of the French type, as already noted;
countrJ'sidc. a r e o l s i m p l e r n n r o n r r .. o n _ "Jii:T::'1"3::rl: irench S.hool
slope.
f o r c e f u l n e s sin uorks of the Rhinelantl' indeed Vignor.v was a priory of Saint-B6nigne'
b.rarn
itself felt f'ar towards the \\est' Dijon.
snd this made -l
progressivell' less emphasis' hc Champagne ancl the ile-de-France in Earll'
though with
'douhle-endcr' scheme' lbl inrtance' Romanesque times fbrn-recla sort of bridge be-
German
of \rerdun' tween the Rhenish and the Loire regions l'he
penetratedas lar as the cathcdrals
'B"rrngon,
and Nevers, the westwork as far as area included Reims, Laon, Beauvais, Saint-
Denis. Paris, Melun, Sens' Orl6ans, and
Chitillon-sur-Seine.
Bourges, with Chartres and'lours at no great
However. there is earlier French precedent
for both the schemes u'hich have iust been cited d i s t a n c e .S o m e i m p o s i n g C a l o l i n g i a n b u i l d i n g s
s u r v i ' r ' e c lt;h e o r d e r l v g o v e r n m e n t a n d g r o w i n g
as examples, and it is sometimes diflicult to
judge whether Rhenish influence u'irs direct, or power of the early Capetians had showed itself

whether it merelv rcinfbrced local tendencies'
This is the case with the motif of paired towers
flanking an apse. traced (as round stair towers)
a sf a r b a c k a s S a i n t - R i q u i e r . B e c a u s eo f ' t h e u n -
doubted power ot'the Rhenish stvlc, it is reason-
ableto admit its influence in this matter, even as
far away as Pirris. In Alsace, the Rhcnish st,vle
dominates; Neuweiler, Rosheim, Andlau, the
examples previousl,t cited, and others' are
evidence of this.r
THERoyAL DoMATN (ir-n-or.-nnaNct)
A N DC H A M P A G N E
Farther west, near the borders of Carolingian
Neustria, a morc French touch is disccrniblc in
the designs. In Champagne, for example, Nlon-
tier-en-Der (,'. q8z) and Vignory (,'. Io5o [92];
with lalse triforia re sembling Carolingian
in the construction of hrge and important
churches, and as a result. no really notable
works appear to have been needed, or built, in
the late eleventh century, when the architectural
'
developments llrere so intercsting elsewhere
The problem of nrodernizing t h e s h r i n e s ot'
r h e i l c - d e - l t r a n c ed i d n o t b e c o m e a c u l e u n t i l
the tnclfth centur]' uhen the breath of ner'l
intellcctual lif'e was drawn in Paris' Then the
same t)pe of intellect which created scholastic-
ism waslbcuscdon thc problemsofgreat church
l r c h i r e c t u r e . V t ' h ; r rb e r r i n l s a l o c a l d i f l e r c n t i -
ation of' the Romanesquc stvle in ordinarv
builclings with a clever t1'pe ofrib vaulting, be-
c a m e i l n e \ \ s t r l e t h r o u g l r t h c r c a s o n e d 'n o r e l '
ol
a n d s r s l e m a ti c d e r e l o p m e n ta n d e x p l o i t a t i o n
m o m e n t o f S u g e r ' sn e u'
such vaulting. From the
( a b o u t r r 3 5 ) t h e l a c e o t
design fbr Saint-Denis
'
r r [ ' c s t e r na r c h i t e c r t r r eb e g a n t o c h a n g e
 44O SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN T,RANCE
N O R T H E R N T I R A N C EA N D N O R M A N E N G I , A N D +4r

The Romanesque schoolofthe ile_de_France

lbund thc wav to maturity _ ancl
throughthe patientwork of rh.
region bounded by Reims, provins,
Etampes,Mantes,Gournay,
I.aon.They-discovered
local stone - cut to shape
lornrs and the vaulting.cellscould
slightlyswelling,and built
on. rather than engaged
rib strucrurel.lzq.juot.
was introducedabout rr25
Burgundianinfluence,this
berter.anclcapableot.morc
l-.-.Tlr.lt
r a rd e l e l o p m e n rt h
, a na n v o t h e r
the time- Since under
Lombard inspiration,
rvasprovidedfbr eachrib
u a so p c n e df b r a s p c c r a c u l a r
ment based on linear and
movement.1'hisexplains
Pitit, Srinr_Gcrmrin_des_pres,
iii:
e lc\enth and twelfth
ccnturies
immortality
ma.on, irr-ih. and rhc ribs
Sens, r t t . t e i l uo r h e r c l o r c r
Saint_euen;in,;;;
the bestur.-oi tt.'in.
so that the mortar a l e w
U. ,m",
up of.rr.h"r..rting
uith. the ,rnp.r;;;;
when rheo";,:;;;:;
30, chiefl,y under w i r h r h e n a r c a n d a i s l e s
tlpe of-r.aultbecame
rp..*u_
f t p e i n , , r an , between larple
Norman,-;. ;.;;;;
el"-"nt t" ;;
"n ;:;
ofthe urutr,,t. ion
a e s r h e r di ce r e t o f _ connexion
symbolic ,O*"la
whv the Bureundiu; e n d i n g
h a l l ' - C o t h i cu . a sl c f t b e h i n d
tt oncc; it, r,,,,
vault. lnrihbcd at the cirsl. chrnges
towers:rre picturestluc f'eaturesoi-the lrrndscape,
were ol-rough stone l'ith
thicl_ rnor,r'. i,,,,1]'r the high
ofienendedapologe,i.ri,,"'il'. g x p e r i m e n t a l l rl i o n t b r t r t o b a r . h e i n g t i n i s h e d irncltheir pretn' design docs much to rcdcem
' '--" ' rn r a u l ts I t h e r e i s a l s o a G u t l ri c p o l t a l
the oier.i r *iih tbur rib the churches. Some towers arc at the fagade
W h i l e
under a charactcristic rib-vaulted (this is thc case at Nlorienral), others rt the
r c r t I i t t l c rcmain, ol the work sheltered
or rr: j
c r i t i c a . lt i m e , o u i n g t o u . a r s , a r r d p o r c h .C e r n ] - e n - L a o n n a i s [ . 1 5 l h a : d i a p h r : r g m c r o s s i n g( a si n t h c c a s eo f ' S a i n t - l v o u l , P r o v i n s ) ,
r".on.,r,,.l,u' . l,,' ], .
buildings merit our attention_ rrches oler tne na\-c' o r f l a n k i n g t h e c h o i r - s i n g l c , a s i n t h e c a s eo f
I n P a r i s .S a i n r _ G e r n r a i n _ d e : _ p r i s . Another church of-the period, honest rather T'rao'-le-Val (an exceptionaloctagon), or plired,
_ I ti: r .,;,,
s h ows,amid much than inspiring, is Saint-Etienne at Betuvais a s a t I l o r i c n r a l . S r r i n t - R e m i ,R e i m s , h a s a p a i r
Gorhic *Urifa;"nlr.),f
s e \ e n t e e n r h _ c e n r u r \ .p s c u d o _ C o r h i . a i s l e d b u i l d i n g o f r ' . r r z 5 . 1 ow i t h a n o f ( a g a d et o $ e r s , o r r a t h e r t u r r e t s , o t ' R o m a n -
BS+1,^n 'fhe
rl.,tr irl
o,o a\ral enlrance to\rer ungainly later sanctuar)-. The building has a csquc origin- eastern towcrs of Nlorienl'al
ol.q(ro lor.{, t.o..,h:,:
rich lateralportel, and a famous reprcsentation a r e t v p i c a l , b e i n g b u i l t u p s t a g eu p o n s t a g ew i t h
ol.a .hrr.h .l;,i,;;l,r:::
'fhe of the Whecl of liortune about thc circular arcading over a square plan. In the regions of
y e r h a p s _ t oa b o u t r o 5 o . nave f,.a
bays, with semicl.lindricai ""1,i,., window of the north transept. There is per- B c r r u c c ,B r i e . r h c . S o i s s o n l r a i s; ,r n t l t h e i l e - d e -
interior brr,i;.;;.;
ceptible progrcss between thc archaic aisle lfrance, the opcnings arc flankecl br flat but-
clercstorl lvindows, tr.n..,un'l
wooden roof. It in.o.po.ute, v a u l t so f , . r r z 5 a n d t h e h i g h r : r u l t o 1 ' r ' .t r 4 o . " tresses, but such buttrcsses are not clrarac-
reproclucrions of. 'fhe
In plan, the small churcheswhich remain to teristic in Champagnc, Bar, and Lorraine.
carred capirals (lhe originals
are norn in rh.
Llun-v Museum) uhich us generallv have nrres with aislcs; thc tran- workmanship is mediocrc in the older build-
need to be studir,i in
septs have absidioles; the sanctuar!' rnav tcr- ing;s, and the ornament (chelrons, frets, stars,
with the contemporary
Gcrnran minatein a straight wall, or with an apse.The and geometrical designs, together with corbel
revival ofsculpture. .fhe
church haj a transcpr portals are columnar, but their sculpture is tables) is lar from inspired. How difcrent rvas
in absidioles, a n d a n a p s ei c h e l o n . T . h c r e 'l'hc
was a pair of towers flanking simple; there arc porches occasionalh. the future I
th. *ni.l
a g a i n r e c a l l sG e r m a n p r a c t l c e . "ps.,
'Ihe
samc tower arrangemcnt
_ occrrrs tt
N , l o r i e n r . a ln, e a r C o m p i d g n e , 353.Cerny-en-Laonnris,church,r 1 5 . 1 .B e a u r a i s , S a i n t - E t i e n n c , L . t r z s + o
d a t e da b o u t r o i o . ;
e\cept lbr the famous
a m b u 1 2 1 6 1a. c1t d e . t ; r r ' r 1 , ,
E a r l y G o t h i c s t , \ , l ea b o u t .l.he
r rz.:. interior h.rs
a,Car.olingian fl,yinfi screen
across thc nalc, ilr)(]
t h e _ a i s l e sa r e g r o i n - r . a u l t e d .
It was pionn.:d ,o
build a tunnrl vault
over thc sanctuarr lr:rr
b c l w e e n l h e t o w e r s ,h r t
r rrbrr"or;r,l;n, ,,,i,
was erectedinstead.
In this bridge-territorv
b e t r v e e nt h e R h e n i , j r
and the Loire regions,
o n " r n u 1 .c r t e o t h c r . i n _
s t a n c e s0 1 ' e l e m e n t sw h i c h
fbllow a German n:rr_
t e r n a s i n t h e p r e t t 1 ,n, a r t h e x
at L rcel but ri,.
luture ot rhe Schoolof.rhe
i l c _ d e _ F r ; r n t .rcr . r .
not bound up with Germanv.
It was fo flolcr.
as Gothic, in the glow of'gJrcat
Norman Romirn-
esque, lnsplrsd at an carlr.
periotl fiom thc
[ , o r r ec o u n t n - .a n d d e r e l o p e t l
in rheDrrchr ;ut,l
rn Lngland;meanwhile,
t h c r e u : r sm u c h h c sj r , r _
tion. The plain little church
of Sainr_Loup_cle_
Naud (r. ro5o rr5o)isanaptillusrration_.I.hcrt,
 442 SCANDTNAvIA, BRITAIN, _{ND NORTTIERN !RANCE
N O R T H L - R NF R { \ L L A\D NORMAN ENGLA\D +4.J

N o R N t AN o y r o
work all had a dramaric
fururein N,,,*
'l'he c h u r c h a r c h i r c c t u r eT. h c
Northmen, once settled (9rr) nn. U_..,,,,1.t0n
and con- C a e n .w h i c hi s u n s u r p a s s e t l ,
verted.to Christianitv, r".,,.,,,"i',]1,-1,
undertook to builj
stafe. As usual, there are r r e r c a d v a n t a g e ohuesi:n g s k i l l a d
a
faces of.this in the r, *.,,.,,,.,1.t
architecrure. p o r t , ( h e N o r m a n sm a d e
Jumicges, a grear abhcl lbuntled t h c m F . " _ r r l l , ,';\,a: r: :l -; -
rn o)-+ bJ -\r philibert, rOf f n e b u i l d i n g . r . n i n E n g l r , " '"
whore namc \rc hare .41
neardso often.had declined Ethnic connexionsu.ith D.n_rrl,
during rheperiod .n..n,,,. ,..,,
of the in'asion, but Duke communrt.ations and engender.cl
Willir_'Long.;;;; nrr lrint,.,,,.1-"
t r m ea n d o r h e rc o n l a c r a s l o n gr h e i " , ; r r . , , : " :
i r ( q 3 4a n d l a l e r ) . r r' l
l:ttot.d he*"r, .nj of,t,l s h o r e sa n d r i v e r s . i n c l u d i " *
o , S a j n r _ p i e r r e .t l i r l . r . .""rr.',r]l
',n,,r:l wcll pr.escncdin R h i n e l a n d . 'hl ep o w e rut l O r ",
the abbe]. ruin, rvhile r o n i a nr r . h ; , . , ,; , , 1 :
it is small ir, ,.uf., ..f._
sentsthis morirent, and of'rhar regionundoubredly
a l r e a c l y. h o * , , f r . . r * i"fl ,";.;.i;l: \:ll
mistakable r.err.e which mansro someextent in their
Norn_,rn R";;;;; feelingfbr gra14
architecture was to possess scalc,and rheirpredilectionlbr .cu
so abunAanrlv bical,ca;i l;f;*
Thc ruo n.csrern fo*err (menrion..t 1j551. Through Maine the No
n o u r u r n o u s ) .t h e t r i b u n e
in'u'a-. totheLoilrc cou^; ;';; ;:1;;::r*l ;, :l#: . e r n a l ,a b b e l ' c h u r c h r. o r T . . r o . 5 - 5
3 5 6B
h e t $ e . e n, f , . , o * . ' r l ,
the trifbriunt passage, architectural heritage, the
and the excellent ashla; lbrcc of *.fri.f, ,rls,
s o m e h o u . c o m m u n i c a t e dt o
the Norman". Bur_
gundian architectural influence came to Nor- built of better masonrl', and morc elaborate in
t 5 5 ,J u m r c g e sr.u i n o l r b b c r c h u r t . h mandy in rooz, when, at the invitation of Duke certain details, such as oblong piers aug;mentcd
u l S i r i n t - l , i c r r c, .. q . t +r n d Richard II, William of Dijon sent monks from b1' engagedcolumns, a decoratire arcade sug-
larc.
Saint-Bdnigne to reform the Nornran monas- gestive of a triforium, and sculptured capitals
'I'he
teries. It was doubtless in this waJ' that the o f a r a t h e r c r u d e b u t i n t e r e s t i n gs o r t [ 3 5 6 J .
schemeof Clunv II became one of the themes o(' latter have some relationship to carh' Clunirc
Norman Romanesque architecture, beginning sculptured capitals. One of'them is signed
with the abbev church ot'Berna1.. T s E M B A R D U SM E F E C I . ' . L a t e r , h O w e v e r ,t h c
B e r n a l , ' , r 2u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n l i o mrorT to Normans preferred the Germanic and Lom-
a b o u t r o 5 5 , w a s g r a n d e r i n s c a l et h a n C l u n l ' I I , bard'cubical'capital and simple fbrms from the

357.Jumidges,
abbeychurch of Norrc-Dame, ro.;7 6(r
 NORTHERN FRANC[, AND NOR]\IAN ENGI,A\D
The mouldings have some con-
Lo:r.e tea,.
w i t h thoseofthe crypt ofAuxerre lr rzl,
nexion
perhaps through the Loire region. Bcrnal
s t a n d sa r t h e h e a d o f a w h o l e g r o u p o t t i n e
parish churches.
f,nglo-Norman abbey and
A second great group was soon filrmecl. Be-
forc ro37 an ambitious cathcdral with apse,
ambulatorv, and radiating chapels in the stvle
of the Loire countr]' was begun at Roucn. It
w a sd e d i c a t e d i n r o 6 3 . r ' r
Into this ambicnt canle the great Lantianc
( r o 3 g ) a n d o t h e r l - o m b a r d e c c l e s i a s t i c so, p e n -
35g.Interior elevations:(r) -lumregcs,
ebbeychurcho{ \otrc-Dame, to37 6(i, nave,
(n)Durham Cathcdral, rog-i 9, choir
358.Jumiiges,abbe.rchurch ol \otre_Dame, ro37 6(r
+45
ing thc wav fbr influence fiom their rerv in-
t e r e s t i n gp a r t o f ' t h c w o r l d . A t t h e a b b c v o f B e c
i n r o 4 . 5L a n i r a n c s e t u p a s c h o o l w l i i c h s o o n
achiered international imDortancc.'lhc chiet'
Norman monasteries became important organs
of the flourishing ncw feudal state.
Thus lvr: understand thc grand scale and
noble dcsignof thc latcr abbe\,churchofNotre-
Dame at Jumiiges'r [:SZ ql. 1-his church wrs
begun in ro37 and finished in ro6(r. but not
d c d i c a t e c lu n t i l r 0 6 7 , b c c : r u s eD u k e \ [ ' i l l i a m ,
whosc prcsencc ltas dcsired at the ccremonv,
had an errand in England. 1'he liqatle ol'the
abbel' church is madc up o1'tuo substantial
squ:rre to$ el.s with octagonll upper sterges
( d o u b l e o n o n c s i d e , s i n g l e w i t h b u r t r c s s c sa n d
 s t a g eo n I h e o t h e r ) . a p r o i c c t i n g p o r c h
nc.ilcular
antl the narc uall uith irs gable.
litttiuun".
n r n . . begun in ro5z. hirs lbttr gcnerou:
ii.
d i m c n s i o n c d t l ou h l e h a r: s i t h
, r r dh r n d t o r n " l t .
supports and crouped
iterm.diate _.:l.uTntt
f t o m which intern:rl bultres\cs l'ormerlr
nia6 'l
t o p o l t . h en a r e s a l l ht'lislct lntl
r o s a t ot h a
(opening through triplct arches on
the tribunes
a r e n r a d e u p o f s q u a r e b a v s d irided bl
t h en a v e )
arches, and sroin-r'aulted without
trensverse
ribs. The tribunes were continLlecl, supportcd
similarlv, as platfbrm chapels, one in each ,rrm 30l \lont-Saint-Michcl,:rber church, r. r roo
o f t h e t r a n s e p t ra n d t h e n c e e a s t s a r d o r e r p i e r s
llanking the sanctuarr to a small gallerv around
the apse, which had an ambulatorv without
'lhe
radiating chapels. nave and transcpt -
perhapsalso the sanctuar.t- had wooden roof-
ing, and at the crossing there were fbur grcat
arches,supporting a nragnificent lantern tower
of two stages, also rool'ed in wood. Roofing in
wood permitted encrg'etic tall proportions and a
-l'he
vast clerestorl''. stout walls of fine large
ashlarblocks arc one of the beautiesofthe build-
ing, which is harmonious in proportion and verv
simple in detail. Capitals of a good rudimentarr'
Corinthian shapc receired painted decoration.
The Norman Romanesque was now matllre,
except for the problem ofthe high vault, which
w a ss a t i s f a c t o r i l l s o l r c d i n a g e n e r a t i o nm o r e .
Jumiiges w:rs onll' one of a notable scrics ol' l liet$o grertabber, rf'(,acnshou adltncing
.
c h u r c h e sb u i l t a t t h e t i m e ; t h e a b b e v so l ' N l o n t - s l S t r so f n r a t u r i t v . - I ' h t r v e r e f i r u n t l c r l b r \ \ ' i l -
S a i n t - M i c h e l ( r o z 4 t l 4 ) 1 3 6 o ,3 6 r I a n d B c c ( , . liurll1ni \tlrildl in:xpiarion ,,1 rheir un-
t o 6 6 i l ) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e c a t h c d r x l so f R o u e n c a r 1 1 ; n i c 1m[ a r r i a g e ( r r r h i n t h e f b r b i d d e n c l e -
(c. ro37 63), Coutances (r. ro3o t;r), Barcur Brtcs; later dispensed':rnd arc stock examples
( b e f o r er o 4 t 1 ,t o 1 0 7 7 , r e b L r i l tw i t h a n e l a b o r a t e of the Norman Romar:sque on thc Continent.
a r c a d ei n t h e t w e l l t h c e n t u r ] ' , a n d t h c n a g a i n i n Sainte-'I'rinit6rl [3(,:, .i6il, the church con-
the Gothic sn,le), and Erreur (to ro76), rvcre n c t t e c lr v i t h . \ I a t i l d a ' s . b b i r v c - au r - D a m e s , w x s
t h e c h i e f a m o n s t h e m . B e c a u s ca l m o s t a l l t h e s c b(tju.t in ro6z and hiJ a prelinrinarr,dedica-
buildingshnr.-b..n lost, it is dil}culr to lbllorv ti(,n in ro6f). -I'he
Qrecn uas buriecl in its
t h e g r o w t h o l t h e N o r m a n R o n . r a n e s q u cs t r l e , s a r r c t u i l r li n r o 8 3 , b u t r h i s v c n l i a n d s o n r cp a r t
andto know exacth,what fcatrrres particularh' o l t h e c h u r c h u n d o u l ' c ' c l l rr c p r e s c n t sa n i u g -
ofvaulting - had bcen dcrelopcd at the time I"Il,rntationof' the ori:inal schcmc, su!igestc(l
\{ont-Saint-\Iichcl ,{bbcr., tozq when the Conquest gar,c to Norman architects ptrhaps bv the roval jrandeur ol l,divard tirc
tzz6 and later, air view
t h e i r s t u p e n < l o r r so p p o r t u n i t v i n E n g l a r - r d . 1 l ( ) , n 1 ' e " . o r ' ' "W c s t m i n , : r r ( r . r o - 5 o 6 5 ) . S l i n t e -
 NORMAN ENGLAND 449
NORTHERN FRANCE AND
448 SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN IRANCE

The aisles
its structure is vaulted at the sides
T r i n i t 6 h a d : r n a p s ed c h e l o n . o f ' w h i c h t h c d c c p
northcrn chrpels have been restored, but not
a p s e u i t h a f i c e - s t a n d i n qa r c a d ei n t r \ , , \ r ( , r . , .
u h i c h s r s p r o b a h l l i n s p i r e db v S a i n r - l t . n i s n j
,nnn iii:i"Il:ilill];: :i::l
::::[:': arc groin-r'aulted i n s q
is
u r r e b a 1 . w
s
quadrant-r'aulted'
i t h transverse
with

ro;*ixrilllf]rt:lTH*
lrr.li"r; th. gallerv
'l'here
t h e s o u t h e r n p a i r . T h e m a i n s a n c t u a r r .h a s t r v o at Diion. i s a b r o a d t r a n s ep r . , , , . r " . . 1 This iustifies the
h. transverso arches in each case'
g r a n d b i g b a v s o f ' u n r i b b e d g r o i n v a u l t i n p ;a b o l e quadripartite rib vaulting (rvith doublerl which rises lrom the

'#
cc1;. interior buttressing
a c l e r e s t o r va n d w a l l p x s s a !i epj l u s a h a n d s o m e at the cnds, making two ingenious cincripl1.1111 p i e r s o t t h e a i s l e a r c a d e ' ' f h e profec-
grouped
raults), then a long naveof'which thc aislr rirll.
a r e a r c h a i c ( o f r o 6 6 ? ) . l ' h e a i s l e sa r e c o \ r r r d
b\
a ( r e s t o r e c l )c o n t i n u o u s t u n n e l I a u l t * i r l t p r n t
*fi iriirir''i'":;
Ti'lilril: iion.
"..-
alternatclv complex (a half-column
with a dosserct) and a simplc half--colum.n'
$ hich stopped belorv thc arcaded
passageot th.e
trations; the grouped picrs are unifbrnr.
, { b o l e t h e n a r . c a r c a d e t h e r v o r k i s l i r r c r i.n
i:'il' :J];li
:'J:..
[i:ll,::':l;':i::1j' clcrestorl'.
-l'here

clerestorv arcadc and the window

was a passage between thts
wall an ccho'
ol Ouislreham and Berniircs'r' i n Saint-
date and more elaboratc in dcsign. lr hrs a -l i'"i rt .i n r. t- E t i . n t t e ' : con- evidentli, of the s i m i l a r p a s s a g e
d e c o r a t i r e t r i l i r r i u m , a n a r c a d c dc l e r e s r o r .ur i t h ! . 1 t r - 17 l ' t h c c h u r c h p a s s a g e sbccame.a
Bdnignc a t D i i o n S t t c h
\\ illiam's \bbare-aux-Hommes' -l'he
a l r ' : r l l p a s s a g e ,a n d a p s e u d o - s c r p a r t i t e r 1 1 1 1 1 neJieawith reeul"a,(eat.,re of the Norman clcrestories'
u p g r " ' r n d l ro n the outskirts ol'('lcn'
dated perhaps trr-5 or earlicr (corrso.rirrirclr, on r"nat onen uPon
its mcdierel con\entual struc- airlcs and gallerl ol saint-Etienne
rr2s). This rault is likc:l scricsof hig tlLr.rtlri- Jough b.r"ri ot the nave through uniform arches in trvo orders'
in r o67 or r o68 ; there was a
partite ribbed groincd doublc bars \\rrh rhc tr.r. t, was begun arcade ofthe clerestorv has been rebuilt to
in roTj' and othcrs The
oratit;ntrt consecralion masonrv
addition of'a trans\ersc diaphragnr irrcll{)nlhc
rotlt ln ro85 o5 thc rcceive the thrusts of, and to support'
iotto*.a i n ' o 7 7 a n d rib vault
a x i s o l e a c h ,s o t h a t e a c ho f ' t h c b a l s h a s s i r r r r c l s vaulting in the nlve a sexpartite
ronk, *.r. alreaclr' building a similar but in fbur big
o f v a u l t i n e s u r l h c e .S u c h a v a u l t i s c a l l e c p
l ieudo- (transitional to Gothic) set out
of Saint-Nicholas
s e x p a r t i t e b e c a u s et h e t r u e s e \ p a r t i t e r , t L r l t r n u smaller church fbr the parish
plan basicalll. like that of Clunl- doubie ba1''s.
in Caen,ls on a 'I'he with
b a l h a s o n e a c h s i d e ( i n s t c a d o f ' a l a l g - cl r r r c l r l
the chevet' nate is extcndcd (b1' a square ba-v
b a r b i s e c t e db v t h e r e r t i c a l d i a p h r a g n . r r) rr r ' , r n s - II and Berna-v' lt Saint-Nicholas side) betwcen two
on tht: ex- thrce cclls on its western
with corridor chapcls squrre-ended
Y e r s cr i b a n d t w o l a t e r a lc e l l s o f r a u l t i n g . ' l ' h e magnificent western torvers, Iinished with quite
through
t e r i o r ,a n d o p e n i n g t r p o n t h e s a n c l u i r \ At the cross-
c h u r c h h a s a q u a d r i p a r t i t e b a 1 o r e r t h c l r i s tu n j t
o1'Saint- lorcly stone spires in Gothic times
o f t h c n a r e p r o p c r , a n d a s e x p a r t i t eh l t ' b r t r i c e n twin arches, is belielecl to repeilt that is a lantern with,an
ing of S"int-Etienne there
the western tower pair, originallr open on the Etienne itself. irnd so it is with tlre transept -fhe transept nas
octopartite rib vault' adjacent
g r o u r r d s t r r g c ,b u t s 1 ' r o i l e d absidioles. were
J6z and -tb-]. C.rrcn,
subscqucnth br le-
has a mrrgnificent long nale' oblong rib-taulted bals''fhc sanctuartcs
Saint-Etienne ancl charac-
-\bba1'e-aur-l )ames, Sainte-'l'rin it6, b u i l c l i n g . I n t h c r o o f - s p a c e o l c r t h c a i s l c st l i c replacecl in tzoz b1' I bcrrutiful
which was plannecl for rvoodcn roofing' though
bcgun ro{r.: p u r l i n s o f t h e r o o f ' a r cs u p p o r t e d b 1 l i g h t , r r c h e s
"*fu:+"-
i> zo 6oFT

I IITH CENTURY

'@@6,,@'s4'@@@@-
@
iq [Fe'Snsffils i'trnt qha4 @firo

364.Caen,Abbrle-aux-IIonrmes,Saint-Eticnne'
begunr. io68
 SCANDINAVIA, BRITAIN, AND NORTTIERN FRANCF,
45O

Saint-Etienne'begun ' roti8

Caen,Abba-ve-aux-Hommes'
365and366
 ENGLAND 453
AND NORMAN
NORTHERN FRANCE
BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN FRANCF-
452 SCANDINAVIA,

teristic Norman Gothic design, of fulh {g- exampleis Saint-Georges

.he rnostimportant
tl'.^i",-Hl"t,in-de-Boscherville-'
veloped character and local savour. { 368' j6q l'

"r"i,.r."'"11.'
1',, ffi:
It is easl'to compare the typical Gothic r a1111-
ing of the sanctuary with the transitional rrol1
dated about
::.lT;[i]:-:,:',..1'
rr2i' ratner c
in the nave [f66]. The big double nave bars lyg centur) ',
nineteenth :- +L- I ofrib raulting is,
handsome, but the sexpartite vaults are uncis\. ProEressachier ed rn tne a r r
of
in design. Nevertheless, due to the prestigr of v i e w o t t h e g e n e r a lh i s t o r v
fr";,";;;;1";"l
the grert Norman works, the sexpartite vault the most important achievement
ar"afrir"",".",
was widely used in Early Gothic work of im- "of-rh" style' How did the
Nor-u" Romanesque
portance the cathedrals of Sens, No1on, t The.question is one of the most
,U""t.. O"tt"
to propose
Notre-Dame in Paris,and Laon among othcrs,
iin"rn,o un.*"t, but we venture
with two square bays ol'vaulting in each aisle
our solution' 'lrat the French archi-
' ^ - r tl
flanking each great sexpartite bay of the high First of all, we record
v:rult. There were also experiments, as in thc historians now accept John Bilson's
'i#"trt"ito
tectural rib-
little church o1'Bury,le with square rib-vaulted dateof Io93-Iro4 for the
nave bays, each with a narrow oblonp; rib i'atrlt
;;i;;.;;tt.,^rv andchancelaislesat Durham
far-northernEng-
in the aisle to either side. E ventualll, the superior
[^JitiJ f,unt, ir6] in
'processional effect'ofunifbrm nave ba1.slecl to
ffi.il;;;rk i'u't havea Normanback-
the sexpartite rault being giren up, excepl .tl vastchurch
theConfessor's
ti"t.u,lit ui*ard dedicatedinroo5)
Bourges, where magnificent bavs rvere built
it W"stminsttt(c' ro45-5o'
over the nave in the lourteenth centurv' not ro weremore importxnttnan
]-butbothbuildings ille'
be repeated on that scale until the construction
jn
;"il'.* "; :I.ll"lTJ.):'"T,'JJ,,tii[ t 6 8 r n r l 3 o o .S a i n t - M a r t i n - d e - B o s c h'e r rr t z3 I
i"..", ,itt.t church of Saint-Gcorges'
of the nave of St John the Divine, New York, PerhaPsin the creatrono spireGothic
the twentieth. The normal High Gothic nalc grandeurwascommunl-
some,park of imperial
has, like the Gothic sanctuary of Saint-Etienne, *"t *hich *e 'un o"lv suess'throush
;;;;;;i"
" Engllnd and
square bays in the aisles and oblong bavs in the the historic contacts of Saxon
high vauit. Rhine countrY' and that
il;';;;;t with the
In Normandy the construction of notablt account in assessing the
must be taken tnto
buildings continued in the twelfih centur'\, powersol the stlle'ru
aboul
which was prosperous there, as elsewhcre "i.'N"t*,"tt' t'om tht Loirecountrr'
A b o u t r r o o , H e n r v I B e a u c l e r cb u i l t a f o r m i d - of auxilirrr'r'ribsin the middle
,"r" ."*. *
able donjon within. and olherwise grcrtlr
";e u"ult'd baYs(St Martin
;;:;;;tAoi""'1
"t ro5o [rr5]l
strengthened, the chiteau begun by Willirnr i""tt a*er chamber'about
of the north-west tower
the Conqueror in Caen.r0It is now modillcd' Srn.u", grounclstore-v
but still recognizable as a first-class militart 'o771' Ba1-eux' in the abbe-vof
ii;i.
"tii.o'"l, of di:tphragms
work. in the tradition of Beaugencv, Lochcs iri",-Vit.t, alsohad an example
that when knorvledge
[ z o 8 l . a n d F a l a i s e .T h e a g e i s , h o r v e r e r . m t t < l r '.".- 1trr.6stieve
better represented b1 fine churches. Less,rr "".,,n. f,o*Uurd rib raults canre late in the
oi-,ft.
them-
( r . r o g o r r 3 5 ) , C e r i s y ' - l a - F o r !t , 2 :a ( i c r I l i o ;i.;;;,;;;""r'v' the Norman builders
three traditions'
(rvhich may have had diaphragm arches), ano
""'*i,".t."o'i'-
tiit"t'itt"ot""d ideasfrom
the
Saint-Vigor, near Baveux2r (which most ccr'-
tainll' had diaphragm arches across the narc' T""f :
i'ff:lj',::;T.ff
nay (ror7) had beenat n
nale
vault ofthe
l )r.ea b b e r si n t l r c
l i k eC e r n y - e n - L a o n n a i s l . 1 5 3a ft * int pseudo-sexpartite
367.Crren,Abbaye-aur-Hommcs,Saint-Etiennc, lbr' and
r r p p l i c a t i oonf v a u l t i n g r, . I I r 5 ( i ) reeion of Caen which built well. Near Roucn in Caenis accounted
i"i",.-f'l"it6
"f
45.t sc.{NDINAVIA. BRITAIN, AND NORTHERN FRANCE
t h e r r u e s e x p a r t i t ev a u l t o f S a i n t - E t i e n n e c o m e s
as a natural, inventive devclopment, llreadl
suggesteclb1'the cincopartite r,aults ofthe tran-
sept ends at Sainte-Trinit6. The navc vaults r,rf'
S a i n t e -l r i n i t e a n d S a i n t - E r i e n n e h a r e l o n g
been dated about rr4o and rr3,5 rcspectivelv,
but the dates were proposed when the datc o{'
r r z8 li fbr the high vault of the nar e of Dur-
h a m r v a s n o t \ e t a c c e p t e d . r tT h e e l d e r g e n e r a -
tion of French historians worked out a con-
sistcnt s\stcm ol'relationships, and a relatit:e
chronology which must be maintainecl, but the
enscmble ofthcir dates has been pror.ed to be as
'l'he
much as twent), or thirtv years too late.
n e c e s s a r \ c o r r e c t i o n g ; i r , e sd a t e s n e a r r r o 5 r 5
lbr the high vaults which replaceclwooden roof-
i n p i o v e r t h e t r a n s e p t sa n d n a v e s o f t h e a b b e y s
in Caen.rf .{.fter this, (urther influcnce liom
Burii-undr brought in the decisitelr important
pointed arch, usedin the rib r ault oler Durham
navc (rrz8 j:) lS16,:llJ.In the end. after
hesitation because ol the prestige of Norman
w o r k w i t h i t s d o u b l e b a 1 , st,h e l o g i c o f d e s i g n e r s
in the ile-de-Frirnce established the more
b e a u t i f u l s 1 ' s t e mo f u n i f b r m o b l o n g b a 1 ' si n t h e
high lault, unilbrm square bars in the :risles,
and light, thin ashlarvaulting cellsfor them lll.
E N G L A N D :T H E S A X O - \ O R N T AO
NV E R L A P
'lhc
eleventh centurl fbund a rather decadent
England, better integrated
because of the
Danish conquest, but not progressing in the
rh1'thm ol-the Continental countries. \orman
influcnce began to plav strongll on the Island
-I'he
with Edward the Conf'essor(ro+z 66).
name Saxo-Norman or.erlap is applied to thc
period during which Saxon surr-ivals wcre
modifiecl br.the nerl flow of influcnccs. -{.ticr the
C o n q u e s t o f r o 6 6 t h e c e n t r e s b e c a m ee l e r m o r c
m a r k e d l r N o r m a n , b u t r e { u g e e s ,g o i n g t o t h e
north of England and to Scotland,took the old
stvle with thcm, and it was thcre onh,graduallr.
brought up to datc. A lelated phenomcnon pro-
d u c e d t h e h i g h l v n a t i l e d e s i g n so f C o r m a c \ 1 1 . -
Carthv's Chapel at Cashelof the Kings in {rg-
l a n d ( . r r 2 4 3 - + [) 2 9 ] a n d S t R c g u l u s( S t R t r l c l
at St Andrervsin Scotland (r. r rz5 3o).:' I.,rch
one is r steep-roofed narc-and-chancel church.
vaulted, built of improved masonrl prescnrins
\ o r m a n d e t a i l a n d a s l e n d e rs q u a r eI o $ e I r i l l r c r
than thc traditional round lbrm. But the *'riring
o n t h e w a l l f o r t h e o l d s n l e a p p e a r e da s e , r r l , , 1 .
Edward the Conl'essor's Westminster {bber.
( r . r o 4 5 - 5 o ,d e d i c a t e d i n r o 6 5 ) . r 0E x c a r a t i o n s
s h o w t h a t i t w a s l i k e a t 1 ' p i c a lN o r m a n l b h c r ,
g r a n d e r t h a n a n v t h i n g t h e n e x i s t e n ti n E n g l nn d I
thev show that the conventual buildings lcrc
l a i d o u t o n a C l u n i a c p l a n , ' , r n dt h a t t h e s p i l i r c d
rcpresentation on thc Blveux tapestr\ con\ c\ s.
i n d i a g r a m m r t i c l b r m , a g o o d i d e ao l t h e c h u r c h .
It had a $estern tower pair, six double bars in
the narc, a transept with a tall crossingto$cr,
and a sanctuarv separated liom two paral)cl
c h a p e l s ,a l l w i t h a p s e s .E v i d e n t l v t h e r e w a s n o
m o r e o f S a x o n i n i t t h a n w a s o b l i g a t o r l -b e c a L r s e
o f c r a f t c o n d i t i o n s ,a n d t h i s b e c a m ei n c r e a s i n 3 - l r
t r u e a s t h e v e a r sp a s s e d .
h-ORMAN ENGI.AND
W i t h t h e C o n q u e s t ,s o c i e t y ,t h e g o v e r n m e n t ! t h e
Church, and the architecture rapidly becarnc
Norman. The Duchv had been clererlr organ-
ized irs an ellective f'eudal statc, and this proccss
proved to be but a dress rehearsal lbr England.
As in Normandr', a group of great Benedictinc
abbevs became an instrument of polict in thc
pacilication and development of the countr\.
T h e g r e a t n e s so f t h e o p p o r t u n i t _ r - ' r r ntdh e a b u n -
d a n c c o l r e s o u r c c sb r o u g h r i t a h o u t t h a t t l r r
most splendid oi Norman churches are to bt
(bund in England.
Therc s'as a surge of great churchcs rr ;rll
ecclesiastical England was renewed and trirns-
l b r m c d . F o l l o u i n g C o n t i n e n t a lm o d e l s ,t h e t l i -
a p s i d a lp l a n a l r e a d ve x e m p l i f i e da t W e s t m i n s t c r
rranscPt'ittet to77
. \ b b e - v( r o 4 5 ) u a s u s e d l b r t h e n e s c a t h e d r a lo l 37o.St AlbansAbbe)'
 NORTHERN FRANCEAND NORMAN ENGLAND :+57
456 s c A N D r N A V r A , B R T T A T N ,A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E

Canterbury (ro7o),r1 Lincoln (ro7z),32 Old first built, prcsentecl lew

These buildings, as
Sarum (ro76),rr Rochester (to7i),ro and the p r o b l e m s . a n d s i n e e .t h e r h l r c ' r l l ' u h e r e
new
a b b e y s o f B u r y S t E d m u n d s ( r o 7 o ) , 3 5a n d S t bc'en ctrnsiderahh motlitied bv
,,itt .*;tting.
Albans (ro77) [j7o].," Battle Abbel'(ro67), the their dcscription antl rnrlrsis i:
ilter adr'lition,"
Conqueror's own lbundation near Hastings, m o t t p r t t lcli to the r olume ol thc Pclr"rrr
g o rt h .
was colonized bv monks from Marmoutier, near ,4' 4rt uhich is entirelr tleroted to
Histurl
Tours, in the 'ambulatory country' and naturally lr
architecture Yet thel'must
f,nglishmedieval
carried onward the Jumidges Rouen group of noticc here' fbr the tremendous
,aaaiua aorn.
Norman works, which now grew bv the addition o f c h u r c h and castle building in
undertaking
o f S t A u p ; u s t i n e ' sa b b e y a r C a n t e r b u r ) . ( r o 7 3 ) , , t onc of the most striking
theConqueror'stinlc is
the cathedral of Winchester (ro79),rn and that ol medieral :lrchitcclure'
e p i s o d e si n t h e h i s t o r v
o f W o r c e s t e r ( r o 8 4 ) . 3 eT h e s e b u i l d i n g s w e r e g r e a t w o r k s r r e a ll ertraordinarilr bold'
The
begun under the Conqueror, who died in ro87.
simple, a n d u n i l b r m i n s t r l e ' \ p e u s cc a m e i n
Other great cathedrals followed immediatelv (tti5
the Great Anarchl of-Stephen's reign
G l o u c e s r e r (r o 8 7 ) [ 3 7 r] . r " a n dN o r * . i c h 1r o g o . 1 , which a w l r n t , m u c h o r n a m e n t cd latc
" 5 4 ) ,a f t e r
with the ambularorv plan; Elv (i. rogo) and stvle rvas used, with the nerv Cistercian
i.lor-rn
D u r h a m ( r o 9 3 ) 1 3 5 9 n ,3 7 2 , 3 7 5 7 l w i t h t h e t r i - ln
architecture as a becoming foil antl contrast
apsidal plan, and every one of them on a "".-**WW;,ry
the grealuorks nol onlt scrc the tlimcnsions T-r
magnificent scale.a2 imposing rrerntndouslr long prucessional
naves,extended transepts' relativell dcep sanc- j ; . 1 . P c t c r b o r o u g h ( . r t h c d r a l ' h c gU N I I I i '
37r. Gloucester Cathcdral, begun roo7, nave
372. Durham Cathedr:rl,Galilee,c. r r75 t u a r i e s b u t t h e s c a l eo f t h e s m a l l e r p a r t s w a s
g e n e r o u s ,p a r t i c u l a r l ] s o i n t h e t h i c k w a l l s , t h e
stout piers (olten cvlindrical), and the well- ot a church now memorabh rcbuilt in Gothic'
turned arches. Churches befbre Durham were Legendarl' Glastonburl perished bv lire in
not specificalll'planned for vaulting' ercept per- r r8z. and was rebuilt in overwrought tardy Ro-
haps in the apscs,aislcs,and gallcrics' which mcncsqueand prorincial Gothit. but it nou
means that the clerestorics and galleries could r u i n et 1 .
-I'here
be generous irntl open under thc trussed navc w a s a c t r n s i d e r a b l er e n c u a l o f . p a r i s h
r o o f s .I n t h e n a v s sp a r t i c u l a r l ] ' t h e r e w c r e h a n d - churches,manl of'them verl' simple. and not
some effects of arcading, stalie upon stalie' en- rcn clill'ercnt in plan and scale from Saxon
riched bl' archivolt mouldings ancl shafting' uorks. Thc nlrc-and-chancclttpe cotttinttetl
T h e b c a u t i l u l b u f l : r n d u h i t e l i m c s t o n c( m r r c h in urc, lnd \{ils trrnsnlilted to Cothit lrclri-
o l ' i t t r a n s p o r t c d l i o n l ( a c n ) h . r s r c r : r i r t c t li t s t ( c ( u r c . T h e c h u r a c t e r i s t i c\ o r m a n m u s o n r r i s
o r i g i n a l t i e s h n c s s .a n d i s a g r c i l b e J t l l \ o l l h c s c eis\ to recognizc. and Norman enriclrments'
interiors.Abuntlant light liom thc clerestories parlicularlv the chevron,areeflictivclr used' St
plays upon the boldll' articulated architectural Peter at Northampton alld Iftlev church near
forms, sometimes in simple rhvthms, some- Orlbrtl arc uell-Lno$n tramPles'
'l'his
t i m e si n d o u b l e b a l s , w i t h t a l l p r o p o r t i o n s N l l n v c a s t l e sw e r e b u i l t i n E n g l a n d i n R o -
i s e s p e c i a l l yt r u c o f E l . v ( r . r o g o r r 8 o ) [ j 7 4 ] 1 1 manesquc timcs thc most notable bcing' ot
-l'owcr
coursc. the \\l-rite in Lonclon' rvhich
a n d o f P e t e r b o r o u g h( r r r 8 r . r z o o ) [ 3 7 3 ] , w h i c h
has an original painted ceiling. At Ely, Malmes- stands p r a c t i c a l l v a s i t w a s built (ro7tt q71'
later'
bury, Rochester, and Kilpeck there is t)'m- though the satellite buildings are much
i s r t t o r r c r h ottsc
panum sculpture. .{t Exetcr Cathedral one finds E s s c n t i a l l rt h c k e c p o t d o n i o n
i n I v e r v r e d u c e d t o r m at
two rich towers(of r'.r r 5o)marking thc transcpt such:rs we hare seen
 458
NoR THIRN FRANcE AND NoRMAN l\til'AND '+59

.;7.1.Ell C-arhedral,
rcstorafionstefch ol' fiEade,
f wcllilr ccntur.rand later c a s t l e - b u i l d i n g c o n t i n u e du n d e r F I e n r - \ N o r n t i r n c l r ' ,a n d C l u n v I I . L i l c i r s c l d e r c o n -
,r35);
tl ( r r 5 a - t i g ) , $ ' i t h a c o n s t a n t l li n c r e a s ^ i nugs g tcmporar\. (.luni III, I)urhrrrt*ls planned
circular. anclconcentric firrrrrs f i o n r t h c b e g i n n i n g t o b c c n t i r c j r r a u l t e d ,a n c l
9; 5emicircular,
br' (,rtrsadcr lr>rl and (rthcr lbrt;- $as broup;ht t() completion in the coursc of
suggested
ficationsin the Near East. t h i r n ' - f i r e u r l c l r t r l e a r s ( t r r r r r S 0 l ' I r 1 . 3 )r v i t h
In connexion llith residentialwork. il e shou lcl o n l r o n c p c r i o t l o t h e s i t a t i g n . ( . h d n g e ss i n c e
n o t e h o u s e s , l i k e t h e J c w ' s } J o u s ei n L i n c o l n . t h c n h a r e f b r t h e n r o s t p a r t l r e c l rk i n d l r I t h e
which recall arcaded houseson thc (.orrtincnt, c l o r n i n a t i n g l i r r c c o t t h e R o n r u c s q t r ed c s i g n
s u c ha s w e h a r e s e e n a t C l u n r . c a s i l r c i r r r i e s G o t h i c a c l t l i t i o n sl i l c t h e C h a p c l
A s w i t h t h e c a s t l e s ,s o r r ' i t ht h e c h u r c h e s :i t i s o l N i n c A l t a r s ( t h c e i t s t e r n r r i r n s e p ta) n t l t h t '
'l'lie
the earliest great bllildings l.hich arc unlorglct- c r o s s i n gt o r r ' e r . \ ' . r s tb u i l ( i l n g 5o l t h c c a t h c -
t a b l e .T h e C a n t e r b u r t o l l , a n t i a n c1 r o 7 o 7 ) a s dral monastcrr. still complercon thc south ol'
l u g m e n t e d b r P r i o r s L r n L r l p ha n d C o n r a d ( , - . t h e c h u r c h , r ' c t r c t i r i n t h e i r . R o n r r n c s q u cp l i r n ,
IO97-rI3o) rvas an crtraordinarr picce <lf t h o r - r s ht h c c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r c n 0 $ h r g c l r o f '
'lhe
architecture. rvondertul srvecpof \orrvich G o t h i c c i a t e.
G t h e d r a l ( r o r - 1 or r . 1 . 5 )b, o t h c r r e r n r l a n d i n - D u r h l m i s o n c o f t h e n t o s t m ; r s c u l i n co f
ternal, is one of the most dranraticthings u,hi ch 'l
c h u r c h c l e s i g n s[ . ; ; - i , . ; S q s l . h c n r o d r t l a lu n i t

375.Durham Cathedral,begunrog.1 J'

I
l}

t.to+*.t

tlt.t.to+]
- o
*
'

'l
thr o r , r c ro l D o r l a U r r a c a a r L . o r
i r r r u b i i r s ., l . h c s t r t ' l ) g t h c n c ( lb , r q u o i n i n r : - l r n c l
r c s i d e n t i a lp a r t s o f ' r h c p i l i r s t c rs t r i p s o f Romanesqu. 'l'nrr
\ [ ' h i r e . l . o r r . e ra r c t i a n r e c l a s h l a r a r c h i l c c t u r r c d n o H ( . r . i| ) u r h r r r n i s t h c o l c l n o r t h e r n . r / / / i i l r ,( s c \ c n 1 c ' e t ) .
uhich cmphasizc the
rn uood, u-irh srout lire_rralls i u r g - u h r . i t ro l t i r e Lathedral uas
clir.idingit into b t r i l d i n g .' l ' h e w a r c l i s h l r d h s u r . p r r s r ci d
n irs rlrrr.antl douhle bars fornt thc choir'. irntlthrce tnot'c.
thrce rectilincar srctions, irrcgslar, bul rrrLrslrtr
'l c a c h ivith fbur lcr cls. oblong. I fbnc inclu<ics lt"bor, i r r h r : a i r r r f s c r t . n rf i n : r l i r r u . h i c h h c - p l u s n r o o b l o n s b d r s , l b r m t h e r r l r c 1 3 , 7 6.,3 7 7| I
he chapcl ol Sr.John, lr.ith r l r en r an r u n l r c h i r c c rr u . ; r l t o n g so f
r a u l t c d a i s l e sa n c l ' n l o t l c - x n ( l - h J i l c t ' r i g h t t o t h e B f ( a r e \ t r n a . r e r p i . . t . c r .l 1 c a c h l r m o f t h c t r a n s e p t h r r s r r t l o L t b l ca n d a
gallcricssupporting a $ o r L s . c l o s t . t r | ) o r rl u r . l \ t tepresents
tunncl_raultea nr,,", nr., a s u m m i l o f r e h i . r c m c n t ;l l t s ( ) D cr ) l
n u n d f ( . d ( ' : l s l l e s\ \ r . r ( h u i l r single har a l l n r a g n i f i c c n t l . rl m p l t i n p r o p o r -
r l .r o L r n ( J e ac p
l s t .\ l r i e h i n F l , , g l r , , , l, , , , . l rne,noblest
J r r o j c c r so n l h e \ o r r lh _ c t \ l \\':rlcsbetr-ccn ro66 2n{ i n s c a l eo l R , , m i n ( s q u ( m . ,nunrcnts t i o n . ' l ' h c r a s t g r o r r p e < lp i e l s r r n t ll r c h c s l r c
s l u e: i l t \ c c h o q l l b - 1
: t r o t t n ( l ( . ( ls t i l i r _ l u l . t . ( .(f, l l 'l'hc 1 15 r . , . tnd one
o i l h e m u s r b e a r r r i t u l hs .e t . r i c h l v a r t i c u l a t e d , u h i l e t h c s u b s t . r n f i . rcl , r l i n -
I n ( . n o r t h _ ( i r s t .. l . h c g - r c a ts q u a r e k c c p . r . . , u r . r ' l i , , , h .
u , r l l _ u u l . l ,i s 6 f 1 1 1 [ i l . in
tucllth eentur_i nolehl\
; l R . t . l r t . r l r . trl r t . t r r l c _ , E e F u n r o r t . l ,D u r h i r me r e m p l i f i r .r l r t . s i n t - d r i c l l i n t e r m c d i : r f e p i e r s l r e b o l t l l r m i r r L e t lu ' i t h
P l e rc a t h e d r a l
p l a n t h r t r . c l l l r c lt o B t . r n ; r r i n fluting, cherrorr, lncl quadrtllt rork {ll the
 EN(;LAND 4OI
NORTHERN FRANCE AND NORMAN

'cubical'tvpe (that is,trimmed

Cathedral, c a p i t a l sa r c o f ' t h e
and 377.Durham at the
I o9.3-r I3J clown fiom a cube to a circular shape
l o s e n o t h i n g b l t h c i l r r g orous
r s t r a g r r l )a
, n c lt h e l
. 1'he g:rtler-v is verv handsome ' rvith
.i*pii.it1
cach
t w o a r c h e s ,e a c h e n c l o s i n g t w i r r l r c h e s ' i n
-l'he t h e s e d o u b l e b avs'
double bar. Iaults of
s e p a r a t e db v t r a n s v c r s e a r c h c s ' a r e s e v e n - part
their
units, well but not pert'ectlvadapted to
-I'hel
supports. arc irctuallr much like sectlons
o f t u n t t e l r ' : r t r l t i n gc u t h r r i b h e d p e n c t r J l i ( ) l l s
'l'hus
lirr thc clcresttrrl' winclorvs' the vault is
c a r r i e c lb u t l i t t l e h i g h e r t h a n t h e w i n d o u o p e n -
ings, anclis lbutted bctwcen irnd bclo* thcm'
at
instead ol' above them, as (prccariousll')
C l u n - vI I I .
It n'as Durhanr flathedral' therefirrt" which
the
made (.lun1 III obsolete b1 shouing' on
g r a n c l e s ts c a l c , t h a t r i b b e d h i g h r a u l t i n g l w a s
p o s s i b l ea n c l p r a c t i c a l o v e r w i d c s p a n s l n b o t h
('lun1'
buildings therc was partial f'ailure -\t
( r r z5) it w a s a f a l l o f v a u l t i n g i n t h e n a r e ' lvhich
flring
was not stable until thc addition ol the
l)ur-
b u t t r e s s e sr l h i c h r v c h a r e m c n t i o u e d { t
o f r o g t l r r o ' 1 h t d t o b c re-
ham the choir rault
p l a c e d n o t . a s a t C l u n ) ' I I I ' b c c a u s co f ' f a u l n
sustarn
design the samc sturdl old rlalls still
t h c s u c c e s s t >Irl u l t but b c c a t t s e o l ' i n cxpert
constructioll i n t h e v a u l t i n g r v c b s t h e m sclres'
stoncs
w h i c h w e r e h e a ri l r b u i l t o f r o u g h l l i r t t i s h ' l ' h i s
w i t h I r r i t l e m o r t i u i o i l l t . s t t t c c o e co l rcr'
sttp-
was massirc virult constructl()n: tt was
ported b l m a s s i r c r v a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n ' a n d ' as
('lunv III'
s u c h , i t w a s l c s s s o p h i s t i c a t c dt h a n
-l'o is
be surc, the gallerv at Dtrrham, which
lvooden-rtroled, h a s t h c p u r l i n s c r r r r i c c o l n a r c h e s
(rtrund in thc choir, scgmcntal ilr tlrc nrtrc)
r v er e
w h i c h s r . r g g c sftl v i n g b u t t r c s s e s 'b t t t t h e r
a s s u c h ' s i n c e t h e i nner
eviclentll not conceivcd
w e r e n o t o r i g i n a l l v c a r r i e c lu p to lbut
spanclrels
qreat Imperial
the nalc rvall. L)r.rrham. like ir
German buililing, relied on m r s s firt' strength
\\'hlt rt'ntainecl to bc donc ln crcirting the
sttlc as rve knou it u'ls tct takc thc llrct-
Gorhic
 462 S C A N D I N A V T A ,B R I T A I N , A N D N O R T H E R N F R A N C E

portion and sophistic:rtionof' Clunl' III. its
relatively thin vaulting, its IIJ'ing buttresses,
j o i n i n g t o t h e m t h e r i b v a u l t i n g o 1 ' D u r h a m .a n d
d e r e l o p i n g t h e e f f i c t i r c f ' e a t u r e so f e a c h . T h i s
was done in the ile-cle-France, where the
masons became accustomed to build ribbcd
r , a u l t sw i t h t h i n w c b s o f c u t s t o n e .a n d w e r e d i s -
posed to carrv lurther the erploitation of rhe
p o i n t e d a r c h , a l r e a d y - s u g g e s t e da t C l u n l a n d
Durham.
Gothic architecture was achier.ecl.in intcn-
t i o n , b y a n o t h e r g r e : r ta n d b o l c l ,f b r u : r r d - h r o k i n g
projcct, namcly-thc plan ofAbbot Suger,abour
r r i,5, to rcbuild Saint-L)cnis unfortunatclv not
r e a l i z e d ,n o r , i n f a c t , e n t i r c l \ - c a p a b l co 1 ' r e a l i z a - r a d i a t i n g c h a p e l s ,h a s l i g h t r i b s , w h i c h r r c e a s v
tion. But it was an astonishing dcsign, as the
c x c a r , a t i o n sh a l e s h o w n .+ ' ,
B e h i n d t h e h e a r ' l . w e s t r v o r kr v h i c h s t i l l c r i s t s
(substantiallvbuilt, and crcnellatedto make it
seniceable as a fbrtress),ancl abovc the sub-
s t a n t i a l ,a l m o s t R o m a n l m b u l a t o r y o l ' t h c 9 1 y p 1 ,
the church uas to hare becn a dorrhlq._;1.1,.,
c o l u m n a r b a s i l i c al j 7 8 l . w i r h t h c i n r , r , , , ' . , , , ^ "
p o r l s . e \ c e l ) t l b r t b u r p i e r sa t t h e c r o s . i n - .
in,i'-
t b r m o l ' l b u r f i l e s o f s l c n d e r c r l i n d r i , , r l, h r r , .
o n l v a t b o t a n d a h a l f i n t l i a m e t c r .a n t l l { , , r 1 1 . 1 n
'fhe I
aspcct. e n c l o s i n gw a l l r v a s t o h , r r . b q . n
relatir,elv thin, and pierced lvith l,rrgt l.rncet
w i n d o w s , a b o r . er v h i c h ( i f w e m a r j r , d S " h r . t h .
e x i s t i n g a b s i d i o l e s )i t w a s t o [ r a l e b c c n l o a d g 4
to thicken and strcngthen it, making a sorr
of.
c o l l a r t o r c c e i v ea n d c o n t a i n t h e r , a u l t i n gr h r u s t s .
E x c e p t i o n a l l y , f l r i n g b u t t r e s s c sa r e r c p o r t c d0 n
the chord of the apse by r r45. Originll r:rulting.
still in pllce in the nlrrher, amhullrr,1r.116
I o c o n s l r u e rw i t h s i m p l c c e n t c r i n g it h t . t r r . l r r t t .
o f t h e s e v e r i e sa r e s l i g h t l l ' s w e l l i n g , s o t h r t t h c r
c o u l d b e b u i l t u p c l e v e r l v , a r c h b r r r r c h .b r -
tween thc ribs, with little if anl.auxiliarr firlse-
r v o r k . - \ l l i n a l l , t h i s m o d e o { r ' a u l r i n g .m r i n -
s p r i n g o f ' t h e G o t h i c s t v l e ,w a s a m o s t a d m i r a b l e

,p
fQ

A n..
\t/
-
\rt' a

*oq * f1

,i

of thc conrcntional
e s c l u cp r o c e d u r e s . l n s t e a c l
technical tlelelopnrent |.]29, .itiol ('rnd illus-
378 ( uhoxe) - Saint-Dcnis, abbo' ch urch, { . r I l5--l+ and thirteenth centurv, rvith predecessor churchcs fabric, so wcightv that it rcquircd
Plan largell' bascd on Crosbl''s excavations. Later excavations scem to show that the apse was tration r4o right, tbr the apse at \i6zclal' built "n.toring lvts
n r a s s i r ca n d o b s t r u c t i v e p i c r s ' S a i n t - D c n i s
round irt the upper lerel, and that the transept had an elenrent on the east, here shown h,vpothetic.,tlll' about rr7o, resenrblesthc design of Sxint- s t o n c a n d g l irss'
p l a n n c c lt o h i r r c a t h i n s h e l l o t
D e n i s i n i m p o r t a - n tr c s P e c t s ) ' i n t c g r a tcd
37gt c (opposire/. Saint-Dcnis, abhev church, r,aulting in narthex, .. r r15 4oi section ofchevet (K.-1.( f i r e ' r ' e t s o a m a z i n g h
The clesiiner' itr thus ration'rlizing his
srll irronf ,tgainrt
and east elerirtion, showing llving buttrcsses (K..1.c.) (p.
49r, Note 47). Sens, r. r r5-5, had the firsr scts a s t o r e q u i r e n o m o r c intcriot'sttp-
R o m ln- and d i s p o s e c l
flanking a nave and vault constructiol)' w e n t b e l o n d
 464 S c A N D T N A V I A , B R T T A T N ,A N D N O R T H E R N T R A N C E

:8o. S;rint-Dcnis,abbc_r-
church,ambulatorv,rr4o .1and thirteenthcentury
port rhan the r.ulnerable woodcn_roof-ed
L,arl\ t h a t o r d e r c c li n t c l l i s e n c c w h i c h f l o * e r c r l i n
C . h r i s r i a rhr a s i l i t . a . ' . rhr:
Gothic centuries. Reims (.athedral, rhe p;rr.rr_
\llhilc the support s,\stent w:ts thus

{F
g
much digm of Gothic, is almost an abstrtction. loti\

Yxi
s i m p l c r f h a n i n R o m i r n e s q u e: l r c h i t c c t u r c .
thc and aborc tl'eling.

'i"
a r t i c u l a t e dr . a l l a n d r . a u l tw e r c r c r v m u c h
more W h e r e t h e G o t h i c c l es i g n s : l r c m o r c h u n r , r n h
drnanric and complex. 'l'hc original
c l e s i e no f . I el r . i r i s p o s s i b l el o 5 1 . 1 . .l 1
h5x tg t h e c r c h i t t . r r r r r ,
S a i n t - D e n i s , \ ai t h u n l r t w o f l
) . i n gh u t r r . r r . . . * . u r ; rn union with the pasr.In the scrcnifi,of rht.in_ tt.
too bold; it was nevcr finished, and
onl1,a frae_ t t ' r i o r o l . { m i c n s ( . u t h e d r , r lt l r e r . . , , g , . , i r . . . ,
rt
:1','
ment survives, but the new mode ner.erthele.ss
c l a s s i cn o b i l i t r I i k e t h a r o I ' r h e f i n e s t G r c c l . r n r l
had revolutionary conscquences.
In well_char_ Roman work; in heacllongBeaur.ris tlrc irl-
acterized Gothic structure, the strcsses
are much petuous spirit tlf (-entula ancl rhe rhircl (.lrrnr
more focalized and dcfinitc than in
Runran_ I i r e s a g a i n ; i n 5 ^ c n sa n c l o t h e r g r e t t s o u t i r ! r . n
csquc; thc\- need to be nruch more
dellnitelr b u i l d i n g s , o n c i s c o n s c i o u so l t l r c u n l i ) r g o r r c t
L n o r r n a n d t r n d c r s r o o dF. , r e n i n c r e l s r . i n
t . o m _ g ^ e n i a l i t ra n d a n r p l i t u d e
prchension,as time $,ent on, led which camc ro thc lio-
to nrorc firllr m a n s s q L i ea s o n e o l i t s m o s t v a l u e d l e g a c i c sf i o n r
c h a r a c l t ' r i z r dh u i l d i n g s ,c s p c c i ; r l h
r r l l t . rr h c i n _ Rtiman architecturc. Not thc least precioLrsrrs-
troduction of' perlicted flving buttresscs
'I'hcn abour pect ol the Rontancsquc is its afier_lile in ;r
I r75. the impress of traineclintellcct on
multitutle of' Gothic buildings chcrish",l ji,r.
the dcsigns becamcever strongcr.
t h e i r v a r i e f i , t h c i r r v a r m t h , a n c l t h e i r g r a c ef i r l
\ \ h r n c c r h e l i r c t r h : r rr h t . p r r r . e
Corhit.i, Iikc tn ( l r++
a theol'em, anci thc ker. fo
conlbrnritv to rcgional traclitions which ucr.c 381. Sirint-f)enis,abber chttrclr. irs
u n d c r s t r r n c l i n gi t i s t l ' t r r ( c J l r r R o n r l n e : q t r cg c n i u : . p e r s p t tl i r t i n t , r p t t l r t i " t t r ' l i l l t r s t r r it"t n l ; r r r ( K l . ( . . )