CHEMICAL BONDING NOTES FOR EXAM

1)

Chemical bond electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of different atoms that binds the atoms
together.
a) When atoms bond, they decrease in potential energy --> creating more stable arrangements of matter.
2) Types of Chemical Bonds:
a) Ionic bond bond that results from the electrical attraction between large numbers of cations and anions. Electrons
are transferred (between a metal (cation) and a nonmetal (anion). NAMING: name the first element (the cation),
then change the name of the anion to -ide.
b) Covalent bond bond that results from the sharing of electron pairs between two atoms. Usually formed between 2
nonmetals. NAMING: prefixes (mono, di, tri, etc)
c) Metallic bonds - sea of electrons --> "positive nucleus" has a flow of electrons all around it
3) Bonding between atoms is rarely purely ionic or purely covalent, it usually falls somewhere in between. To determine the
type of bond, subtract the electronegativities for the elements.
4) Electronegativity the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself
5) Periodic trend = Electronegativity generally increases across a period and decreases down a group
6) Metals have relatively low electronegativity values and nonmetals have relatively high values
7) The polarity of a bond depends on the difference between the electronegativity values of the atoms forming the bond
Electronegativity Differences & Bond
Electronegativity difference (approx.)
Type of Bond
Example
0.00-0.4
Covalent
HH (0.0)
(nonpolar)
+
0.4-1.0
Covalent (moderately polar)

HCl (0.9)
+
1.0-2.0
Covalent

(very polar)
HF (1.9)
2.0

Ionic

Na Cl (2.1)

8)
9)

Polar means that a bond has uneven distribution of charge.

Nonpolar-covalent bond a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are shared equally by the bonded atoms,
resulting in a balanced distribution of electrical charge.
10) Polar covalent bond a covalent bond in which the electrons are not shared equally because one atom attracts them
more strongly than the other (based on electronegativity)
a) Ex.
H --- F
+

( delta is used to indicate partial charge)

1) an unequal sharing of electrons (ex. Water)
Usually, electrons are more attracted to atoms of elements that are located farther to the right and closer to the top
of the periodic table
Covalent Bonding and Molecular Compounds
1) Molecule a neutral group of atoms that are held together by covalent bonds.
2) Molecular compounds a chemical compound whose simplest units are molecules
3) Chemical formula indicates the relative numbers of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by using atomic symbols
and numerical subscripts
4) Molecular formula shows the types and numbers of atoms combined in a single molecule of a molecular compound.
5) Diatomic molecule a molecule containing only two atoms. (Diatomic Atoms = H 2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2)
6) Bond length the distance between two bonded atoms at their minimum potential energy (the average distance between
two bonded atoms).
7) Bond energy the energy required to break a chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms. (usually measured in
kJ/mol).
8) Bond angle the angle formed by two bonds to the same atom
9) Octet rule chemical compounds tend to form so that each atom, by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons, has an octet
(eight) of electrons in its highest occupied energy level. Exceptions to the octet rule: hydrogen = happy with 2 electrons,
boron = 3 valence electrons, so happy with forming three bonds (6 electrons, rather than 8), sulfur = sometimes forms 6
bonds like in SF6.

10) Electron-dot notation an electron-configuration notation in which only the valence electrons of an atom of a particular
element are shown, indicated by dots placed around the elements symbol. Show a maximum of two dots on top, bottom,
and right and left side of the elements symbol.
11) Unshared pair (lone pair) a pair of electrons that is not involved in bonding and that belongs exclusively to one atom.
12) Lewis structures formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-pairs or dashes
between two atomic symbols represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots adjacent to only one atomic symbol
represent unshared electrons.
13) Structural formula indicates the kind, number, arrangement, and bonds but not the lone pairs of the atoms in a
molecule.
14) Single bond- covalent bond produced by the sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms.
15) Double bond a covalent bond produced by the sharing of two pairs of electrons between two atoms. (shown with 2
lines)
16) Triple bond a covalent bond produced by the sharing of three pairs of electrons between two atoms. (shown with 3
lines)
17) Multiple bonds double and triple bonds
18) Resonance refers to bonding in molecules or ions that cannot be correctly represented by a single Lewis structure.
(multiple correct structures may be drawn).
19) Coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom donates both of the electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that
needs two electrons to form a stable electron arrangement with lower potential energy.
Ionic Bonding and Ionic Compounds
1) Ionic compound composed of positive (cations) and negative (anions) ions that are combined so that the numbers of
positive and negative charges are equal. Most exist as crystalline solids.
2) Formula unit the simplest collection of atoms from which an ionic compounds formula can be established.
3) Characteristics of Ionic Bonding:
a) They form a crystal lattice
b) Crystal lattice a three-dimensional geometric arrangement of particles.
i) Lattice energy the energy released when one mole of an ionic crystalline compound is formed from gaseous
ions.
1)

Ionic bond a bond formed by the attraction between oppositely charged ions (the electrostatic force that holds
oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound).
a) Metal (cation) & nonmetal (anion)
b) Electrons are transferred (stolen)
c) Metals typically lose (give away) electrons to attain stability and nonmetals gain (take) electrons in order to become
stable.
d) The metal attains a positive charge and the nonmetal attains a negative charge
e) The opposite charges cause a very strong force of attraction called ionic bonding
+2
-1
f) Monatomic ion a one-atom ion (ex. Mg or Br )
g) Oxidation number (oxidation state) the charge of a monoatomic ion
h) Ex. NaCl (sodium chloride)
i) They have high melting points
j) They can conduct electricity (they are electrolytes)
k) Properties of ionic substances:
i) High melting and boiling points
ii) Conductivity in molten or dissolved state
iii) Crystalline
iv) Soluble in water

2)

Covalent bonds a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons to attain a noble gas electron
configuration (8 valence electrons)
a) Often formed between two nonmetals
b) Usually have low melting points
c) Do not conduct electricity well
d) Nonpolar covalent bonds formed when electrons are shared equally (ex. Cl2)
e) Covalent bonds are shown in formulas using a line (Cl ---- Cl)
f) Double bond two pairs of electrons are shared (a total of four electrons)

g)

3)

Triple bond three pairs of electrons are shared (a total of six electrons)
i) Triple bonds are stronger than double bonds because more energy is needed to break a triple bond.
ii) Triple bonds and double bonds are also shorter than single bonds

h) Properties of covalent compounds:

i) Low melting and boiling points
ii) Low or no conductivity in molten or dissolved state
iii) Noncrystalline
iv) Polar covalent compounds are soluble in water, whereas nonpolar covalent compounds are insoluble in water.
Polyatomic ion an ion made of two or more atoms that are covalently bonded and that act like a single ion (usually
written in parentheses)
a) Oxyanion a polyatomic ion composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to one or more oxygen atoms.
b) If the name ends with ate, it indicates the ion with one more oxygen atom
c) If the name ends with ite, it indicates the ion with one less oxygen

Metallic Bonding
1) Metallic Bonds a bond formed by the attraction between positively charged metal ions and the electrons around them
(the attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized electrons).
a) Atoms are packed closely together so the outermost energy levels overlap. So electrons are free to move from atom
to atom (delocalized electrons), this is why metals conduct electricity so well (electron sea model). Metals can also
absorb a wide range of light frequencies. This excites the electrons to higher energy levels so when they fall back
down, thats why metals have a shiny appearance. Metals are malleable and ductile.
2) Metals are flexible because the atoms can slide past each other without their bonds breaking.
3) Malleability the ability of a substance to be hammered or beaten into thin sheets (ex. Aluminum foil)
4) Ductility the ability of a substance to be drawn, pulled, or extruded through a small opening to produce a wire (ex.
Copper wire).
5) Alloy a mixture of elements that has metallic properties (ex. Stainless steel, brass, and cast iron).
Naming Acids
Naming Binary Acids an acid that contains hydrogen and one other element. Hydro-___-ic acid
Naming Oxyacids an acid with a polyatomic ion. ate -ic and -ite -ous
Molecular Geometry
1) Molecular polarity the uneven distribution of molecular charge
2) VSEPR theory (Valence-Shell, Electron-Pair Repulsion) states that repulsion between the sets of valence-level electrons
surrounding an atom causes these sets to be oriented as far apart as possible. (helps determine the shape of the
molecule).
3) Lewis structure used to represent the arrangement of electrons in a molecule (shows valence electrons).
4) ********* SEPARATE NOTE ************** Hybridization the mixing of two or more atomic orbitals of similar
3
energies on the same atom to produce new orbitals of equal energies (ex. sp orbital)
5) Hybrid orbitals orbitals of equal energy produced by the combination of two or more orbitals on the same atom.
a) Sigma bonds () single covalent bonds (occurs when the pair of shared electrons is in an area centered between the
two atoms).
b) Pi bond () forms when parallel orbitals overlap and share electrons.
6) Endothermic reaction occurs when a greater amount of energy is required to break the existing bonds in the reactants
than is released when the new bonds form in the products.
7) Exothermic reaction occurs when more energy is released during product bond formation than is required to break
bonds in the reactants.
Intermolecular Forces
1) Most substances consisting of small molecules are gases at normal temperatures and pressures (ex. O 2, N2, CH4, CO2)
a) Exception = water (H2O)
2) Why is water a liquid at normal temperatures and pressures (because its a small molecule)?
a) Intermolecular forces forces that occur between molecules (occur between molecules)
b) Intramolecular forces bonds that hold molecules together (occur inside molecules)
c) Water is polar (it has a dipole moment)
i) Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other by lining up so that the positive and negative ends are
close to each other (dipole-dipole attraction)

3)
4)

Dipole created by equal but opposite charges that are separated by a short distance
Dipole-dipole forces - the forces of attraction between polar molecules
i) weaker as the distance between the dipoles increases. (in gases the molecules are far apart, so the forces are
relatively unimportant)
b) Hydrogen bonding the intermolecular force in which a hydrogen atom that is bonded to a highly electronegative
atom is attracted to an unshared pair of electrons of an electronegative atom in a nearby molecule. Strong dipoledipole forces occur between molecules in which hydrogen is bound to a highly electronegative atom (nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine)
i) Reminder = electronegativity the relative ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself.
(1) Electronegativity increases up a group and across a period
ii) Strong interactions because of the great polarity of the bond and the close approach of the dipole (possible
because hydrogen is such a small atom)
iii) The high electronegativity of oxygen (relative to the other elements in group 6) causes the O---H bonds to be very
polar which leads to strong hydrogen-bonding forces among the water molecules. A large quantity of energy is
required to overcome the interactions and separate the molecules to produce the gaseous state, so water has a
very high boiling point.
c)

London Dispersion Forces the intermolecular attractions resulting from the constant motion of electrons and the
creation of instantaneous dipoles. [the forces that exist among noble gas atoms and nonpolar molecules (that hold
the atoms or molecules close together in the liquid and solid states)].
i) Atoms develop a temporary dipolar arrangement of charge as the electrons move around the nucleus, which can
then induce a similar dipole in a neighboring atom. The interatomic attraction formed is both weak but can be
significant for large atoms and large molecules.
ii) The motions of the atoms slowed down before the weak London dispersion forces can lock the atoms into place
to produce a solid, which is why the noble gas elements have such low freezing points.
iii) Nonpolar molecules can attract each other by London dispersion forces.
iv) London dispersion forces become more significant as the sizes of atoms or molecules increase because there are
more electrons available to form the dipoles.