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Physical and biochemical aspects of the flow across the

Mascarene Plateau in the Indian Ocean
A. L. New, K. Stansfield, D. Smythe-Wright, D. A. Smeed, A. J. Evans and S. G. Alderson
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2005 363, doi: 10.1098/rsta.2004.1484, published 15 January 2005

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Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2005) 363, 151168

doi:10.1098/rsta.2004.1484
Published online 9 November 2004

Physical and biochemical aspects of

the ow across the Mascarene Plateau
in the Indian Ocean
By A. L. N e w, K. Stansfield, D. S m y t h e-W r i g h t,
D. A. S m e e d, A. J. Evans a n d S. G. A l d e r s o n
Southampton Oceanography Centre, European Way,
Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK (a.new@soc.soton.ac.uk)
This paper presents results from a detailed hydrographic survey of the Mascarene
Plateau and surrounding area undertaken by the RRS Charles Darwin in June
July 2002. We examine how the westward-owing South Equatorial Current (SEC)
crosses the plateau, and how the structure of the ow determines the supply of
nutrients to the surface waters. We nd that the ow of the SEC across the plateau is
highly dependent on the complex structure of the banks which make up the plateau,
and that a large part of the ow is channelled between the Saya de Malha and
Nazareth Banks. Furthermore, the SEC forms a sharp boundary between subtropical
water masses from further south, which are low in nutrients, and waters from further
north, which are relatively nutrient rich. Overall, the SEC delivers relatively high
levels of nutrients to the near-surface waters of the central and northern regions of
the plateau, compared with the southern regions of the plateau. This is partly due
to uplifting of density surfaces through Ekman suction on the northern side of the
SEC, and partly due to the higher levels of nutrients on those density surfaces on
the northern side of the SEC. This may drive increased production of phytoplankton
in these areas, which would in turn be expected to fuel increased abundances of
zooplankton and higher levels of the food chain.
Keywords: South Equatorial Current; Mascarene Plateau;
Western Indian Ocean; nutrient supply

1. Introduction
The Mascarene Plateau is situated in the western portion of the South Indian Ocean,
and can be considered to extend between the Seychelles in the north (4 S, 56 E)
and Mauritius in the south (20 S, 57 E). It is comprised of a series of shallow
banks or shoals separated by deeper ridges and channels (gure 1). The principal
banks are the Seychelles Plateau, the Saya de Malha Bank, the Nazareth Bank and
the CargadosCarajos Bank. These are typically 20100 m deep, coral topped, and
sometimes break the surface to form small islands. They are generally surrounded
One contribution of 24 to a Discussion Meeting Atmosphereoceanecology dynamics in the Western
Indian Ocean.
c 2004 The Royal Society

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A. L. New and others

3000 40
0
01 0

400

4 S

4000

00

05 04

4000

30
07 00
4000
06 07
200
08 09 10 11
11
0
12
4000
49
52 51
50
52
50
51
M
4000
47,48
47
48
53
1000
46
13
13
46
200
3Saya
0 de Malha 00
4000 00Bank
1
45
45
14
14
54
54
44
44
43
43
55
55
41
0
15
42
400
38
39 38
39
00 40 37
56
56
40
36
16
36
1000
35
3000
57
Nazareth
57
34
34
Bank
58
58
17
17
33 32
32
3000
33
59
0
59
0
18
Cargados Carajos
30
Bank
31
60
60
00
30
30
61
61
29
0
300
62
62
4000
19
28
3000 20
64 25
64
21
63
63
200026 27
22
22
3000
24 23
Mauritius
4000
30

8 S

100

Seychelles

40

00

400
0

00

30

50

12 S

400

3000

1000
20
0

3000

2000

500

16 S

5000

00

20

20 S

54 E

57 E

60 E

63 E

66 E

Figure 1. The seaoor topography (m) around the Mascarene Plateau, and the track of the RRS
Charles Darwin, cruise 141 (1 June11 July 2002). Grey shades delimit depths of 1000, 2000,
3000 and 4000 m, and principal observation stations are shown numbered. (Stations 02 and 03
were tests at the position of 04, and M was the site of a mooring not discussed further here.)

by steeply descending slopes so that water depths rapidly increase to 30004000 m

on either side of the plateau.
The physical oceanography of the interior of the South Indian Ocean is somewhat
less well understood than other comparable ocean basins, such as the South Atlantic,
due to a relative lack of data. For instance, although the International Indian Ocean
Expedition (IIOE, comprising cruises mostly during the late 1950s and early 1960s)
attempted the rst comprehensive description of the large-scale circulation patterns
and thermohaline structure of the Indian Ocean (Wyrtki 1971), the larger part of
the datasets collected were from the North Indian Ocean. Since then, apart from
a small number of trans-ocean sections which have been undertaken in the South
Indian Ocean, such as those at 18 S (Warren 1981) and 32 S (Toole & Warren
1993), interest has been mainly focused on specic regions near the boundaries.
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Flow across the Mascarene Plateau

153

These include, for instance, the seasonally reversing Somali Current system (Schott
& McCreary 2001) and the southwestern Indian Ocean between South Africa and
Madagascar (Gr
undlingh et al . 1991). In addition, the exchanges between the Indian
and Atlantic Oceans around South Africa have recently been the subject of substantial international interest (Gordon 2003), since the transfer of Indian waters to the
Atlantic may play a role in the heat transport and overturning of the latter.
In spite of the relative lack of data in the interior of the South Indian Ocean, it
has nonetheless been possible to develop an understanding of the larger-scale ow
patterns and water masses which are present, and which may, in particular, aect the
Mascarene Plateau. The ow patterns in the upper layers (extending to 1000 m or so)
of the South Indian Ocean have been described by Stramma & Lutjeharms (1997) to
consist of an anticyclonic (anticlockwise) subtropical gyre between approximately 40
and 15 S. At 40 S, the ow is strongly eastwards in the South Indian Ocean Current
(SIOC), which is associated with a subtropical front and which can be considered
to form the northern portion of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The strength of
the SIOC decreases with distance to the east (from 60 Sv near South Africa to 10 Sv
near Australia) as waters are drawn northwards in the subtropical gyre recirculation.
The northern boundary of the subtropical gyre is formed by the South Equatorial
Current (SEC), which is a broad return ow westwards between 10 and 20 S (with
a core somewhere near 15 S). The waters owing into the SEC derive partly from
the subtropical gyre to the south, partly from the Indonesian Seas further to the east
and partly from further to the north through the southward Java Current (Schott &
McCreary 2001). On reaching Madagascar, the SEC splits and ows both southwards
and northwestwards around the eastern coast of Madagascar (Swallow et al . 1988).
The southward branch then ows around the southern tip of Madagascar, westwards
towards the African coast, and nally retroects in the Agulhas retroection zone to
complete the subtropical gyre. The northward component ows around the northern
tip of Madagascar, westwards to the African coast, and then northwards in the East
Africa Coastal Current (Schott & McCreary 2001). This itself may either link up
with the Somali Current system, or be returned eastwards as the South Equatorial
Counter Current (SECC) just south of the Equator, depending on the time of year
(Schott & McCreary 2001). In the North Indian Ocean, the currents are complex
and reverse seasonally in the monsoonal wind systems.
Schott & McCreary (2001) also show that the SEC is primarily driven by the strong
SE trade winds, which exist as a reasonably steady and strong wind band between
10 and 30 S. They indicated that these winds would drive a transport of ca. 50 Sv
in the SEC. They also remarked that Ekman suction (caused by divergence of the
surface currents due to spatial wind stress variations) would cause uplifting or doming
of the water masses on the northern side of the SEC, lifting up density surfaces
between 5 and 12 S in a band between 80 E and the African coast. Since nutrient
levels generally increase with depth (Wyrtki 1971), this would also bring higher
levels of nutrients nearer to the surface, and, possibly, local increases in biological
productivity. While this eect has not hitherto been studied in detail, we remark that
Longhurst (2001) reported a major phytoplankton bloom in the Madagascar Basin
to the south of the SEC (between 20 and 30 S), caused by the seasonal deepening
of the mixed layer (between January 1999 and April 1999) which would inject higher
1 Sv = 106 m3 s1 .
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nutrients into the surface layers. We also remark that another bloom is just evident
on the northern side of his gures (north of 15 S) at the latitudes of the SEC. This is
well developed by April, and could perhaps be at least partly related to the uplifting
mechanism.
Turning now to the water masses which are typically found in the South Indian
Ocean (between 0 and 40 S), these consist principally of the following. The sea surface comprises (Duncan 1970; Wyrtki 1971; Gr
undlingh et al . 1991; Prasanna Kumar
& Prasad 1999) the fresh Tropical Surface Water (TSW) in a broad band between
approximately 5 and 20 S, which is anked on its northern side by the high salinity
Arabian Sea High Salinity Water (ASHSW), and on its southern side by the high
salinity Subtropical Surface Water (STSW). The TSW exists as a thin surface layer
in the upper 50100 m and ows westwards from the Indonesian Seas to the African
coast, carried by the SEC. The ASHSW forms in the Arabian Sea and from there is
carried southeastwards towards the Equator by the prevailing currents. The STSW
is thought to form east of 55 E, and between 15 and 32 S, and to circulate northwards and then westwards in the subtropical gyre, but it is drawn down to form
a subsurface salinity maximum (usually between 100 and 400 m) when it meets the
fresher, overlying TSW in the SEC. Below these waters are varieties of Sub-Antarctic
Mode Waters (SAMWs) which are formed near 4045 S as a result of deep winter
mixing, and subducted northwards (McCartney 1982). They are associated with
an oxygen maximum usually centred between 300 and 500 m, and circulate in the
subtropical gyre northwards at least as far as 20 S. Deeper down, Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) is revealed by a salinity minimum between 600 and 1400 m
which may spread northwards to about 15 S (Wyrtki 1971). This water mass originates in the southeastern Pacic (McCartney 1982) and in the South Atlantic (Piola
& Gordon 1989), and appears to enter the South Indian Ocean in its southeastern
region (Fine 1993). However, another water mass, the high salinity Red Sea Water
(RSW), also occupies this approximate depth range. Beal et al . (2000) show that the
primary spreading route for the RSW is, from its origins in the Red Sea, southwards
along the length of the western boundary of the Indian Ocean, eventually passing
through the Mozambique Channel. The RSW also spreads more slowly towards the
southeast, and its signature is seen near the Mascarene Plateau, where it may meet
with the AAIW. Below these waters is a further range of identiable deeper waters,
derived either from the North Atlantic (the Circumpolar Deep Water) or from the
Antarctic. These generally ow northwards into the deepest basins of the Indian
Ocean (Mantyla & Reid 1995), but will not be considered further in this paper.
From the above, it is apparent that the SEC ows directly towards the Mascarene
Plateau, and must somehow pass across it. A laudable attempt, using direct observations, to investigate this process, and the water masses involved, was made by
Ragoonaden et al . (1987) for the portion of the Mascarene Plateau south of 10 S,
using data collected during the IIOE survey. However, while the authors were able
to infer geostrophic ow patterns, the details of the passage of the ow across the
plateau could not be claried, perhaps due to the lack of measurements near the
plateau itself (the closest with reasonable coverage of the northsouth extent being
some 200300 km away), and perhaps due to the usage of data widely spaced in time
(between 1960 and 1965). Indeed, the main ow of the SEC appeared to impinge
directly from the east on the centre of the Nazareth Bank (at 15 S), and to rePhil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2005)

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Flow across the Mascarene Plateau

155

emerge on its western side, without any indication being given as to how the ow
would actually cross the Bank.
There have also been a number of modelling studies which shed light on the passage
of the SEC across the plateau. Woodberry et al . (1989), for instance, used a 1.5 layer
reduced-gravity model with a high horizontal resolution (0.2 ). This showed the SEC
splitting almost evenly into two cores, one of which owed between the Saya de Malha
and Nazareth Banks (1113 S), and one of which owed between the Cargados
Carajos Bank and Mauritius (1719 S), with no seasonal variation. Lee & Marotzke
(1998), on the other hand, implemented an ocean general circulation model (OGCM)
with more complete physics, 24 levels in the vertical, but with a coarser horizontal
resolution of 1.5 . This model, which because of its resolution could not represent any
of the islands in the Mascarene Plateau, revealed the SEC as a broad westward ow
between 5 and 20 S. The surface ow passed across the plateau in a broad, smooth
sweep without any perturbation or constriction from the underlying topography.
However, Garternicht & Schott (1997) used a similar OGCM (with 20 levels in the
vertical) but with a higher horizontal resolution (eectively 0.4 for the region in
question) which gave better denition of the islands and topography of the plateau.
The SEC in this model had a greater degree of horizontal structure, and passed over
the plateau, at all times of year, as a relatively narrow current (23 in northsouth
extent) almost entirely between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks. In summary,
the structure of the SEC as it passes across the Mascarene Plateau is rather dierent
in these various models, and such dierences appear to be at least partly due to
how well the models resolve the complex bathymetry of the region. This is governed
both by the horizontal resolution of the model and by the realism of the topographic
dataset used to construct its bathymetry. (Such realism has until now been rather
poor in certain key areas, as described below, though it is beyond the scope of the
present paper to investigate the eect of an improved topographical description on
model simulations.)
Overall, then, little is known about how the SEC actually crosses the plateau,
or indeed how the ow governs the biochemistry of the region. The present paper
investigates these aspects using data from a recent cruise (the RRS Charles Darwin,
cruise 141) which completed a near-synoptic survey (within 40 days) of the region,
including observations very close to the plateau, and using modern instrumentation
such as the acoustic Doppler current proler.

2. Circulation patterns and water masses

The track of the RRS Charles Darwin, cruise 141, is shown in relation to the
bathymetry in gure 1, and the principal measurement stations are numbered.
The cruise (1 June11 July 2002), comprised three quasi-meridional sections, one
ca. 300 km to the east of the plateau (stations 1222), one placed centrally (in terms
of the overall survey) at the eastern edge of the Plateau (stations 2549, together with
17), and a further section ca. 300 km west of the plateau (stations 5263). These
lines were joined by two further zonal sections at 8 and 20 S. Of relevance to the
present investigation, at each station, CTD/LADCP/water sampler measurements
were taken covering the full depth of the water column to provide observations of
temperature, salinity, currents and water chemistry. In addition, while the ship was
underway, a further acoustic Doppler current proler (ADCP) continuously recorded
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A. L. New and others

400
500
600
700
900

800

Saya de Malha
Bank

400
600
800

depth (m)

156

1000

1000

12 27' 36" S

450

Nazareth
Bank

1100

12 29' 42" S
12 31' 48" S
12 33' 54" S

60 54' 00" E

60 56' 06" E

60 58' 12" E

Figure 2. Perspective view from the southeast of EM12 swath bathymetry, showing
a deep channel between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks.

currents to depths of 200300 m below the ship, and an EM12 swath bathymetry
system mapped out the seaoor topography with a swath width of 3.5 times the
water depth.
An example of the swath bathymetry is shown in gure 2. This reveals a previously
uncharted channel in the ridge system between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth
Banks, near 12 30 S, which is important for the passage of the waters between these
banks (as explained below). The General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO)
chart 5.09 shows this area to comprise the northeastern corner of the Somerville
Bank, 100200 m deep, which should appear in the southwestern corner of gure 2,
and a ridge of depths between 200 and 500 m to the northeast of this (covering the
remainder of the gure). On the other hand, the Smith & Sandwell (1997) bathymetry
(derived from satellite observations and ship soundings) does show a deep channel
here, in the correct location, but it is 1650 m deep. The EM12 (gure 2) reveals the
true nature of the channel to be 1100 m deep and 810 km wide. In addition, for
50 km (being the distance surveyed) or more on the southwestern side of the channel
(crossing the position of the Somerville Bank on the GEBCO chart), there appears
to be a ridge (not shown in gure 2, but extending to the southsouthwest) along
which the shallowest depths (on the ridge crest) are 400450 m.
Figure 3 reveals the upper layer circulation pattern (at a depth of 51 m) as recorded
by the shipboard ADCP. On the eastern section, near 64 E, there is a strong and
pronounced westward ow between 9 and 16 S, in which the currents are typically
25 cm s1 . This broad current, extending for ca. 750 km in the northsouth direction,
is the South Equatorial Current (SEC) as it approaches the Mascarene Plateau. On
the central section, just eastwards of the shoals, it is apparent that a large portion of
the SEC (probably about half of the 50 Sv total: the subject of a separate examination) is being diverted to ow between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks, and
is passing through the region of the channel at 12 30 S and its southsouthwestward
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Flow across the Mascarene Plateau

4 S

157

Seychelles
1000 m

8 S

1000 m
Saya
de Malha
12 S

Nazareth

1000 m
16 S

Cardajos
Carajos

1000 m
20 S
Reunion
54 E

Mauritius
57 E

60 E

63 E

66 E
50 cm s1

Figure 3. Currents at 51 m from the ships (150 kHz) acoustic Doppler current proler. The
velocity vectors represent averages over 8 m in the vertical and 30 km in horizontal, and the
50 cm s1 scale arrow is shown.

ridge. Here, the ow speeds are typically 50 cm s1 . Other portions of the SEC are
diverted to ow around the northern tip of the Saya de Malha Bank (although this
may be intermittent), and, further south, through the gap between the Cargados
Carajos Bank and Mauritius. In fact, it seems as though the easternmost tips of the
Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks (at 10 and 15 S, respectively) act as breakpoints to the current, deecting the SEC both northwestwards and southwestwards
to ow largely around the bathymetric contours of the banks. On the western section
(near 57 E), the SEC consists of two cores. The larger part of the ow has reformed,
after passage through the gap between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks, as a
broad current between approximately 10 and 15 S, with typical speeds of 30 cm s1 .
This is similar to the SEC structure on the upstream (eastern) side of the plateau,
though slightly less extensive in the northsouth direction, and with more spatial
variability. In addition to this northern core, there is also an appreciable westward
ow between 17 and 20 S. This latter band appears to form a southern core to the
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depth (m)

35.7

35.1

35.4
35.2

35

34.9

35.2

34.7

600

34.8

34.6

34.6

800

35.2

35.1

35.5

35.4

5
35.13

34.3

34.9

35

400

346.

34.7
34.9
35.2
35.4

200

34.9

35

34.7

34.8

34.7

(a)

7
90

depth (m)

80

55

45

35
45

40

35

60
65

70

55

200

400

85

85
85

70 75

75

40
45

45
35

30
45

50
40
35

50

65

50

55

70

600

40

1000
0

25

45

50

30

35

800
40

1000

20 S

18 S

(b)
16 S

14 S

12 S

10 S

8 S

Figure 4. (a) Salinity (psu) and (b) oxygen (% saturation) patterns from the CTD (stations 22
to 12), along the eastern section of the survey, in the top 1000 m of the water column.

SEC, which is connected to the ow through the gap between the CargadosCarajos
Bank and Mauritius. In addition, there is also an indication of an eddy or meander
near 16 S, 57 E, evidenced by the retroection of the current back towards the east
just north of this position, and then the turning of the current towards the south and
west, further to the south (between 16 and 18 S). The presence of this feature is
supported by satellite passive microwave sea-surface-temperature imagery (e.g. from
the Tropical Rainfall Monitoring Sensor on 29 June and 4 July 2002), which shows
an eddy in the process of pinching o from the SEC. Overall, the eect of the Mascarene Plateau is to split the single large core of the SEC on the upstream (eastern)
side into two cores on the downstream (western) side.
We next examine the various water masses which are present in the upper layers
(the top 1000 m) of the ow system, since these are the layers important for the
biochemistry. Figure 4 shows the salinity and oxygen on the eastern section, the
other sections being similar for this purpose. Firstly, there is a thin, fresh layer
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Flow across the Mascarene Plateau

depth (m)

2
6

500

12

1000

34

16
24

20

1500

14 18
30

10

28

22
32

36
4

159

24

28

34
36

36

34

36

2000
2500
3000
3500

(a)

300

23.2
24.0
25.0
25.6
26.0

400

26.4

100

depth (m)

200

500

23.2

22.8

26.0

25.0

26.4
26.6
26.8

26.6
26.8

27.0

600
27.0

700
800
900

27.2
27.2
27.4

(b)

1000
20 S

18 S

16 S

14 S

27.4
12 S

10 S

8 S

6 S

Figure 5. Data from the central section of the survey showing (a) nitrate (mol l1 ) against
depth for the full depth of the water column (contour interval 2 mol l1 ) and (b) potential
density (kg m3 ) in the upper 1000 m (contour interval 0.2 kg m3 ). The densities are referenced
to the surface (values of 0 ) and, in the usual manner, 1000 kg m3 has been subtracted for
convenience.

(gure 4a) in the upper 50 m of the water column with a sharp salinity gradient at
its base. The freshest water (salinities lower than 34.2) lies between 12 and 14 S,
the central portion of the SEC, although there are low salinity extensions between
9 and 18 S, covering the remainder of the SEC. This is the TSW referred to above,
which is being transported by the SEC from the Malaysian/Indonesian region (see,
for example, Wyrtki 1971). There are then two further striking water masses (in
gure 4a) which exist on the south side and up to the centre of the SEC at about
1314 S. These are, rstly, a pronounced salinity maximum (salinities in excess
of 35.4), between 150 and 350 m depth, and a salinity minimum (salinities below
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160

A. L. New and others

34.7), between 600 and 1000 m. Between these water masses, a further water mass
exists, evidenced by the high oxygen content (greater than 70% saturation) between
400 and 600 m (gure 4b). These water masses are identied as STSW (the salinity
maximum), a variety of SAMW (the oxygen maximum) and AAIW (the salinity
minimum). They are the typical water masses which exist in the subtropical gyre of
the South Indian Ocean, as discussed earlier. By comparison with surface properties
(again, the subject of a separate examination), it is likely that the STSW and SAMW
form in the southeastern corner of the gyre (between 30 and 45 S) and are drawn
down into the ocean interior through subduction from the sea surface. The AAIW
is formed in the Pacic and South Atlantic, but its exact route to the Mascarene
Plateau is unclear at this stage. In addition, we identify the high-salinity lens (with
salinity above 35.2) in the upper 100 m between 8 and 11 S with the ASHSW, and
the elevated salinities (above 34.8) between 8 and 10 S and 5001000 m with RSW.
In summary, the water masses on the southern side of the SEC (up to 1314 S) are
of a more southerly origin, while the waters on the northern side of the SEC are
of a more northerly origin. The SEC therefore acts as a sharp boundary between
subtropical waters from further south and waters from further north.

3. Nutrients and biochemistry

We now examine the distribution of nitrate within the water column. This is usually a
good indicator of the likely growth of phytoplankton in the surface layers of the ocean,
and so is studied here. We also note that the other nutrients measured (phosphate
and silicate) show qualitatively similar trends.
Figure 5a reveals the pattern of nitrate (against depth) on the central section of the
survey between the Seychelles and Mauritius. Nitrate is generally higher in the deeper
water, below 1000 m, than above, with a maximum (exceeding 36 mol l1 ) between
1000 and 2000 m and north of 15 S (indicating a northern source for the high-nitrate
waters). In the upper 1000 m, nitrate levels are much lower on the southern side of
the SEC (south of 13 S) than on its northern side. This is particularly pronounced
in the top 500 m, where levels are only 214 mol l1 on the southern side, but
1428 mol l1 on the northern side. This reinforces our conclusions that the SEC
acts as a sharp boundary between water masses, those of subtropical origin being
nutrient poor, and those from further north being nutrient rich. Indeed, examination
of the Wyrtki (1971) atlas shows that the sources of such high levels of nutrients are
almost certainly the Arabian Sea or the Bay of Bengal. (How such water masses cross
the Equator is not clear at present. However, this could occur in principle through,
rstly, eastward transport in the Southwest Monsoon Current south of India (Schott
& McCreary 2001), southeastward transport in the boundary current system near
Sumatra and Java, and nally westward transport in the SEC. In addition, crossequatorial exchange by eddies could play a role.)
The nutricline (e.g. the position of the 20 mol l1 contour) in gure 5a rises
from 700800 m deep in the south (at 20 S) to close to the surface between 6
and 12 S. The nutricline is closest to the surface (in the upper 100 m) between 7
and 9 S, and shows a slight descent again further north, between 7 and 5 S. As
already discussed, Schott & McCreary (2001) have remarked that Ekman suction,
resulting from divergence of the wind-induced Ekman transports near the surface,
results in uplifting or doming of the underlying water masses on the northern side of
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23
density (kg m3)

(a)
24
25
26
27
20 S

18 S

16 S

14 S

12 S

10 S

8 S

23

40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0

density (kg m3)

(b)
24
25
26
27
15 S

20 S

5 S

10 S

density (kg m3)

23

(c)

24
25
26
27
20 S

18 S

16 S

14 S

12 S

40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0

10 S

8 S

40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0

Figure 6. Nitrate (mol l ) against density (0 ) for the (a) eastern, (b) central and (c) western
sections. Note that the central section extends further north (to 5 S) than the other sections
(which extend to 8 S).

the SEC, between approximately 5 and 10 S (and 4080 E). Since water masses
are considered to largely conserve their density (once removed from diabatic surface
eects), such uplifting can be illustrated by examining the density structure of the
water column. Figure 5b therefore shows the density structure along the central
section, for comparison with gure 5a. It is clear that density surfaces do indeed rise
towards the north across the SEC, and are closest to the surface in the northern region
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A. L. New and others

(a)

(b)

4 S
1000 m

1000 m

20

100

8 S
125

1000 m

150
12 S

20
23
26

Saya
de Malha

175
200

175
200
225
250

1000 m

20

20

250

Nazareth
15

1000 m

15
275

275

10

20 S

54 E

23

20

225

Nazareth
16 S

1000 m Saya
de Malha

125

57 E

60 E

63 E

66 E 54 E

10
57 E
3

60 E

63 E

66 E
1

Figure 7. (a) Depth (m) of density surface 26.0 kg m and (b) nitrate (mol l )
on the 26.0 kg m3 density surface. Arrows indicate inferred ow directions.

(between 6 and 12 S), paralleling the situation for the nitrate surfaces. However,
the pycnocline (e.g. the position of the 26.0 kg m3 density surface) rises from only
ca. 300 m at 20 S to 100 m in the northern regions. This clearly does not match the
more pronounced rise of the nitrate surfaces. Hence, assuming that nitrate levels are
constant on density surfaces, the uplifting of those density surfaces due to Ekman
suction is insucient to explain the observed increases in nitrate in the north.
It is apparent therefore that the nitrate levels must vary on density surfaces. We
investigate this in gure 6 by showing nitrate plotted against density for each of the
sections. For the eastern section (gure 6a), there is a small increase between densities
27.0 and 26.5 kg m3 (aecting depths of approximately 400700 m; gure 5b) at 15
16 S, the southern edge of the SEC. The major feature, however, is the pronounced
rise in nitrates on the northern side of the SEC between 8 and 11 S, aecting density
surfaces as low as 25.0 kg m3 (reaching well into the pycnocline at the base of the
surface mixed layer at 50100 m in depth; gure 5b). In addition, nitrate levels are
higher on all surfaces denser than 25.0 kg m3 everywhere north of 13 S, the centre of
the SEC, than south of this position. These are unambiguous indications of a dierent
source region for the waters on the northern side of the SEC, with high nitrate levels,
probably the Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal, as already discussed. The central section
(gure 6b) indicates that the high-nitrate core (at 811 S on the eastern section)
has now split into two cores, near 1112 S and 8 S, which are being diverted to ow
southwestwards and northwestwards, respectively, around the Saya de Malha Bank
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163

(see also gure 7). Furthermore, the change between low and high nitrate levels on
density surfaces heavier than 25.0 kg m3 now occurs very sharply at 12 30 S as
the ow is channelled through the gap between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth
Banks. The SEC is again seen to act as an abrupt divide between waters of low and
high nitrate content. Finally, gure 6c shows the western section. Nitrate levels are
still generally high on the northern side of the SEC (north of 13 S). In addition,
the region of high-nitrate waters (on densities 25.026.5 kg m3 ) at 16 S reects the
presence of the eddy previously referred to, which is being detached from the SEC
front and is bringing nitrate-rich waters from the northern side of the SEC further
south.
There are therefore two eects which bring higher nutrients to the surface waters
on the northern side of the SEC, bathing the central and northern regions of the
Mascarene Plateau. Firstly, there is uplifting of the density surfaces due to the eect
of the wind, as noted by Schott & McCreary (2001). Secondly, nitrate levels are much
higher on density surfaces on the northern side of the SEC due to these waters being
derived from a dierent (northerly) origin. These two eects are shown in gure 7.
Figure 7a shows the depth of the 26.0 kg m3 density surface. This rises from 275
300 m deep in the southern regions to 125100 m on the northern side of the SEC.
The density surface rises most rapidly through the central position of the SEC near
1213 S. Indeed, the lines of constant depth are closely related to the ow patterns
seen in gure 3, and even reect the presence of the eddy at 16 S. Figure 7b then
shows the variation of nitrate on this density surface. The highest values (initially
above 26 mol l1 ) sweep in on the northern side of the SEC, and are split and
spread around the Saya de Malha Bank. The SEC clearly delimits the high-nitrate
region in the north from the lower nitrate levels in the south, and again, lines of
constant nitrate levels reect the ow patterns seen earlier. There is a sharp change
in the nitrate levels through the central position of the SEC, particularly as it passes
between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks, and the clear presence of the eddy
at 16 S (57 E). Overall, we also note the general decrease (from 26 to 20 mol l1 )
in the highest nitrate levels as the ow progresses from east to west, possibly as
a result of biological consumption. We also note that the Mascarene Plateau acts
to spread the region of high nitrates (e.g. the region in excess of 20 mol l1 ) from
812 S on the eastern side, to 616 S on the western side. This results from both
topographic steering of the currents (forcing them northwards of Saya de Malha and
up towards the Seychelles) and the shedding of eddies after the SEC has crossed the
plateau.
The high nutrient levels being delivered to the surface waters on the northern side
of the SEC would be expected to result in increased biological production in these
areas, and this should be made evident by higher levels of phytoplankton and zooplankton. That this may be so for the phytoplankton is shown in gure 8, which is a
composite SeaWiFS image of data between 13 and 30 June 2002 (covering the middle
part of the cruise) revealing surface chlorophyll concentrations. (Surface chlorophyll
concentrations depend on the levels of phytoplankton, though the relationship is
not necessarily straightforward (Zubkov & Quartly 2003).) On the eastern side of
the plateau, we observe a band of relatively high (compared with waters further
north and south) concentrations (0.20.5 mg m3 ) on the northern side of the SEC,
between approximately 6 and 12 S. This has a sharp southern boundary associated with the centre of the SEC, and which passes over the plateau at 1213 S.
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A. L. New and others

0

4 S
Seychelles

8 S

12 S

16 S

20 S
Mauritius

52 E

56 E

60 E

64 E

68 E

0.01 0.05 0.2 0.5 1 2

mg m3

72 E

76 E

80 E

5 10 20 50

Figure 8. SeaWiFS surface chlorophyll concentration (mg m3 ) composite between 13 and

30 June 2002. Black areas represent land or persistent cloud. (Reproduced courtesy of the
Remote Sensing Data Analysis Service (RSDAS), Plymouth Marine Laboratory.)

We also note the apparent spreading of the region of high concentrations as the SEC
meets the plateau, both moving northwards towards the Seychelles, and being spread
southwards (to 1416 S) on the western side of the plateau. All these ndings are
in accord with our expectations from the nitrate analysis above. In addition, there is
clearly enhanced local production above the banks themselves (see the green areas
in the vicinity of the Seychelles, and above the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks),
presumably by ecosystems trapped (since the currents tend to divert around, rather
than ow over, the banks) in the shallow waters, which we were not able to investigate. Furthermore, these regions of enhanced local production give rise to streamers
of high concentrations which can be stretched out on the western side of the banks
by the ow (the example from the Seychelles being particularly marked). Finally, we
remark that higher levels of zooplankton were indeed seen on the northern side of
the SEC during the present investigation, and these are examined by Gallienne &
Smythe-Wright (2005).

4. Summary and conclusions

This investigation has examined how the South Equatorial Current (SEC) crosses
the Mascarene Plateau, and how the structure of the ow determines the supply of
nutrients to the surface waters surrounding the plateau.
It is apparent, rstly, that the ow of the SEC across the plateau is highly dependent on the complex structure of the banks and shoals which make up the plateau.
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On the eastern (upstream) side of the plateau, the SEC appears as a broad ow
between 9 and 16 S. When this meets the plateau, the ow is deected both northwestwards and southwestwards by the Saya de Malha and Nazareth Banks. The
result is that a large part of the SEC is forced through the gap between these two
Banks at 1213 S. Here there is a deep, narrow channel (1100 m deep and 810 km
wide), and a shallower (400450 m) ridge to the southsouthwest, which was mapped
out by the bathymetric survey. The remainder of the SEC ows partly around the
northern tip of the Saya de Malha Bank (although this appears to be intermittent),
and partly through the gap between the CargadosCarajos Bank and Mauritius. On
the western (downstream) side of the plateau, the ow consists of two cores, between
1015 S and 1720 S.
We have also seen that the SEC acts as a sharp barrier or front, dividing water
masses of southerly or subtropical origin on its southern side, from waters which are
likely to come from more northerly sources, on its northern side. Furthermore, the
SEC delivers high levels of nutrients to the surface waters of the central and northern
regions of the Mascarene Plateau. This is partly because the density surfaces are
lifted upwards on the northern side of the SEC by the eect of the wind (as noted by
Schott & McCreary (2001)), and partly because the water masses on the northern
side of the front have much higher levels of nutrients (on density surfaces) than those
on the southern side. Indeed, this latter eect clearly indicates that the waters on
the northern side of the front have a dierent source from the waters on its southern
side, and almost certainly derive from the Arabian Sea or Bay of Bengal (which have
appropriately high levels of nutrients on the same density surfaces (Wyrtki 1971)).
Finally, we remark that the higher levels of near-surface nutrients in the central
and northern regions of the plateau seem to be related to higher surface levels of
phytoplankton, which would in turn be expected to fuel increased abundances of
zooplankton (and higher levels of the food chain) in these areas.
We gratefully acknowledge the Master and crew of the RRS Charles Darwin, without whose
tireless cooperation and assistance the collection of the datasets presented here would have been
impossible. The work was also partly supported by the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG)
Royal Society Shoals of Capricorn Programme, Western Indian Ocean, 19982001, to which
we are indebted. Consequently, this paper also forms Shoals Contribution no. P047. Finally,
we thank RSDAS for providing remote sensing support during the cruise, and in particular the
SeaWiFS data, which are also courtesy of the NASA SeaWiFS project and Orbital Sciences
Corporation.

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Deep-Sea Res. A 36, 116.
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water mass. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 14551464.
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Schott, F. A. & McCreary Jr, J. P. 2001 The monsoon circulation of the Indian Ocean. Prog.
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Smith, W. H. F. & Sandwell, D. T. 1997 Global sea oor topography from satellite altimetry
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Stramma, L. & Lutjeharms, J. R. E. 1997 The ow eld of the subtropical gyre of the South
Indian Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 55135530.
Swallow, J., Fieux, M. & Schott, F. 1988 The boundary currents east and north of Madagascar.
1. Geostrophic currents and transports. J. Geophys. Res. 93, 49514962.
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Discussion
F. A. Schott (IFM-GEOMAR Leibniz Institut f
ur Meereswissenschaften, Universit
at Kiel, Germany). Is there evidence for water mass transformation from the eastern to the western section through topographic interaction, particularly tidal mixing
in the narrow passages, similar to what is observed in the Indonesian passages?
A. L. New. There is evidence of mixing in the upper 200 m in the TSW and underlying more saline waters, as these pass between the Saya de Malha and Nazareth
Banks, since the interface between these waters deepens from east to west, and the
TSW becomes more saline. However, such changes could result from mixing induced
by the topography as suggested, or from mixing induced by increasingly strong surface uxes (of buoyancy and wind stress) as winter conditions (in the southwest
monsoon) become better developed (i.e. the sections were run east to west during
June and July at the onset of the monsoon).
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F. A. Schott. How do you explain the physics of subsurface water from the Bay of
Bengal crossing the Equator and supplying the high nutrients in the northern part
of the sections?
A. L. New. Exactly how these water masses cross the Equator is not known,
although this could be possible in the frictional boundary current systems o Sumatra and Java.
I. N. McCave (Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, UK ). I
note that you did not specically mention Indonesian Throughow Water (ITF) in
your cross-sections (other than the surface rain-aected fresh plume), but do you
think it is recognizable there? Surely it should be present?
A. L. New. It is indeed possible to recognize a weak presence of the ITF as the more
saline waters (salinity between 35.0 and 35.2) which underlie the fresh rain-aected
plume (the TSW) between (for example) about 11 and 14 S on the eastern section,
at depths between 100 and 250 m. (Refer to Song et al . (2004) for more discussion
of this water mass.)
A. S. Laughton (Southampton Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton,
UK ). Is there any evidence of erosion by enhanced current ow in the newly discovered 12.5 S channel? What are the currents there?
A. L. New. Preliminary analysis is indicating that the currents at the bottom of
this channel could be between 5 and 20 cm s1 . While this is often large enough to
lead to erosion of bottom sediments, we cannot say that there is denite evidence of
erosion without either a direct sample of the bottom material, or, possibly, a more
detailed analysis of the swath bathymetry. However, the sides and bottom of the
channel do appear to be quite smooth and regular, indicating possible current scour.
N. C. Flemming (Southampton Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton,
UK ). The ADCP measurements and current calculations show the transport of the
SEC on both sides of the Mascarene Plateau and the ow through the channels. Do
the ows through the channels and round the north end of the Plateau account for
the whole SEC, or is there a signicant ow over the tops of the Banks?
A. L. New. This cannot be answered precisely without a detailed survey over the
tops of the banks. However, the banks are typically very shallow (ca. 2050 m). Furthermore, conservation of potential vorticity would tend to drive the ows around
the banks (following contours of constant depth to rst order), rather than over their
tops. Overall, it is suspected that only a small fraction of the SEC transport would
therefore ow over the tops of the banks. For example, a mean ow of 10 cm s1
in a water depth of 35 m, and for a bank which was 300 km in extent (such as the
Saya de Malha or Nazareth Banks) would amount to ca. 1 Sv (or 106 m3 s1 ), a small
fraction of the total SEC transport of some 50 Sv.
I. Lloyd (Science Policy Support Group, Peterseld, UK ). Will the science of ocean
dynamics, etc., be advanced further by (i) new measurements, (ii) more data or
(iii) more processing capacity?
A. L. New. Our feeling is that ocean science could be most rapidly advanced by
a greater quantity of direct observations at sea. This is particularly true in the
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South Indian Ocean (and other oceans) which are notably data sparse. Such observations could be achieved through new technologies such as Argo oats and gliders,
or through the use of a greater quantity of research ships. The collection and analysis
of such data are not typically limited by the processing capacity on board present-day
research ships.
Additional reference
Song, Q., Gordon, A. L. & Visbeck, M. 2004 Spreading of the Indonesian Throughow in the
Indian Ocean. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 34, 772792.

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A (2005)