1.

In wireless communication, radio propagation refers to the behavior of radio waves when
they are propagated from transmitter to receiver. In the course of propagation, radio waves are
mainly affected by three different modes of physical phenomena: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering [1,2]. Reflection is the physical phenomenon that occurs when a propagating
electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object with very large dimensions compared to the
wavelength, for example, surface of the earth and building. It forces the transmit signal power to
be reflected back to its origin rather than being passed all the way along the path to the receiver.
Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when the radio path between the transmitter
and receiver is obstructed by a surface with sharp irregularities or small openings. It appears as a
bending of waves around the small obstacles and spreading out of waves past small openings.
The secondary waves generated by diffraction are useful for establishing a path between the
transmitter and receiver, even when a line-of-sight path is not present. Scattering is the physical
phenomenon that forces the radiation of an electromagnetic wave to deviate from a straight path
by one or more local obstacles, with small dimensions compared to the wavelength. Those
obstacles that induce scattering, such as foliage, street signs, and lamp posts, are referred to as
the scatters. In other words, the propagation of a radio wave is a complicated and less
predictable process that is governed by reflection, diffraction, and scattering, whose intensity
varies with different environments at different instances.
2. A unique characteristic in a wireless channel is a phenomenon called fading, the variation
of the signal amplitude over time and frequency. In contrast with the additive noise as the most common source of
signal degradation, fading is another source of signal degradation that is
characterized as a non-additive signal disturbance in the wireless channel. Fading may either be
due to multipath propagation, referred to as multi-path (induced) fading, or to shadowing from
obstacles that affect the propagation of a radio wave, referred to as shadow fading.
The fading phenomenon in the wireless communication channel was initially modeled for
HF (High Frequency, 3_30MHz), UHF (Ultra HF, 300_3000 GHz), and SHF (Super HF,
3_30 GHz) bands in the 1950s and 1960s. Currently, the most popular wireless channel models
have been established for 800MHz to 2.5 GHz by extensive channel measurements in the field.
These include the ITU-R standard channel models specialized for a single-antenna communication
system, typically referred to as a SISO (Single Input Single Output) communication,
over some frequency bands. Meanwhile, spatial channel models for a multi-antenna communication
system, referred to as the MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) system, have been
recently developed by the various research and standardization activities such as IEEE 802,
METRA Project, 3GPP/3GPP2, and WINNER Projects, aiming at high-speed wireless
transmission and diversity gain.
The fading phenomenon can be broadly classified into two different types: large-scale fading
and small-scale fading. Large-scale fading occurs as the mobile moves through a large distance,
for example, a distance of the order of cell size [1]. It is caused by path loss of signal as a
function of distance and shadowing by large objects such as buildings, intervening terrains, and
vegetation. Shadowing is a slow fading process characterized by variation of median path loss
between the transmitter and receiver in fixed locations. In other words, large-scale fading is
characterized by average path loss and shadowing. On the other hand, small-scale fading refers
to rapid variation of signal levels due to the constructive and destructive interference of multiple
signal paths (multi-paths) when the mobile station moves short distances. Depending on the
relative extent of a multipath, frequency selectivity of a channel is characterized (e.g., by
frequency-selective or frequency flat) for small-scaling fading. Meanwhile, depending on the
time variation in a channel due to mobile speed (characterized by the Doppler spread), shortterm
fading can be classified as either fast fading or slow fading.
3.classification f fading channel->>> (1)large scale fading (a)path loss (b) shadowing (2) small scale
fading(a)multipath fading (a1)frequency selective fading(a2)flat fading(b)variance (b1)fast fading (b2)slow fading