CHAPTER 8: SALTS

What is salt?
Salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from acid
is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH4+
In the preparation of salts, we must identify the type of salt. This can be done by
analysing the cations and the anions that are present in salts.
Two types of salts
Soluble salt salts that can be dissolve in water at room temperature

Insoluble salt salts cannot be dissolve in water at room temperature

Type of salt

Solubility in water

Sodium salts
Potassium
salts All dissolves in water
Ammonium salts
Nitrate salts

All dissolves in water

Chloride salts

Sulphate salts

Carbonate salts

All dissolves in water, Except: Lead(II) chloride,

Silver chloride,
Mercury chloride,
All dissolves in water Except: Lead(II) sulphate,
Barium sulfat,
Calcium sulfat,

PbCl2
AgCl
HgCl
PbSO4
BaSO4
CaSO4

All did not dissolves in water, Except: Sodium carbonate,

Na2CO3
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3
Ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3

Special Properties of lead(II) chloride and lead(II) iodide

NOTES: Lead halide such as lead(II) chloride (PbCl2), lead(II) bromide (PbBr2), and
lead(II) iodide (PbI2) did not dissolve in cold water but dissolve in hot water.

White precipitate of
PbCl2

White precipitate
dissolves in hot
water

White precipitate formed

when the water is cooled
down.

Yellow precipitate of
PbI2

Yellow precipitate
dissolves in hot water

Yellow crystals formed when

the water is cooled down.

Use of salts;
Item

Use

Example

Monosodium glutamate (MSG)

Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride - salted fish
Sodium benzoate - sauce
Preservatives
Sodium nitrite
- processed meat, burger
Baking powder
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Potassium nitrate
Nitrogen fertilizers
Sodium nitrate
Copper(II) sulphate
Pesticide
Iron(II) sulphate
Reduce stomach acidic Calcium carbonate
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
(gastric)
Sniff salt (fainted)
Ammonium carbonate
Plaster of Paris (cement Calcium sulphate
to support broken bone)
Flavor

Food preparation

Agriculture

Medicine

A. Preparation of Salt
The procedure of preparation salt depends to the type of salt.
a. Insoluble salt is prepared through precipitation reaction.
b. Soluble salt is prepared by one of these reactions;
i.
Acid and alkali
ii.
Acid and metal oxide
iii.
Acid and metal carbonate
iv.
Acid and reactive metal
2

a. Insoluble Salts
i. Preparing Insoluble Salts
1. Insoluble salts can be prepared through precipitation reactions or double decomposition reactions.
2. Precipitation or double decomposition reaction involves;
- two aquoues solutions/soluble salts were mix together
- one of the solutions contains the cations of the insoluble salt.
- one of the solutions contains the anions of the insoluble salt.
- the ions of the two aqueous solutions above interchange to produce two new compound
which is insoluble salt or precipitate, and aqueous solution.
- the precipitate produced is obtained by filtration. The residue left in the filter paper is the
insoluble salt. The filtrate is soluble salt.
- the residue/precipitate (insoluble salt) then rinsed with distilled water to remove any other
ions as impurities.

Ionic equation:

Pb2+ ions combined

with Cl- ions to form
white precipitate

PbCl2

Na+
NO3-

Pb2+ + 2Cl- PbCl2

Na+
NO3-

Na+ ions and NO3- ions do not

take part in the reaction and are
free to move in the solution

Glass rod
Mixture of solutions
Filter paper

Residue/precipitate
(Insoluble salt)
Filter funnel

Retort stand
Filtrate
(Soluble salt)
Chemical and ionic equations
Chemical equation :
Ionic equation

MX(aq) +
solution
M+(aq) +

NY(aq) MY(s) +
solution
precipitate
Y-(aq)

NX(aq)
solution

MY(s)

Study this reaction carefully

In the formation of the precipitate of barium sulphate, BaSO4, the chemical equation can be written:
BaCl2(aq)

Ions

+ Na2SO4 (aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Ba2+ + Cl- + Na+ + SO42- BaSO4 + Na+ + Cl-

Ionic equation : Ba2+ + SO42- BaSO4

(shows the ions that take part in the reaction to form precipitate/insoluble salts)
More examples;
Insoluble Salt

Ions

Ionic equation

ZnCO3

Zn2+ , CO32-

Zn2+ + CO32- ZnCO3

AgCl

Ag+ , Cl-

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

BaSO4

Ba2+ , SO42-

Ba2+ + SO42 BaSO4

PbCl2

Pb2+ , Cl-

Pb2+ + Cl- PbCl2

4

PbSO4

Pb2+ , SO42-

Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4

CaCO3

Ca2+ , CO32-

Ca2+ + CO32- CaCO3

ii. Preparation and purification of insoluble salts

Preparation of Plumbum(II) iodide
Chemical equation

: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation

: Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) PbI2 (s)

Step 1: Preparation

20 cm3
Lead (II) nitrate
0.1 mol dm-3

20 cm3
Potassium iodide
0.1 mol dm-3

1. 20 cm3 lead(II) nitrate 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml,
and poured into a beaker.
2. 20 cm3 potassium iodide 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml
and poured into a beaker contains lead(II) nitrate solution.
3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod. A yellow precipitate is formed.

Glass rod
Mixture of solutions
Filter paper

Retort stand

Precipitate of lead(II) iodide

(yellow)
Filter funnel
Beaker
Sodium nitrate solution

4. The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids of lead(II) iodide as the residue.
Step 2: Purification
Distilled water

Glass rod

Precipitate of lead(II)
iodide

5. The residue is rinsed with distilled water to remove other ions in it.

Precipitate of lead(II)
iodide

Filter paper

6. The yellow solid is dried by pressing between two pieces of filter paper.
b. Soluble Salt
i. Preparaing Soluble Salt
6

Sodium salts

Potassium salts

Ammonium salts

Acid + alkali

salts + water

Soluble Salts
-

Other salts

Acid + metal oxide

salts + water

Acid + reactive metal

salts + hydrogen gas

Acid + metal carbonate

salt + water + carbon

dioxide
Notes: Reactive metal is magnesium, aluminium, and zinc
Unreactive metal is iron, lead, silver
a. Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts prepared from acid and alkali reaction.
Salt

Alkali

Acid

Chemical equation

NaCl

NaOH

HCl

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

K2SO4

KOH

H2SO4

2KOH + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O

NH4NO3

NH3/NH4OH

HNO3

NH3 + HNO3 NH4NO3 + H2O

CH3COONa

NaOH

CH3COOH

NaOH + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O

Note: To prepare the above salts, titration technique is use.

b. Soluble salt (except sodium, potassium and ammonium salt) is prepared using these methods
- Acid and metal
- Acid and metal oxide
- Acid and metal carbonate
Name of Salt

Acid that must be

used

Substance that can be use to react with acid

Metal

Metal oxide

Metal carbonate

ZnCl2

HCl

Zn

ZnO

ZnCO3

Mg(NO)3

HNO3

Mg

MgO

MgCO3

CuSO4

H2SO4

CuO

CuCO3

Pb(NO3)2

HNO3

PbO

PbCO3

Write a chemical equation for each experiment above.

7

Remember this notes ok

1. Metal that is less reactive from hydrogen such as copper, lead and
silver/argentum did not react with dilute acid.
2. Metal, metal oxide and metal carbonate above is a solid that cannot dissolves in
water, hence during reaction that solid must be added excessively to make sure
all hydrogen ions in acid is completely reacted. Excess solid can be expelling
through filtration.
3. Impure soluble salt can be purified through crystallization process.
ii. Preparation and purification of soluble salts
A. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid and alkali.
Preparation
of
Soluble
Sodium,
Potassium
and
ammonium
Salts
Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared by the reaction between an
acid and alkali.
Acid

(aq)

alkali

(aq)

Salt

(aq)

Water

Procedure :
Using pipette, 25 cm3 of alkali solution is measured and
transferred into a conical flask.
Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the alkali solution.
Dilute acid is place in a burette. The initial reading is recorded.
Acid is added slowly into the alkali solution while shaking
the conical flaks, until the pink solution turn colourless.
The final reading of the burette is recorded.
The volume of acid added, V cm3 is calculated.
The experiment is repeated by adding V cm3 of acid to
25 cm3 of alkali solution in a beaker without using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish.
The mixture is heated until saturated and the saturated solution
is allowed to cool at room temperature.
Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a little of cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between filter papers (or

in

(l)

oven)

Example: Preparing sodium chloride

Step 1: Preparation (Titration)

Burette

Retort
stand

Hydrochloric acid

Conical flask
25 cm3 NaOH + phenolphthalein
indicator
1. 25.0 cm3 sodium hydroxide solutions is pipette into conical flask.
2. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added into conical flask. The colour of solution is
recorded.
3. A 50 cm3 burette is filled with hydrochloric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.
4. Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from a burette into conical flask and swirling the conical
flask.
5. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless. The final burette
reading is recorded.
6. The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adding hydrochloric acid (known volume) to 25.0 cm 3 sodium
hydroxide in a beaker without using phenolphthalein.
Step 2: Preparation (Crystallization)

Salt solution

Evaporating dish
Bunsen burner

8. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish.

9. The colourless solution is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated or to about one-third
(1/3) of the original volume.
10. The saturated solution is then cooled to allow crystallization to occur.
9

Step 3: Purification

Distilled water

Glass rod

Copper(II) sulphate
Filter funnel

10. The white crystals formed are then filtered, rinsed with a little distilled
water and dried by pressing between filter paper.
Note: Phenolphthalein indicator is used at the beginning of the experiment to determine the volume
of hydrochloric acid that is required to react completely with 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide.
However experiment is repeated without using phenolphthalein so that the salt prepared will
not contaminated by the indicator.
B. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid
i. Metal oxide. ii. Metal iii. Metal carbonate
Procedure To Prepare a Soluble Salt (not Na, K or NH4+)
50 cm3 of acid is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a beaker. The acid is
heated slowly.
Using a spatula, metal / metal oxide / metal carbonate powder is added a little at a time while
stirring the mixture with a glass rod.
The addition of the solid powder is stopped when some solids no longer dissolve anymore. (the
solid is excess and all the acid is completely neutralised by the solid)

10

The

The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.

The filtrate is heated until saturated. (The filtrate is evaporated to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume)
The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature and the salt crystals are
formed.
The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.

mixture

is

filtered

to

remove

the

excess

solid

powder.

Example: Preparing copper(II) sulphate

(Sulphuric acid and copper(II) oxide powder)
Step 1: Preparation

11

Spatula
Stir

Glass rod
Beaker
Wire gauze
Tripod

Copper(II) oxide

50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Bunsen
burner

1. 50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 is put in a beaker and is heated.
2. Using spatula copper(II) oxide powder is added a little at a time to the hot sulphuric acid while
stirring continuously with glass rod.
3. The addition of copper(II) oxide is stopped when solids powder remain undissolved.

Glass rod
Reactant mixture

Excess copper(II) oxide

Copper(II) sulphate solution

4. The mixture is filtered to remove the excess copper(II) oxide.

5. The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.

12

Evaporating dish

Copper(II) sulphate
solution

Bunsen burner

6. The filtrate is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated, or to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume.
7. The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature.
Step 3: Purification

Glass rod
Distilled water

Copper(II) sulphate

8. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
9. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.
REMEMBER. THIS NOTES OK
Unreactive metal such as lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and silver (Ag) cannot react with dilute asid. So to
prepare salt contains lead ions (Pb2+), copper ions (Cu2+)
or silver ions (Ag+), we must use either oxide powder or carbonate powder only.
Example: CuO
CuCO3
Cu

H2SO4

CuSO4 + H2O

H2SO4

CuSO4 +

+
B.

H2SO4

H2O + CO2

no reaction
Physical

Characteristics

of

Crystals.
13

A salt is made up of positive and negative ions. When these ions are packed closely with a regular and
repeated arrangement in an orderly manner, a solid with definite geometry known as crystal
lattice
is
formed.

All crystals have these physical characteristics:

a) Reqular geometry shapes, such as cubic or hexagonal.
b) Flat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.
c) Same angle between adjacent faces.
d) All crystals of the same salt have the same shape although the sizes may be different.
The solubility of a salt in water depends on the types of cations and anions present.
Salt
Solubility in water
C. Sodium,
potassium
of and ammonium salts All are soluble
(Na+, K+, NH4+)
-

Nitrate salt (NO3 )

Qualitative Analysis
Salts
What is Qualitative
analysis?

All are soluble

Qualitative analysis is a chemical technique used to determine what

All chloride salts are soluble in water except
substances
in a mixture but not their quantities.
Chloride
salt are
(Cl present
)
PbCl2, AgCl and HgCl2
In
Sulphate salt (SO42-)
in Carbonate salt (CO32-)

All sulphate salts are soluble in water

except PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4
All carbonate salts are insoluble except
Na2CO3, K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3

the
qualitative
analysis of salts, we
need to identify the
ions that are present
salts. This can be
done by analysing
their physical and

chemical properties.
Observations on the physical properties of salts
1. Colour and solubility in water
Certain physical properties of salts such colour and solubility in water are observed to help us infer
certain cations and anions that are present in salts.
The table shows the colour of salts in solid , in aqueous solution and the solubility of salts in water
Salt

Colour
solid

1. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl

white

in Solubility
in water
soluble

Colour in Aqueous solution

colourless
14

2. Ammonium nitrateNH4(NO3)3
3. Calcium carbonate CaCO3
4. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2
5. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4
6. Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
7. Zinc sulphate Zn SO4
8. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2
9. Lead(II) chloride , PbCl2
10. Lead(II) sulphate , PbSO4
11. Lead(II) carbonate , PbCO3
12. Copper(II) chloride , CuCl2
13 Copper(II) sulphate , PbSO4
14. Copper(II) carbonate , PbCO3
15. Iron(II) sulphate , FeSO4

white
soluble
colourless
white
insoluble
white
soluble
colourless
white
soluble
colourless
white
insoluble
white
soluble
colourless
white
soluble
colourless
white
insoluble
white
insoluble
white
insoluble
Blue
soluble
Blue
Blue
soluble
Blue
Green
insoluble
Green
soluble
Pale green
Brown
/
Brown/Yellow/ Yellowish16. Iron(III) chloride , FeCl3
soluble
Yellow
brown
17. Sodium nitrate , NaNO3
white
soluble
colourless
18, Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3
white
soluble
colourless
19. Potassium nitrate , KNO3
white
soluble
colourless
20. Potassium carbonate , K2CO3
white
soluble
colourless
The table shows the colour of different cations in the solid form or in aqueous solution.
Observation

Inference

Blue solution

Ion copper (Cu2+ ) present

Pale green solution

Ion Iron(II) Fe2+ present

Yellow/Yellowishbrown/brown solution

Ion Iron (III) Fe3+ present

Green solid

Hydrated Fe 2+, CuCO3

Brown solid

Hydrated Fe 3+ salt

White solid

Salts of Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca

anions are colourless

Colourless solution

Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+

2+

Al

3+

, Zn 2+, Pb

2+

(If the

The table shows the solubility of different types of salts in water

15

Compounds

Solubility in water

Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
Nitrate salts

All are soluble

All are soluble

Chloride salts

All are soluble except AgCl, HgCl and PbCl2 (soluble in hot
water)

Sulphate salts

All are soluble except BaSO4, PbSO4 and CaSO4

Carbonate salts

All are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate

and ammonium carbonate

2. Tests for gases

Gases are often produced from reactions carried out during laboratory tests on salts. By identifying the
gases evolved,it is possible to infer the types of cations and anions that are present in a salt.
The table shows the test and the result of different gases
Gas

Test

Result

Oxygen gas, O2

Test with a
wooden splinter

glowing

Hydrogen gas , H2

Test with a lighted wooden

Gas explodes with a pop sound
splinter

Carbon dioxide gas , CO2

Bubble the gas produced

Lime water turns milky
into lime water

Ammonia gas, NH3

Test with moist red litmus

Moist red litmus paper turns blue
paper

Chlorine gas, Cl2

Moist blue litmus paper turns red and

Test with moist blue litmus
then turns white
paper

Wooden splinter is rekindled /lighted

16

Test with a drop of

Hydrogen chlorine gas ,
concentrated ammonia NH3 Dense white fumes
HCl
solution
Bubble the gas produced
into
purple acidified Purple acidified potassium manganate
Sulphur dioxide gas , SO2
potassium manganate (VII), (VII),KMnO4 solution decolourises
KMnO4 solution
Nitrogen dioxide gas , Test with moist blue litmus
moist blue litmus paper turns red
NO2
paper

3. Action of heat on salts

Effect of heat on carbonate salts
Carbonate salts

Colour of salt Colour of residue

before heating
Hot

cold

Effect on lime water

The gas liberated turns
lime
water
milky/chalky
The gas liberated turns
lime
water
milky/chalky
The gas liberated turns
lime
water
milky/chalky

Copper
(II)
Green powder
carbonate, CuCO3

Black powder

Black
powder

Zinc carbonate ,
White solid
ZnCO3

Yellow solid

White solid

Lead(II)
carbonate, PbCO3

White solid

Brown sold

Yellow solid

Sodium carbonate,
White solid
Na2CO3

White solid

White solid

No change

Calcium
carbonate, CaCO3

White solid

White solid

White solid

The gas liberated turns

lime
water
milky/chalky

Potassium
carbonate, K2CO3

White solid

White solid

White solid

No change

White solid

The gas liberated turns

lime
water
milky/chalky

Magnesium
carbonate, MgCO3

White solid

White solid

Effect of heat on nitrate salts

Nitrate Salt

Colour of salt
before
heating

Colour of residue
Hot

cold

Test on gases liberated

17

A brown gas that turns blue litmus

paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

Copper (II) nitrate,

Blue solid
Cu(NO3)2

Black
powder

Black
powder

Zinc
nitrate,
White solid
Zn(NO3)2

Yellow
solid

White
solid

Lead(II)
Pb(NO3)2

nitrate,

White solid

Brown
solid

Yellow
solid

Sodium
NaNO3

nitrate,

White solid

White solid

White
solid

A colourless gas that rekindles a

glowing splinter is liberated

Calcium nitrate,
White solid
Ca(NO3)2

White solid

White
solid

A brown gas that turns blue litmus

paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

Potassium nitrate,
White solid
KNO3

White solid

White
solid

A colourless gas that rekindles a

glowing splinter is liberated

White solid

White
solid

Magnesium
nitrate, Mg(NO3)2

White solid

Iron(II)
Fe(NO3)2

nitrate, Pale
solid

Iron(III)
Fe(NO3)3

nitrate,

Pale
Green Pale Green
Green
solid
solid

Brown solid

ReddishBrown
solid

ReddishBrown
solid

A brown gas that turns blue litmus

paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

The table shows the comparison of the effect of heat on carbonate and nitrate salts
Metal
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin

Effect of heat on carbonate

Effect of heat on nitrate salt
salt
Decompose to nitrite salt and oxygen
Are not decomposed by heat
gas.
Decompose to metal oxide and Decompose to metal oxide, nitrogen
carbon dioxide gas.
dioxide gas and oxygen gas.

18

Lead
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Gold

Decompose to metal, carbon Decompose to metal , nitrogen dioxide

dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
gas and oxygen gas.

Most sulphate salts are not decomposed by heat. Only a few sulphate such as iron(II) sulphate, zinc
sulphate and copper sulphate decompose to sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide gas when heated.
All chloride salts are stable when heated except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes
and decomposes to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.
The table shows the deduction of the types of ion present based on the gas produced
Type of gas produced

Type of ion present(anion)

CO2

Carbonate ion (CO3 2- ) present except Na2CO3 and K2CO3

O2

Nitrate ion (NO3-) present

NO2

Nitrate ion (NO3-) present except NaNO3 and KNO3

SO2

Sulphate ion (SO4 2- ) present

NH3

Ammonium ion (NH4+) present

Tests for anions

Reagent / Condition

Observation

2 cm3 the unknown solution

+ dilute hydrochloric acid /
nitric acid / sulphuric acid
pour into a test tube
gas liberated is immediately
bubbled through lime water.

Effervescence.
CO32- ion
Colourless gas
turns lime water
milky.

2 cm3 of nitric acid + 2 cm3 White

of the unknown solution precipitate
pour into a test tube + 2 formed.
cm3 silver nitrate solution
2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric White
acid / nitric acid + 2 cm3 of precipitate

Anion

Ionic Equation (if any)

CO32- + 2H+ CO2
+ H2O

Cl- ion

Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

SO42- ion

Ba2+ +
BaSO4

is

is

SO42

19

the unknown solution formed.

pour into a test tube + 2
cm3 of barium chloride /
barium nitrate solution
shake well
2 cm3 of the unknown
solution pour into a test
tube
2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric
acid + 2 cm3 of iron(II)
sulphate solution shake
well.
Then drop carefully and
slowly a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid
along the side of a slanting
test tube into the mixture
without shaking it.

Brown ring is NO3- ion

formed at the
boundary
between
the
concentrated
H2SO4
(top
layer)
and
aqueous
solution of the
mixture (bottom
layer)

Tests for cations

Confirmatory Test for Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, NH4+ Ions
Confirmatory Test for Fe2+
Reagent

Observation

Conclusion

Potassium
hexacyanoferrate(II)
solution

Pale blue precipitate

Fe2+ ion is present

Dark blue precipitate

Fe3+ ion is present

20

Potassium
hexacyanoferrate(III)
solution
Potassium
thiocyanate
solution

Dark blue precipitate

Fe2+ ion is present

Greenish-brown solution

Fe3+ ion is present

Pale red colouration

Blood red colouration

Fe2+ ion is present

Fe3+ ion is present

Confirmatory Test for Pb2+

Method

Observation

Ionic Equation

Using aqueous solution of chloride

- 2 cm3 of any solution of Cl- +
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+
dilute with 5 cm 3 of distilled water

heat until no further change occurs

allow the content to cool to room

temperature using running water
from
the tap

- A white precipitate is
formed

Pb2+ +
PbCl2

Using aqueous solution of iodide

- 2 cm3 of any solution of I- +
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+
dilute with 5 cm 3 of distilled water

heat until no further change occurs

allow the content to cool to room

temperature using running water
from
the tap

- A yellow precipitate is
formed

Confirmatory Test for NH4+

Method

2Cl-

When heated dissolve

in
water
to
form
colourless solution
When cooled white
precipitate reappear

Pb2+ + 2I- PbI2

When heated dissolve

in
water
to
form
colourless solution
When cooled yellow
precipitate reappear

Observation

2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 - Moist red litmus paper turns blue
of NaOH / KOH / Ca(OH)2 heat
put a piece of moist red litmus paper at
the mouth of the test tube

21

Reaction with Nesslers Reagent

- A brown precipitate is formed
3
+
3
2 cm of any solution of NH4 + 2 cm
of
Nesslers Reagent shake well

Reaction of Cations with NaOH

22

Sodium hydroxide solution is poured

slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be
tested in a test tube, until in excess.

Cations

+ NaOH (aq)

No precipitate

Precipitate produced

White precipitate

NH4+

K+

Coloured precipitate

Green

Na+

Blue
2+

Fe

Cu

Brown
2+

Fe2+

warm
NH3 gas produced

Insoluble in
excess
NaOH (aq)

Dissolve in excess
NaOH (aq) to form
colourless solution

Pb2+

Pb2+ Zn2+ Al3+

Ca2+ Mg2+

Zn2+

Al3+

Ca2+

Mg2+

: White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NaOH

: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NaOH

Reaction of Cations With NH3

23

Aqueous ammonia solution is poured

slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be
tested in a test tube until in excess.

Cations

+ NH3 (aq)

No precipitate

Precipitate produced

White precipitate

NH4+

K+

Na+

Coloured precipitate

Green

Ca2+

Blue
2+

Fe

Cu

Brown
2+

warm

Fe2+
+ excess
NH3 (aq)

NH3 gas produced

Dark blue
solution

Dissolve in excess
NH3 (aq) to form
colourless solution

Zn2+

Insoluble in
excess NH3 (aq)

Pb2+

Al3+

Mg2+

Zn2+ : White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NH3

Pb2+ Al3+ Mg2+
: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NH3

24

Conclusion:
Zn2+ ion is the only cation that forms white precipitate and dissolves in both excess NaOH and NH3
solutions.
Mg2+ ion is the only cation that forms white precipitate and insoluble in both excess NaOH and NH3
solutions.
Ca2+ ion is the only cation that forms a white precipitate in NaOH solution, but no precipitate in NH 3
solution.
Fe2+, Fe3+ and Cu2+ ions is easy to spot because the ions shows coloured precipitate.
Pb2+ ion and Al3+ ion form white precipitate and dissolves in excess NaOH solution, but insoluble in
excess NH3 solutions.

How to differentiate between Pb2+ and Al3+?

Example: lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution

Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.
QUESTIONS: (ESSAY)
Example 1:
Describe chemical tests that can be carried out in the laboratory to differentiate between
(a) lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution
Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate. If no change
occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.

(b) aluminium nitrate solution and zinc nitrate solution

25

Aqueous ammonia solution is poured slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test
tube until in excess. If a white precipitate that dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia solution
is formed, than the solution tested is zinc nitrate. If a white precipitate that is insoluble in
excess aqueous ammonia solution is formed, than the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.
(c) ammonium chloride solution and potassium chloride solution
Nesslers Reagent is added to 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube. If a brown
precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is ammonium chloride. If no change occurs,
then the solution tested is potassium chloride.
(d) iron(II) sulphate solution and iron(III) sulphate solution
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a
test tube. If a dark blue precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.
Or
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in
a test tube. If a greenish-brown solution is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III)
chloride. If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.
Or
Potassium thiocyanate solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a blood red colouration is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride. If no
change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.
(e) sodium chloride and sodium sulphate
Silver nitrate solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube. If a
white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium chloride. If no change occurs,
then the solution tested is sodium sulphate.
Or
Barium chloride solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube. If a
white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium sulphate. If no change occurs,
then the solution tested is sodium chloride.

Example 2:
26

1. State three examples of

a) soluble salts

b) insoluble salts

Potassium carbonate
Lead(II) nitrate
Ammonium chloride

Magnesium carbonate
Lead(II) sulphate
Argentum chloride

2. Which of the following salts is soluble

Lead(II) chloride

Sodium carbonate

Calcium sulphate

Barium sulphate

3. Identify the gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue
Ammonia gas
4. Gas X has the following properties

Colourless
Acidic gas
Turns lime water milky

Gas X is carbon dioxide gas

5.

Salt P

Heat

Metal oxide X

Gas Y

Colour of metal oxide X is yellow when hot and white when cold. Gas Y turns lime water
milky.
a) Name gas Y
b) Name metal oxide X

: carbon dioxide gas

: zinc oxide
27

c) Name salt P

: zinc carbonate

d) Write an equation to represent the action of heat on salt P

ZnCO3 (s)

ZnO (s)

+ CO2 (g)

6. A sample of copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 was heated strongly. Write down the expected
observation.
Copper(II) nitrate decompose to produce black colour of residue when hot and cold. A
brown gas that changed moist blue litmus paper to red and colourless gas that lighted up a
glowing wooden splinter is produced.

28

D. Numerical problem involving stoichiometric reaction in the preparation of salt

A balanced chemical equation for a reaction in preparation of a salt
can be used to calculate the stoichiometric quantities of the following
Mass of reactants
Volume and concentration of reactants
Mass of products
Volume of products

Example 1;
Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4 is use as a fertilizer. 29.8g of this salt is prepared by neutralizing
phosphoric acid, H3PO4 with ammonium gas, NH3. Calculate the volume of ammonium gas, NH 3
reacted at room conditions.
(Relative atomic mass; H, 1: N, 14: P, 31; O, 16; Molar volume; 24 dm3 mol-1 at room conditions)
Solutions;
2.88 g

a. Calculate the number of moles

[3(14) + 12(1) + 31 + 4(16)

= 0.2 mol

b. Write a balanced chemical equation

H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)

3 mol

1 mol

Compare the mole ratio of NH3 and

(NH4)3PO4
c. Calculate the number of moles of NH3 base = 3 X 0.2 mol
on
= 0.6 mol
the mole ratio

d. Calculate the volume of NH3

Volume = number of mole X volume

= 0.6 mol X 24 dm3 mol -1

= 14.4 dm3

Example 2:
3.9 g of potassium is burnt completely in the air as shown in the following equation;
29

4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)

What is the mass of potassium oxide produced?
[Relative atomic mass: K, 39; O, 16]
Solutions
Tip: Solve the question step by step
Step 1: Write Chemical Equation
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)
4 mol of K react with 1 mol of O2 produce 2 mol K2O
Step 2: Calculate the number of mole
[Get the information from the question]
No. of mol K

=
=

mass
Molar mass
3.9 g
39 gmol-1
0.1 mol

Step 3: Find the coefficient From Balance Chemical Equation

FBCE;
4 mol of K produce 2 mol K2O
Thus;
0.1 mol of K produce 2/4 mol K2O = 0.2 mol K2O
FBCE;
[Sebelah kiri]
Bil. mol yang telah dikira

[Sebelah kanan]
Bil. Mol yang hendak ditentukan

4 mol K

2 mol K2O

0.1mol K

2/4 x 0.1mol K2O = 0.05 mol K2O

No. of mol of K2O = 0.05 mol

Step 4: Solve the questions
Thus;
Mass of K2O = 0.05 mol Molar mass
= 0.05 mol 55 g mol-1
= 2.75 g
Example 3:
Acids reacts with calcium carbonate, CaCO3 in limestone to form a salt and carbon dioxide, CO2.
30

A piece of limestone reacted completely with 100 cm3 of 31.5 g dm-3 nitric acid, HNO3.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Ca, 40. Molar volume: 24 dm 3 mol-1 at room
conditions]
a. Calculate the mass of salt produced.
b. What is the volume of carbon dioxide, CO2 liberated at room conditions?
Step 1: Write Chemical Equation
Chemical Equation: 2HNO3 + CaCO3

Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

Step 2: Calculate the number of mole

Get the information from the question;
Concentration of HNO3

3
= 31.5 g dm

31.5 g dm3
Molar mass of HNO3

Change the
concentration
given in g dm-3
to mol dm-3 first

31.5 g dm3
1 + 14 + 48 g mol-1

-3
= 0.5 mol dm

No. of mole of HNO3 =

Molarity Volume

=
=
FBCE; 2HNO3 + CaCO3

1000
0.5 mol dm-3 100 cm3
1000
0.05 mol

Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

2 mol HNO3

1 mol Ca(NO3)2

0.05 mol HNO3

x 0.05 mol Ca(NO3)2 = 0.025 mol Ca(NO3)2

No. of mol of Ca(NO3)2 = 0.025 mol

Mass of Ca(NO3)2

FBCE; 2HNO3 + CaCO3

= 0.025 mol 40 + 2[14 + 3(16)] g mol-1

= 4.1 g

Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

31

2 mol HNO3

1 mol CO2

0.05 mol HNO3

x 0.05 mol CO2 = 0.025 mol CO2

No. of mol of CO2 = 0.025 mol

Volume of CO2

= 0.025 mol 12 + 2(16) dm3 mol-1

= 1.1 dm3

Example 4:
Pb(NO3)2 compound decomposes when heated as shown in the following equation.
If 6.62 g of Pb(NO3)2 compound is heated, calculate;
[Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; Pb, 207; 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]
(i) mass of PbO that is produced
(ii) volume of nitrogen dioxide produced at s.t.p
(ii) volume of oxygen produced at s.t.p
Solution:
2Pb(NO3)2

2PbO + 4NO2 +

No of mol Pb(NO3)2

mass

Molar mass
6.62 g

331 gmol-1

=
FBCE;

O2

0.02 mol

2Pb(NO3)2
2 mol Pb(NO3)2

2PbO + 4NO2 +
2 mol PbO

0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2

0.02 mol PbO

O2

No of mol PbO = 0.02 mol

Mass of PbO = 0.02 x 223 = 4.46 g

FBCE;

2Pb(NO3)2
2 mol Pb(NO3)2

2PbO + 4NO2 +

O2

4 mol NO2
32

0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2

4/2 x 0.02 mol O2 = 0.04 mol O2

No of mol O2 = 0.04 mol

Volume of O2 = 0.04 x 22.4 dm3
= 0.896 dm3 // 896 cm3
2Pb(NO3)2

2PbO + 4NO2 +

O2

2 mol Pb(NO3)2

1 mol O2

0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2

x 0.02 mol O2 = 0.01 mol O2

No of mol O2 = 0.01 mol

Volume of O2 = 0.01 x 22.4 dm3
= 0.224 dm3 // 224 cm3

33