Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate, lipid, and proteins = biological fuel/fuel substrates

Macronutrients maintains structural and functional integrity of the
organism.
As the name implies = Carbon + H20
Atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen combine to form a basic carbohydrate
molecule in the general formula (CH2O)n
*where n ranges from 3 to 7 carbon atoms with hydrogen and oxygen atoms
attached by single bonds
Plants provide the carbohydrate source in our diet
Carbohydrates generally classify as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides
The number of simple sugars linked within each of these molecules
distinguishes each carbohydrate form

Kinds and Sources of Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides
Basic unit of carbohydrates
Glucose
dextrose or blood sugar
consists of a 6-carbon (hexose) compound that forms naturally in food
Gluconeogenesis also synthesizes glucose from carbon residues of
other compounds (amino acids, glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate)
After absorption by the small intestine, glucose either:
(1) Becomes available as an energy source for cellular metabolism
(2) Forms glycogen for storage in the liver and muscles
(3) Converts to fat (triacylglycerol) for later use as energy
Consists of 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen,

and 6 oxygen atoms (C6H12O6)

Fructose
-

Fruit sugar or levulose

Sweetest sugar; occurs in large amounts in fruits and honey

Some fructose move directly from the digestive tract into the blood,
but eventually convert to glucose in the liver

Galactose
-

Does not exist freely in nature

Combines with glucose to form milk sugar in the mammary glands of

animals

The body converts galactose to glucose for use in energy metabolism

Oligosaccharides
From the Greek oligo, meaning a few
Form when 2 to 10 monosaccharides bond chemically

Disaccharides
-

Form when two monosaccharide molecules combine

Monosaccharides and disaccharides collectively make up the simple

sugars

Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)

The most common disaccharide
Occurs naturally in most food that contain carbohydrates
(especially beet and cane sugar, brown sugar, sorghum, maple
syrup, and honey)

Lactose (Glucose + Galactose)

Exists only in milk as milk sugar

 When artificially processed, often becomes an ingredient in

carbohydrate-rich, high-calorie liquid meals
-

Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)

Malt sugar
Occurs in beer, breakfast cereals, and germinating seeds
Makes only a small contribution to the carbohydrate content of
the diet

Polysaccharides
-

Describes the linkage of three to thousands of sugar molecules

Form during dehydration synthesis

Come from both plant and animal sources

Plant Polysaccharides
-

Starch
Storage form of carbohydrate in plants
Exists in 2 forms:
-

Amylose long straight chain of glucose units twisted

into a helical coil

Amylopectin highly branched monosaccharide linkage

*the relative proportion of each form of starch in a particular plant species

determines the characteristics of the starch, including digestibility
*starches with a relatively large amount of amylopectin digest and absorb
rapidly, whereas starches with high amylose content break down (hydrolyze) at a
slower rate.
Fiber
Classified as nonstarch, structural polysaccharide
Occur exclusively in plants; they make up the structure of
leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and fruit coverings

 Fibrous materials resist chemical breakdown by human digestive

enzymes
Animal Polysaccharides
Glycogen
Storage carbohydrate made primarily by muscles and the liver
Forms as a large polysaccharide polymer synthesized from
glucose in the process of glucogenesis (catalyzed by the
enzyme glycogen synthase)
Irregularly shaped; ranges from a few hundred to 30,000 glucose
molecules linked together
Its compact structure produces the dense glycogen granules
within cells, which vary in composition, subcellular location, and
metabolic regulation and responsiveness
Oligosaccharides
Are formed from the joining together of a few (oligo in Greek)
monosaccharides.
Major examples of these are disaccharides or double sugars.
Simple sugars = disaccharides + monosaccharides
Examples: Brown sugar, corn syrup, invert sugar, honey, and natural sweeteners
Three Principal disaccharides:
1. Sucrose composed of glucose plus fructose
-

occurs naturally in foods containing carbohydrates

Regular sources: Beet, cane sugar, brown sugar, sorghum, maple syrup, and honey.
Fact: Honey is not superior nutritionally or as an energy source despite of it being
sweeter than table sugar due to its high fructose content.

Oligosaccharides
2. Lactose glucose + galactose.
- found in natural form only in milk

- least sweet among the 3

Lactose intolerant people who lack with the enzyme lactase, which splits lactose
to glucose and galactose during digestion.
3. Maltose glucose + glucose
- present in beer, cereals, and germinating seeds.
- Malt sugar is a negligible component of the carbs content in a persons diet.

Polysaccharides
The term is used when three to thousands of sugar molecules are linked
together.
Only 2 classifications for polysaccharides, plant and animal.

Plant Polysaccharides
Starch storage form of carbohydrate in plants.
Found in seeds, corn, and various grains from which bread, cereal, pasta and
pastries are made. Also present in peas, beans, potatoes and roots. (Energy
bank of plants)
50% total carbs intake in the American diet.
Dietary starch = complex carbohydrates
Fiber nonstarch polysaccharide, of w/c cellulose is the most abundant
organic molecule on earth
Its materials are resistant to human digestive enzymes
Found in exclusively in plants and make up the structure of leaves, stems,
roots, seeds, and fruit coverings.
Water soluble fibers = healthier because it reduces cholesterol intake of our
body and cleans our intestinal tract.

Animal Polysaccharides

 Glycogen is the storage carbohydrate peculiar to mammalian muscle and

liver.
A large polysaccharide polymer synthesized from glucose in the process of
glucogenesis.
375 475g of CHON in body. 321g is muscle glycogen, 90-110g is liver, and
5g in blood glucose. Total of 1500-2000 calorie storage in the body. (Enough
energy for a 20-mile run)
During exercise, muscle glycogen is the major source of carbohydrate
energy for the active muscles.
Glycogen is reconverted into glucose in the process of glycogenolysis.
When muscle glycogen is depleted, glucose synthesis from other structural
components like proteins increases.
Insulin hormones released by the beta cells of the pancreas to decrease
blood sugar level.
Glucagon insulin antagonist, alpha cells of pancreas secrete this hormone
to increase blood sugar level.
The quantity of glycogen in the body can be modified considerably through
the diet

Recommended Intake of Carbohydrate in the body

It is recommended to consume 130 grams of carbohydrates per day.
This is equivalent to 520 kilocalories, which is enough to provide energy for
the body.
This is not standard for everybody since the amount of carbohydrate intake
varies for people depending on their age, lifestyle, gender, and gender health
status.
It is recommended that carbohydrates should supply 50-55% of our normal
caloric intake for the day.

Role of Carbohydrate in the Body

Why are carbohydrates important for the body?

Carbohydrate is essential for brain function

Carbohydrate is also important in building body muscles.

Its most basic role is fuel for our body or to supply energy

How does carbohydrates supply energy for our body?

Our body uses carbohydrates directly from the monosaccharide

glucose.

Some amino acids, instead of being used to make proteins, are

deaminated and used as carbohydrates to supply energy. The
formation of glucose from amino acids is called gluconeogenesis.

Provides Fuel for the Central Nervous System (CNS)

Nerve cells are very dependent upon glucose for their functioning.
When insufficient carbohydrates are consumed to meet the energy needs of
the CNS, besides the occurrence of gluconeogenesis, the cells of the CNS
adapt their metabolic apparatus to use ketone bodies in place of glucose. The
nerve cells obtain their needed functional energy from these metabolites.
Provides Fuel for the Muscular System
Carbohydrates provide the major fuel for muscular exercise.

Fats and proteins can be used only indirectlyby first being converted
into carbohydrates.

The muscles use the glycogen present in the muscle cells and glucose in the
bloodstream.
The body works much more efficiently from carbohydrate intake than from
broken-down body protein and fats because protein and fat molecules, when
used as fuel, yield less than their total caloric value in the form the muscles
can use.

Carbohydrate Dynamics in Exercise

Liver increases glucose release to active muscle as exercise progresses from low
to high intensity
Muscle glycogen supplies the predominant carbohydrate energy source during
the early stages of exercise and as intensity increases

 Carbohydrate rapidly supplies energy (ATP) via oxidative processes

In anaerobic effort, carbohydrate becomes the sole macronutrient contributor of
ATP
Carbohydrate availability controls its use for energy
Carbohydrate intake affects its availability
Blood glucose concentration provides feedback regulation of the livers glucose
output
An increase in blood glucose inhibits hepatic glucose release during
exercise
Carbohydrate availability during exercise helps regulate fat mobilization and its
use for energy
E.g., increasing carbohydrate oxidation through ingestion of high-glycemic
carbs prior to exercise inhibits long-chain fatty acid oxidation by skeletal
muscle and free fatty acid liberation from adipose tissue

In Intense Exercise:
Neural-hormonal factors increase epinephrine, norepinephrine and glucagon
output and decrease insulin release
These responses activate glycogen phosphorylase, the enzyme that facilitates
glycogenolysis in the liver and active muscles and thus controls blood glucose
Muscle glycogen contributes the most energy in the early minutes of exercise
(anaerobic)
Blood glucose increases its contribution as fuel as exercise continues (aerobic)

In Moderate and Prolonged Exercise:

Muscle glycogen supplies almost all the energy in the transition from rest to
moderate exercise
In the next 20 or so minutes, liver and muscle glycogen supply 40-50% of the
energy requirement
The remainder of the supply is provided by fat catabolism and some protein

 During light-intensity exercise, fat remains the main energy substrate

As exercise continues and muscle glycogen stores decrease, blood glucose
becomes the major supplier of carb energy while fat catabolism gives an
increasing percentage of total energy