1

D r. D . C . Gu pt a
Dean
College of Agriculture

FOREWORD
An environmental study is a subject that deals with our immediate physical,
chemical and biological environment. It suggests that in an environment everything
is inter-related. It is true that we learn about intricacies and delicacies of nature.
During the past few decades, rapid industrialization and capricious exploitation of
natural resources has seriously threatened the life support system. Increasing human
activities have ill-treated various components of nature viz. air, water, soil, forest,
wildlife and so on. These disturbances are to be stopped and natural processes to be
restored.
Recognizing this, the Honble Supreme Court directed the University Grants
Commission (UGC) to introduce a basic course on environment at every level of
education. Accordingly, the UGC introduced a compulsory core module course in
environmental studies in all the universities and colleges of India. So, to protect the
environment, its good understanding at the undergraduate level has become very
critical and important.
The present book will be useful to the undergraduate students in Agricultural
Sciences, Engineering, Veterinary, Humanities and Law. Besides, this book will also
be useful for various competitive examinations. I would like to appreciate the
sincere efforts put in by the authors and congratulate them for the book.

(D. C. Gupta)

CONTENTS
Chapter

Description

Definition, Scope and Importance of Environmental Studies

-Ravi Kumar and O. P. Toky

Ecosystem structure and function

-Bimlendra K.
Biodiversity and its conservation
-K. S. Bangarwa

Natural resources
-Rita Dahiya, V. K. Phogat and S. C. Mehta
Forest Resources
-Ravi Kumar
Food Resources
-R. K. Nanwal, Ved Pal Singh, A. S. Bangarwa and K. P. Singh

Environmental pollution
-S. C. Mehta and Rita Dahiya
Air pollution
-Ram Niwas
Fertilizers, pesticides and their impact on environment
-Beena Kumari
Effects of air pollution on vegetation and human health

-J. C. Kaushik and Ravi Kumar

Social issues and the environment

-R. K. Khatkar and V. P. Mehta

Human population and environment
-R. K. Khatkar and V. P. Mehta

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1. DEFINITION, SCOP E AND IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Ravi Kumar and O. P. Toky
Department of Forestry
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004

Introduction:
Environment consists of the natural and manmade factors around us. Environment is
made up of many factors. Some of them are biotic factors while others are abiotic factors.
The environment is the sum total of these factors. The environment means the relationship
between the living and non-living world around us. All organisms live in the environment.
These organism themselves interact with each other.
The word, environment is derived from the French word environner which
means to encircle or surround. Thus environ means the surroundings and ment means the
actioning. Brie fly, the environment has four realms i.e. atmosphere, biosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere. Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope held by the gravitational force around
the earth. Biosphere is concentrated mainly on the surface of earth. It includes all liv ing
species (individuals), Hydrosphere is the water domain. It includes all lakes, ponds, rivers,
streams, estuaries, bays, oceans and sea. Earths outer crust is lithosphere. These four
realms are so closely related with each other that they cannot be sep arated absolutely. They
interact with each other and make a life supporting system. Thus, environment means the
circumstances or conditions that surrounds an organism or group of organisms.
Definitions:
i)

John Turk: Environmental science provides an approach towards understanding

the environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon that environment.
It is also a search for solutions to the environmental problems than confront us.

ii)

Benard Nebel: Environmental science or environmental studie s means the study of

the things and principles that keep equilibrium among various eco -systems.

iii)

McNaughton and Wolf: Environment denotes the sum total of physical and
biological factors that directly influence the survival growth, development and
reproduction of organisms.

iv)

Savinder Singh: Environmental geography is the study of spatial attributes of

inter-relationship between living organisms and natural environment in general and
between technologically advanced economic man and his natural environment in
particular in temporal and spatial frame -work.

In our environment, there are some natural factors/elements e.g. air, soil, water,
plants, ecosystems, animals, etc. All the natural factors create natural environment around
us. There are some factors which are produced or created by the human being on this earth.
They are roads, dams, buildings, etc. In the same way, religion, culture, thinking of human
being are the factors that are created by the human being. The environment made up of
t hese factors is called as cultural environment. There is continuous interaction between
these factors. In the same way, there is an interaction between these natural and cultural
environmental factors.
The nature of the environmental science is comprehensive. It is a systematic study
of our environment and the place of human being in it. This is relatively a new branch of
study. It is highly interdisciplinary. It integrates natural sciences, social sciences and
humanities in a broad, holistic study or the world around us.
Environment is usually divided into two parts abiotic and biotic. The abiotic
environment consists of forces of nature like wind, gravity and conditions like temperature

4
and light, time and non-living materials alike soil and water. The biotic environment is
made of all living beings including their reactions, interactions and interrelated actions.
Any constituent or condition of the environment which affects directly or indirectly the
form of functioning of the organism in any specific way is called as an environmental or
ecological factor.
Man is an important factor in the environment. He modifies it through his actions.
The environment is always changing. This is partly because of human activity but there are
also natural environmental changes.
Environment and religion:
Religion (Dharma ) is essential part of orderly life, society and environment. Nature
(Prakarti) and human being (Purush ) are two major elements recognized in the scriptures.
In opposite conditions, they can cause des truction to Mother Nature. When both of them
cooperate, they can bring peace and harmony in nature. In normal conditions, nature can
rehabilitate itself. However, increased human interference can devastate earth and its
processes. Therefore, there is an urgent need to adopt a code of conduct which can be called
as environmental ethics or Dharma of ecology.
Basic principles underlying Dharma of ecology are described as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Protection of renewable natural resources

Conservation of non-renewable resources
Optimum resource use by nations
Avoid consumerism
Adopt sustainability as a way of life.
Joining environment and economics to eradicate poverty
Link environment with peace and security

There is an urgent need to treat the entire world as global family (Vasudaivakutumbakam). Man work with it in close harmony.
Scope of environment studies:
Studies of environmental studies are receiving a lot of attention throughout the
world not only in the field of controlling the population but also to sustain the life and the
nature. The scope of environmental studies can be discussed as follows:
(i)

The concept of environment:

Environment means all of the conditions, circumstances and influences surrounding

living things i.e. plants, animals and human beings. The various biotic and abiotic factors
are studied in this science.
(ii)

Ecosystem:

The concept, definitions and types of eco-systems, and the equilibrium of these
systems. The structure of these ecosystems, their important elements, the interactions
between these ecosystems are studied in detail. In the field of environmental studies, we
consider the role of all these factors and the equilibrium that exists among them.
(iii)

Natural processes in the environment :

It consists of study of natural cycles such as carbon-cycle, nitrogen -cycle, and other
elements, and food chains in the ecosystems, etc. While studying this, energy flows from
one organisms to another are important.

5
(iv)

Resources and energy resources:

It includes the study of meaning of resources, their types such as renewable, non renewable sources, the characteristics of these resources , and their management.
(v)

Population:

The study includes the density of population, population explosion, measures to

control population growth, etc.
(vi)

Research and awareness:

Research and awareness are the two different paths of environmental studies.
Basically, without scientific approach, we can not understand nature and without awareness
among the people, we can not sustain nature.
(vii)

Disaster management:

The scope of environmental studies and management has grown tremendously from
manufacturing of pollution control equipments, sewage and effluent treatment plants, bio medical waste treatments to fly ash management, etc.
(viii)

Environment management:

Man has exploited resources on the large scale. It results in degradation of an

environment. To keep the balance among the important environmental factors and to use the
natural resources with care, there is a need for an environment management. Environment
management helps in preventing such degradation and to keep the important factors of
environment intact. Due to environment management, the problem can be controlled and
balance of an environment is maintained.
Importance of environmental studies:
The importance of environmental studies can be explained with the following
points:
(i)

Environme ntal factors have some peculiar kind of characteristics of their own. Man
should understand the effects of these factors on human life.

(ii)

Man is exploiting resources on a large-scale and with irresponsible manner for his
comfort. It results in the destruction of valuable resources. This has disturbed the
smooth functioning of an environment and has created many problems.

(iii)

Some environme ntal disasters are mainly natural disasters such as earthquake,
volcano, flood, etc. Due to the irresponsible behaviour of human being, these
problems become more serious. But environmental studies can explain the reasons,
nature and effects of these disas ters. In the same way, it can suggest certain
measures to protect our natural resources and human life during the period of such
natural calamities.

(iv)

Now-a-days, problem of pollution is becoming more serious because of rapid

industrialization and urban isation. The study of an environmental science reveals
the types, causes and effects of such pollution. It can create awareness among the
people in respect of pollution. New techniques can be introduced to prevent
pollution.

(v)

The factors that are harmfu l for an environment can be taken care of by the study of
this science.

6
(vi)

Different kinds of energy resources and their sources can be made known by the
environmental studies. The renewable and non-renewable sources can be classified
and it reveals the need for the management of these resources. The policies to
develop such energy sources can be formed.

(vii)

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit. The environmental science studies these
ecosystems. If all these ecosystems are studied carefully, it helps in understanding
the environmental equilibriums. The nature and effects of environmental problems
are dependent on these principles.

(viii)

With the awareness, the countries are thinking over the environmental problems.
Many international organizations ha ve been established. These organizations try to
form various policies for an environmental protection.

(ix)

The study of environmental science makes our vision broad. Today, man has
realized that his very survival is impossible without equilibrium of biotic and
abiotic factors of the environment. He also realizes that many of such factors make
his life beautiful and wonderful. Many factors of the environment like plants,
animals, etc. are not just valuable natural resources from the viewpoint of their
econo mic value but also from the viewpoint of their beauty. These factors give
relief and mental peace to a human being.

Need for public awareness:

Due to the selfish and irresponsible manner of human beings, they have to face
many serious problems. The natura l cycles are disturbed. Many important factors in the
environment are declining. Indifference and ignorance of people towards an environment
and loss of values are the main causes that give birth to many environmental problems.
There is need to create awareness among the people regarding the environment because:
(i)

Water is required on large-scale for the different industrial projects. So the factories
or industries are located on the banks of the rivers, lakes, etc. The industries pollute
water by discharging wastes into it. It harms not only people drinking this water but
also fish in the river, birds who eat the fish and thousands of other organisms that
live in or near the river, lakes or bays, etc. Government has made various laws to
check this but unless the industrialists become fully aware of this, the problem of
water pollution cannot be solved.

(ii)

Deforestation on large-scale destroys the valuable vegetation cover of the area

which leads to an increase in the temperature. The wildlife has to face many
problems. To stop this, it is necessary to nurture the importance of environment in
the minds of people.

(iii)

The poisonous gases from the vehicles pollute the environment, which is injurious
to human health. People are not aware of this. So, it becomes necessary to aware
everyone about the environmental importance and to prevent the pollution.

(iv)

The irresponsible behaviour of the tourists on the banks of the river or on the
seashore creates the danger to the environment e.g. the tourists make campfire in
the forest and leave it carelessly or the throwing of lighted cigarettes in the forest
may set fire in the forest and result in the loss of valuable vegetation cover and
wildlife. Such irresponsible behaviour can not be stopped unless there is
env ironmental awareness among the people.

(v)

The people, who throw the plastic bags in the water, who makes loud noise by
breaking fire crackers, purchase the articles made of elephant tusks, crocodile skin,
etc. in the river water, etc. are responsible for the deterioration of the healthy
environment. The ignorance of these people towards the environment and lack of
social ethics are mainly responsible for creating many environmental problems.

7
The UNO, in its environmental programmes has stated the objectiv es of creating the
environmental awareness among the people. These objectives are as follows:
(i)

Awareness:
Acquire sensitivity to the total environment and its allied problems.

(ii)

Skill:
Acquires skills for identifying environmental problems.

(iii)

K nowledge:
To know conversation of natural resources.

(iv)

Evaluation ability :

To evaluate environs measures and education programmers in terms of social,

economic, ecological and aesthetic factors.
(5)

Attitude and participation:

To help people develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding problems

and solutions. There is a Chinese proverb If you plan for one year, plant rice, if you plan
for 10 years, plant trees and if you plan for 100 years, educate people .
If we wa nt to manage our planet earth, we have to make all the persons
environmentally educated.
Environmental studies an interdisciplinary subject:
The scope of this subject focuses on the multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary nature
of this subject. While studying the different components of the environment, one has to take
help of physical sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Geology, etc. and also social sciences
like Economics, Politics, Sociology, etc. For example, while dealing with environmental
problems like the water-pollution, one has to collect information about different water
pollutants, their chemical reaction with water and the physical and chemical processes or
polluting the water. Knowledge about the physical sciences like Chemistry, Physics, etc. is
also important. It is essential to have some background of the social sciences like
Psychology, Sociology, Economics, etc. to examine the behaviour of the people. The
physical sciences like Geology helps in providing information about the availability and
types of natural resources in the interior of the earth.
While preparing master plan for the conservation of resources in a particular region,
one has to consider economic motives and behaviour of the people in that region. The
environment of the region or the nation is affected by economic and political structures as
well as by the culture of the country. Therefore, we can not ignore these aspects. This can
be elaborated with a simple example. If the Government intends to construct a dam in a
particular region then the Government is required to collect information about the
destruction of the land that is under forest, possible change in the rate of soil erosion,
possible change in the amount of rainfall, etc. Experts in the field of Botany, Geology,
Geomorphology, Climatology, etc. will give their expert advise in this connection. The
expert in the field of Sociology, Psychology, Economics will help in collecting information
about the attitude of the local people towards this new project of dam. With all this
information, the Government will decide that weather the project of constructing dam is
really beneficial to the region or some people are demanding it to protect their own political
and economic interest, etc. Thus, the student of environmental studies has to adopt an
interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approach.

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2. Ecosystem structure and function

Bimlendra K.
Department of Forestry
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (India)

Ecosystem:
The term was coined by a British ecologist Sir Arthur Tansley in 1935. Ecosystem (
Eco = environment and system = interacting and interdependent complex) is self regulating
integrated system resulting from the interaction of living and non-living factors of the
environment.
Definition:
Ecosystem may be defined as any unit which includes all the living organisms (i.e.
biotic communities) in a given area interacting with the physical environment(e.g. water,
air, soil etc) by means of food chains and chemical cycles resulting in energy flow, biotic
diversity and material cycling within the system.
Each ecosystem is characterized both by its abiotic components such as climate,
topography, geology and living organisms. These living organisms include the
photosynthetic organisms upon which all other organisms depend, the herbivorous animals
that feed upon them, the carnivores that eat the herbivores, and the soil organisms which
finally act upon the dead bodies of these animals and plants and release the inorganic
elements back to environment. The total amount of living matter constituted by such
organisms in an ecosystem is known as biomass which is generally expressed as dry weight
per unit area. The biomass of an ecosystem increases or decreases based on the resources
available in the ecosystem. Likewise, the proportions of various kinds of organisms within
an ecosystem are regulated by feedback mechanisms existing among them. This results in a
tendency to maintain a steady state (homeostasis).
Structural components and functions of ecosyste m
Structurally each ecosystem has the following components:
(i)

Abiotic components:

These comprise inorganic materials like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, water, carbon
dioxide, calcium, phosphorus etc. and their compounds and dead organic matter containing
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humic substances etc. The climatic factors(light,
temperature, humidity, wind, rainfall, water, atmospheric gases) and edaphic factors(soil
and substrate, topography, minerals, p H etc) also affect the distribution, structu re, behavior
and inter-relationship of organisms
(ii) Biotic components:
These include producers, consumers and decomposers constitute the biotic
components of the ecosystem.
(a)

Producers (Gr. Auto = self; trophos =feeder)

In an ecosystem, the producers are represented by phytoplanktons, algae, diatoms

and green plants. These are the autotrophic (self nourishing) members of the ecosystem
which synthesize food in the form of complex organic compounds from simple inorganic
substances in the presence of sunlight. The producers and the sunlight are the essential
components of an ecosystem. The green plants, photosynthetic bacteria and

9
cyanobacteria are capable of manufacturing their organic food (e.g. glucose) from simple
inorganic substances (e.g. CO2 and H2O) by the process of photosynthesis.
(b)

Consumers (Gr. Heteros = other; trophos = feeder)

Consumers are heterotrophic organisms, mostly animals, which generally ingest and
swallow their food. The herbivores directly or indirectly depend for food on the producers.
In an ecosystem, the herbivores are the primary consumers. For example, in a pond
ecosystem, the carnivores (primary, secondary and tertiary) are known as secondary
consumers. Some of the consumers are also omnivores since they feed upon both producers
and herbivores. In a pond ecosystem, small and large fish are the secondary consumers.
Similarly, in a grassland ecosystem, predatory birds (owls, eagles, kites, falcons etc), and
carnivorous mammals (tigers, lions, cats , jackals, haena, wolves etc) are common examples
of secondary consumers.
(c)

Decomposers or saprotrophs (Gr Sapros = rotten; trophos = feeder)

These are heterotrophic org anisms i.e. micro -organisms like bacteria and fungi
which feed upon the dead decaying plants . These are indispensable in any ecosystem as they
break complex organic compounds into simple inorganic substances thus making them
available to be reutilized by producers for the synthesis of food material. In the deciduous
forest ecosystem, for example, the huge mass of fallen dead leaves is acted upon by the
decomposers thus releasing inorganic substances for their recycling in the ecosystem.
Function:
Ecosystem possesses a natural tendency to persist. This is made possible by a
variety of functions, performed by structural components
From functional point of view, each ecosystem has two components:Autotrophic component:
It includes the green plants, photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria which are
capable of manufacturing their organic food (e.g. glucose) from simple inorganic substances
(e.g. CO2 and H2O) by the process of photosynthesis. The energy trapped in
photosynthesis is the radiant energy of sun and is changed into chemical energy. These
organisms are also termed producers. These may be herbs, shrubs, large-sized trees or freefloating micro -organisms. The organic food (i.e. glucose) is used by the plants to synthesize
the complex organic compounds such as starch and other carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc.
Heterotrophic component:
It includes those organisms which consume either readymade organic food or
decompose the complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances. These are also
called consumers. Depending upon their size heterotrophs are categorized into two
categories:
(a)

Macroconsumers:

These include the animals which eat or ingest the producers directly or indirectly.
They are further divided into four categories on th e basis of nature of food:
Primary consumers or consumers of first order:
This group of organisms include the herbivores which directly eat upon the
producers. Herbivores of terrestrial ecosystem include rabbit, rats, mice, deer, goat,
grasshoppers, grazing cattle etc. Similarly, herbivores of aquatic ecosystem include
crustaceans, molluscs etc.

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Secondary consumers or consumers of second order:
This group of organisms includes the primary carnivores e.g. centipedes, fishes,
frogs, snakes, predatory birds, wild cats, foxes etc which feed upon the herbivorous
animals.
Tertiary consumers or consumers of third order:
This include the secondary carnivores e.g. wolves which eat upon the secondary
consumers (primary carnivores).Wolves eat the foxes.
Quarternary consumers or c onsumers of fourth order:
These group of organisms include the tertiary carnivores e.g. lions, tigers etc.
which eat upon the tertiary consumers (secondary carnivores). These are not eaten by the
animals.
(b)

Microconsumers:

These are also termed decomposers or saprotrophs or reducers. These break down
the complex organic substances of dead plants and animals to release most of inorganic
substances back into the environment for their reuse by the producers. The decomposers
secrete digestive enzymes to digest the organic compounds externally. Examples of
decomposers are bacteria and fungi.
Energy flow in the ecosystem:
Energy flow:
Introduction:
After having studied the concept of producers and consumers in an ecosystem and
their sequential linking in a food chain, it would be appropriate to study the flow of energy
(food) through different trophic levels beginning with the producers till the top level
carnivores. The smooth workin g of an ecosystem through different trophic levels is based
on:
(i)

The utilization of energy from sunlight and

(ii)
Procurement of simple inorganic substances from air, soil and water. However,
there is one fundamental difference in the two processes . The energy obtained from the
sunlight is never restored. It, instead, is transferred from lower trophic levels to higher ones
unlike the nutrients which are regularly cycled between biotic and abiotic components of
the ecosystems. In this process, the en ergy is changed from one form to the other (from
chemical bonds of substances to heat and vice versa) and most of it is also lost in the
maintenance of body functions like movements and respiration. Inspite of interconversion
of energy, the flow of energy in the ecosystem strictly obeys the first law of
thermodynamics; according to this law, the total amount of energy in any closed system
remains the same and it can neither be created nor destroyed. However, the transfer of
energy progressively decreased from first trophic level towards the higher levels of the
food -chain. Because substantial part of energy is always lost in the form of heat, no
energetic conversion can be 100%. This principle conforms to the second law of
thermodynamics. Primary source of energy on the earth is radiant energy of sunlight. Only
about 1.5% of the sunlight falling on the plants is trapped by the producers in the presence
of Mg++ containing green pigment i.e. chlorophyll and is used in assimilating the organic
food (glucose) by the process of photosynthesis. In this way, radiant energy of the sunlight
is transformed into potential energy of foodstuffs (biomass). The producers breakdown a
part of organic food in respiration to obtain chemical energy for various body functions.
During conversion, most of the energy is dissipated as heat. Energy conversion efficiency
has been found to be different in different ecosystems. For example, it is 1.15% for

11
grasslands, 0.9% for savannah, 0.8% for mixed forest ecosystem and 5% for modern cro ps.
The remaining energy is used in the synthesis of plant biomass also termed as net
photosynthesis. This biomass is, in turn, available to the next trophic level of food chains.
Productivity of ecosystem:
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production i.e. the amount of
organic matter accumulated in any unit time.
Productivity is of the following types:
(i)

Primary Productivity:

It is associated with the producers in an ecosystem. It is defined as the rate of

production of organic matter in any unit time by photosynthesis and chemoynthesis activity
of producers. Primary productivity is further of two types:(a)

Gross primary productivity:

Gross primary productivity is defined as the rate of production of organic matter by

photosynthesis including the organic matter used up in respiration during the measurement
period. It is denoted by the symbol Pg.
(b) Net primary productivi ty :
It is defined as the rate of storage of organic matter in plant tissues in excess of the
respiration utilization by plants during the measurement period. It is denoted by the symbol
Pn. Based upon the above logic, an equation may be derived thus:
Pn = Pg -R where, Pn = Net primary productivity Pg = Gross primary productivity, R =
Respiration.
(ii)
Secondary productivity (P2):
It refers to the consumers or heterotrophs. These are the rates of energy storage
(animal biomass) at different trophic leve ls beginning from the primary consumers
(herbivores) till the top level (tertiary) carnivores. Since consumers utilize some of the
already produced food materials in their respiration, the remaining biomass is know as net
secondary productivity denoted by the sign P2.n Thus, P2.n = P2.g R
where, P2.n = Net secondary productivity P2.g = Gross secondary productivity R =
Respiration
Energy flow models:
Food chains:
In any given ecosystem, all the living organisms (plants and animals) are linked in a
systematic chain with respect to their mode of manufacturing food/feeding habits. For
instance, in a grassland ecosystem, the entire stock of green plants (herbs, shrubs and trees)
manufacture food by utilizing the radiant energy of the sun by the process of
photosynthesis. These autotrophs are eaten up herbivores (plant eaters) which, in turn,
constitute the food of first level (primary) carnivores. The primary carnivores are
subsequently eaten up by middle (secondary) a n d top level (tertiary) carnivores . Here,
one finds that beginning with the producers, onward to herbivores, first level carnivores,
middle level carnivores and top level carnivores, all organisms are interlinked in a definite
sequence. This sequential inter -linking of organisms involving the transfer of food
energy from the producers, through a series of organisms with repeated eating and
being eaten is referred to as the food chain. It is important to mention that food chain is
always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line. The green plants always occupy
first level in any given food chain and are commonly termed as the primary producers.

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The stored energy in primary producers is utilized by th e plant eaters the
herbivores which are also known as primary consumers. Herbivores are subsequently
eaten by the flesh eating animals the carnivores also called the secondary consumers.
The carnivores are generally categorized into three categories n amely, primary carnivores,
secondary carnivores and tertiary carnivores. Some organisms are termed as omnivores
as these eat the producers as well as the carnivores at their lower level in the food chain.
Characteristics of food chain:
1.
A food chain involves a nutritive interaction between the living organisms (biotic
components) of an ecosystem. In a food chain, there occurs repeated eating i.e. each group
eats the other and is subsequently eaten by some other group of organisms.
2.

A food chain is always straight and proceeds in a progressive straight line.

3.
In a food chain, there is unidirectional flow of energy from sun to producers and
subsequently to series of different types of consumers.
4.

Usually there occur 4 or 5 trophic levels in t he food chain.

5.
Generally 80-90% of energy is lost as heat at each transfer in accordance with
second law of thermodynamics.
6. Some organisms occupy different trophic positions in different food chains.
Trophic levels:
The distinct sequential steps in the straight food chains are referred to as different
trophic (nutritional) levels. For instance, green plants (producers) stand for the first
trophic level the producer level; the plant eaters (herbivores) also called primary
consumers belong to second trophic level the primary consumer level; and the flesh
eaters (carnivores) also called secondary consumers represent the third trophic level the
secondary consumer level. Some It is worthwhile to mention that the quantum of available
energy in a food chain successively gets decreased at each trophic level as a result of waste
of energy into unavailable heat. This can be explained on the basis of second law of
thermodynamics according to which transformation of energy from one form to the other is
inefficient and involves dissipation of unavailable energy. This phenomenon (loss of energy
at successive levels) restricts the size of food chain in ecosystem to maximum of 4 or 5
steps.
Types of food chains:
In nature, generally two types of food chains are distinguished namely, grazing
food chain a n d detritus food chain.
(a)

Grazing food chain:

The common examples of the grazing food chain are those of grassland ecosystem
starting from grasses -herbivorescarnivores (primary, secondary, tertiary) and aquatic
ecosystems starting from phytoplanktons - zooplanktons small fishes large fishes. In
grazing food chain (e.g. grassland ecosystem), green plants (producers) constitute the first
step. The plant biomass, in turn, is eaten by the herbivores (e.g.insects, rats and mice,
grazing cattle) which are subsequently consumed by a variety of carnivores. The grazing
food chains are directly dependent on an influx of solar radiations. Green plants, with the
help of solar radiations, manufacture food (plant biomass) by the process of photosynthesis.
These are longer food chains and these always end at decomposer level. From energy point
of view, these grazing type of food chains are very important.

13
(b) Detritus food chain:
Unlike grazing food chains, the de tritus food chains depend upon the dead organic
matter either in the form of fallen leaves or dead animal bodies. Hence, these are not
directly dependent on solar energy. The starting point, in a detritus food chain, is the dead
bodies of animals or fallen leaves etc. commonly termed as detritus. This dead organic
matter is first eaten by decomposers e.g. bacteria, fungi and protozoan etc. These
decomposing organisms have saprotrophic mode of feeding and are designated as primary
consumers in this type of chain. These are also termed as detritivores (detritus eating). The
detritivores, in turn, are eaten by their predators like insect larvae, nematodes etc. The main
function of the detritivores is to release the inorganic elements into the ecosystem by
decomposing the dead organic matter. The recycling of inorganic elements in ecosystem
help in keeping them fit. As compared to grazing food chains, the detritus food chains are
generally shorter.
Food we bs:
Definition:
Food web is a network of food chains which become inter-connected at various
trophic levels so as to form a number of feeding connections amongst different organisms of
a biotic community.
Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight. Interlocking pattern in a food web
is promoted by the fact that a single living organism may participate at different trophic
levels in different food chains. For instance, in grassland ecosystem, the grass may be eaten
by the grazing cattle. In the absence of grazing cattle in the biotic community, grass may be
eaten by a rabbit or in the absence of both, rat or mouse may consume the grass. Similarly,
rat or mouse may be eaten by predatory birds or snakes. Snakes may also be eaten by
predatory birds. To sum up, alternatives are available in nature which results in a sort of
interlocking pattern or the food web. Thus, in food webs any given species may operate
simultaneously at more than one trophic level.
Characteristics of food web:
1.

Unlike food chains, food webs are never straight.

2.
Food web is formed by interlinking of food chains.
3.
A food web provides alternative pathways of food availability. For example, if a
particular species of producer is destroyed by a disease in the ecosystem, the herbivores of
that area can feed on other species of producers. Similarly, secondary consumers e.g.
predatory birds may feed on rats or mice in the event of decrease in population of rabbits in
that area on which they also commonly feed.
4.

In food web, g reater are the alternative pathways more stable is the ecosystem.

5.
Food webs also help in checking the overpopulations of highly fecundated species
of organisms (both animals and plants).
6.

Food webs also help in ecosystem development.

Significance of food web:

1.
Food webs indicate that alternative pathways of food availability are present in
nature at different trophic levels in the ecosystems. For example, if a particular crop is
destroyed due to some disease, the herbivores in that area do not perish but can graze on
other type of crop or herbs. Also, secondary consumers e.g. dogs may feed on rats and mice
in the event of decrease in number of rabbits on which they also feed. Thus, in an
ecosystem, there are alternative pathways.
2.

Greater are the number of these alternative pathways, more stable is that ecosystem.

14
3.
Food web helps in checking over populations of highly fecundive species of animals
and plants.
Ecological pyramids:
As mentioned earlier, a food chain in an ecosystem has several trophic (nutritional)
levels such as producer level, primary consumer level and the secondary consumer level.
According to second law of thermodynamics, the biomass is about one -tenth that of the
preceding level at each successive trophic level in a food chain. It means that starting from
the producers one finds a regular decrease in the properties and characteristics such as
numbers, biomass and energy. When such phenomenon is represented graphically, these
relationships assume the shape of a pyramid with a broad base and a tapering apex. Such
pyramids are known as ecological pyramids.
Definition:
An ecological pyramid may be defined as a graphic representation of the numbers
or biomass or status of accumulated energy at different trophic levels in a food chain in an
ecosystem.
Charles Elton (1927), an English biologist, developed the idea of ecological
pyramids. These are therefore also termed as Eltonian pyramids. The Eltonian pyramid is a
concept which relates to food consumption effic iency. According to Elton, those organisms
which represent the bulk of the food are at the base of the ecological pyramid. Organisms
feeding on this base are generally fewer in number, smaller in gross mass and occupy
succeeding place in the contracting py ramid. Other subsequent levels on the ascending
pyramid represent other organisms of the remaining trophic levels. At each successive level,
the organisms are generally fewer in number, smaller in gross weight but larger in size.
This way, pyramid contracts and acquires its apex. At the base of an ecological pyramid lie
a variety of autotrophs manufacturing food (producers), the excess of which provides
nutrition for the next level. If one assigns an arbitrary value of 100 biomass units to this
autotroph le vel (i.e. the base level), one finds that the next level i.e. the herbivores which
feed on the autotrophs have a collectively smaller biomass of about 10. Further, if one
examines the next level of this food pyramid one is likely to find a consumer that lives by
depending upon the biomass produced by herbivores (the primary consumer level). The total
biomass of this third level of the food pyramid would be 100 times smaller than the first
level (the producer level) and 10 times smaller than the second level (the primary consumer
level).
Types of ecological pyramids:
On the basis of ecological parameters, ecological pyramids are of three types:
(a)

Pyramid of numbers:

A pyramid of numbers is the graphic representation depicting the arrangement of number of

individuals of different trophic levels in a food chain in an ecosystem.
The pyramid of numbers is found in animal communities all over the world. The
shape of the pyramids of numbers may be upright or inverted depending upon whether
producer individuals are greater in number (e.g. phytoplanktons in aquatic ecosystem) or
lesser in number (e.g. an oak tree in a parasitic food chain). (a) UPRIGHT (b) INVERTED.
In a predatory food chain e.g. food chain in a grassland ecosystem or a pond ecosystem,
the pyramid of numbers is a straight pyramid. Here, size of organisms increases with each
trophic level i.e. from the producer level to the top carnivore level while their number
decreases in a food chain (e.g. from grasses to predatory birds in grassland ecosystem and
from phytoplanktons to large fish in pond ecosystem). In these food chains, producers are
the smallest sized organisms but maximum in number while the top carnivores are largest in
size but the least in number. Taking an example of pond ecosystem, phytoplanktons
(producers) are the greatest in number. Next are the zooplanktons. Still fewer are the small
carnivore fishes which feed upon the zooplanktons. The smallest in number are the la rge

15
carnivore fishes which feed upon the small carnivore fishes. Example of inverted pyramid
of numbers is provided by parasitic food chains. A single oak tree (Producer) supports a
large number of fruit eating birds which, in turn, support a still larger number of parasites
like lice and bugs. Hyperparasites such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are the greatest
in number and occupy the top of the inverted pyramid of numbers.
(b)

Pyramid of biomass:

Pyramid of biomass is a graphic representation of biomass (total amount of living or

organic matter in an ecosystem at any time) present per unit area in different trophic levels .
A typical pyramid of biomass is shown in Fig 3.9. It is more fundamental as it shows the
quantitative relationships of the sta nding crop. Pyramid of biomass may also be straight or
inverted. In grassland and forest ecosystems, there is a gradual decrease in biomass of
organisms at successive trophic levels from producers onward to top carnivores (upright o r
straight pyramid). In pond ecosystem, on the other hand, producers are the smallest
organisms while carnivores are large in size. Consequently, there is a gradual increase in
biomass of organisms at successive trophic levels from producers onward to top carnivores
resulting in inverted pyramid.
(c)

Pyramid of energy:

Pyramid of energy is a graphic representation of amount of energy per unit area in

different trophic levels of a food chain. Pyramid of energy gives the best picture of overall
nature of the ecosystem. According to second law of thermodynamics, there is gradual
decrease in energy at successive trophic levels. Therefore, the pyramids of energy are
always upright. The energy is highest at the producer level and it gradually decreases as
one moves to subsequent levels i.e. herbivores (primary consumer level) and different
carnivores (secondary consumer level).
Ecological succession:
Introduction:
Ecosystems are never stable. They are dynamic, changing more or less regularly
over time and space. They are never found permanently in complete balance with the
physical environment or with their component species of animals, plants and
microorganisms. The fact is that environment is never constant. It keeps on changing over a
period of time due to
(i)

Variations in climatic and physiographic factors, and

(ii)

The activities of the dominant species of the community themselves.

These changes influence the dominants of the existing community which is replaced by
another community at the same place sooner or later. This process continues and successive
communities evolve one after another over the same area until the final complex community
becomes more or less stable for a period of time.
Definition:
The occurrence o f relatively definite sequence of communities over a period of time
in the same area resulting in establishment of final complex community is called ecological
succession or biotic succession.
Succession is a common English word derived from Latin meaning coming in
sequence. When we apply this word to ecosystem which progresses and leads to evolve a
rather stable community, it is called ecological succession. Dr. E.P.Odum(1971) in his book
Fundamentals of Ecology has attempted to describe the term with the help of following
principles of succession:

16
(i)
A process of community development where one species replaces another in an
orderly manner both in time and space.
(ii)

It is reasonably directional and thus predictable.

(iii)
It results from t he modification of the physical environment by the existing
community. The physical environment determines the pattern, the rate of change and the
extent of development.
(iv)
It finally leads into a stable community in which maximum biomass and mutually
dependent functions between the organisms are maintained per unit energy flow. The first
community to inhabit an area is called pioneer community. This community has the least
biotic diversity. It takes more time to modify the environment for the invasion of another
community in that area. In this way, many intermediate communities called seral
communities develop in the area. The last community is stable and is called climax
community. The entire series of communities is called sere.
Causes of ecological succession:
Generally, there are three types of causes:
(i)

Initiating causes:
These can be divided into two categories:-

(a)

Biotic factors:

These are the interactions among the organisms in a community. These influence
t h e s tructure, composition and function of a community.
(b)

Physiographic factors:

These include the physical and chemical factors of the environment e.g. erosion and
deposits, hails and storms, wind, fire etc. caused by lightening or volcanic activity which
influence the nature and composition of community.
(ii)

Continuing causes (ecesis).

These include migration, establishment, aggregation, competition, reaction etc.

These result in changes leading to successive waves of populations of organisms.
(iii)

Stabilizing causes:
These result in stabilizations of the community.

Basic types of succession:

On the basis of different aspects, succession is of following types: (i)

Primary succession:

The one that begins on the primitive substratum e.g. a bare rock or pure sand or
static water or where conditions are inhospitable for o rganisms to live is known as primary
succession. The first group of organisms establishing there are known as the pioneers or
primary community or primary colonizers.

17
(ii)

Secondary succession:

The one that begins at a surface which earlier had living matter, but because of
external or internal disturbances it got lost either completely or partially is called secondary
succession. Such successions are comparatively more rapid.
(iii)

Autogenic succession (auto self; genic to generate):

After the succession has begun (whether primary or secondary), it is the community
itself, in most cases, which modifies its own environment (due to its reactions with the
environment) and thus causing its own replacement by new communities. This type of
succession is called autogenic succession.
(iv)

Allogenic succession:

In certain situations, the replacement of existing community is caused by the

external agencies (may be abiotic e.g. rainfall, drought, temperature extremes, erosion ,
leaching or biotic e.g. grazing, browsing, pathogens). Such type of succession is called
allogenic succession. Successions are also sometimes classified on the basis of successive
changes in nutritional and energy contents. Such types of successions are
(a)

Autotrophic succession (auto self; trophic energy):

If the succession begins in an area which is relatively rich in inorganic elements

and energy build up is by plants (i.e. through autotrophic way), it is called autotrophic
succession. Here, there is gradual increase in organic matter and consequential rich energy
flow.
(b)

Heterotrophic succession (hetero different; trophic energy):

If the succession begins in an area which is rich in organic matter and the energy
build up is by the action of decomposers e.g. bacteria, fungi etc (i.e. through heterotrophic
way), it is called heterotrophic succession. Here, occurs progressive decline in energy
content. In literature, there are mentioned still so many other kinds of succession
depending upon the nature of the environment (primarily on the basis of the amount of
water in the environment) at the initial stages of succession. Accordingly, it is know as
hydrosere or hydrarch (i .e. starting in regions where water is in plenty e.g. ponds, lakes,
streams, swamp, bog); a mesarch (where adequate moisture contents are present); and a
xerosere or xerarch (which moisture is present in minimal amount such as dry deserts,
rocks etc). Many times, these are further categorized as lithosere succession initiating on
rocks, psammosere succession initiating on sand, and halosere succession initiating in
saline water or soil.
Process of succession:
Primary autotrophic succession, in fact, is completed through a number of
sequential steps. These are
(i )

Nudation:

The first step is the creation of bare area through any of the natural agencies such
as wind, erosion, landslide, volcanic eruptions, floods, drought, storm, frost, fire, epidemic,
human activities etc.
(ii)

Invasion and dispersal:

The first settlers on the bare area invade the said area through abiotic mode (wind,
water) or biotic mode (along with the bodies of other animals). This transfer of seeds,
spores or other propagules of the first settler species to the bare area is called migrati on.

18
(iii)

Establishment or ecesis:

The species which get invaded to the bare area must grow, establish and reproduce
for successful succession. This depends largely on the characteristics of substratum;
climatic and other environmental factors of the area. Those species which are adjusted to
this situation ultimately get established. As a result of ecesis, individuals of the species
become established in the area.
(iv)

Aggregation:

After ecesis, the individuals of the species increase in number by reproduction and
they get close to each other. This process is called aggregation.
(v)

Competition and coaction:

Initially, many species invade the bare area simultaneously. However, those which
find environment favorable ultimately establish and get aggregated at the limited available
area. This results in interspecific as well as intraspecific competition mainly for space and
nutrition. Various kinds of interspecific and intraspecific interactions affect the individuals
of species in various ways - called coaction. The species which are unable to compete are
ultimately discarded. Survival of the species is governed by a combination of factors like
high reproductive ability, wide ecological amplitudes, small seed size and large number of
seeds per plant as well as allelopathic properties of plants.
(vi)

Reaction:

The living organisms reciprocally influence and get influenced by the environment.
This is known as reaction. As a result of reaction, changes takes place in soil, water, light
conditions, temperature etc. of the area. Thus, the environment of the area gets modified,
becoming unsuitable for the existing community which in course of time gets replaced by
another community (seral community). This process goes on and the various developing
communities in the given area are called seral communities or developmental stages.
(vii)

Stabilization (climax):

This is the terminal stage of the process of succession. The final community
becomes more or less stabilized for a longer period of time and it can maintain itself in
perfect equilibrium with climatic and edaphic conditions of the area. This final community
is called climax community and the stage as climax stage.
Types of ecosystems:
Ecosystems can be categorized as (i)

Natural ecosystems:

Natural ecosystems are the ones which operate under natural conditions without any
major interference by man. Examples include terrestrial ecosystems grassland, desert,
forest etc. aquatic ecosystems fresh water and marine ecosystems. Examples of aquatic
ecosystems are ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans and estuaries
(ii)

Temporary ecosystems:
Temporary ecosystems include a protozoan culture medium, a rain fed pond etc.

(iii)

Artificial ecosystems:

Artificial ecosystems on the other hand, are ma n made ecosystems e.g. croplands,
space ecosystem etc. A balanced aquarium is also an ecosystem. From the size point of
view, an ecosystem may be as small as amount of water in a dish or as large as an ocean or

19
a large forest. In the first chapter of this unit, structure and function of ecosystem in general
has been presented. Special mention has been made about the concept of food chains, food
webs, ecological pyramids and energy flow in an ecosystem.
In the biosphere, various types of ecosystems operate as self sufficient interacting
systems. For example, grassland, a desert, a forest, a cropland, a coral reef, a pond, a lake, a
stream, a river, an estuary, the ocean etc. operate as individual self-sufficient ecosystems in
nature. All these ecosystems have more or less similar fundamental plan of their gross
structure and function. Yet, they differ in certain respects such as their species composition,
and rates in production etc. Therefore, characteristic features of some terrestrial (e.g.
grassland, fo rest and desert) ecosystems and aquatic (e.g. pond and ocean) ecosystems are
described. It is pertinent to mention that each of the major terrestrial ecosystems of
distinctive terrestrial areas with their complex flora and associated fauna are known as
biomes . The type of climax flora depends on the physical factors like nature of soil, amount
of rainfall, temperature variation, intensity and duration of light, topography, geographical
barriers e.g. deserts, mountains, seas etc., latitude and longitude etc. These two components
together determine the kinds of animals (fauna) present in the biome. The transition zones
between the adjoining biomes are called ecotones.
Grassland ecosystem:
Grasslands are large biomes and are categorised as tropical savannah and temperate
grasslands. These cover about 19% of the earth surface. Tropical savannahs are located
primarily in south America, Africa and Australia covering an area of 15 X 10 sq.km. Main
characteristics of these biomes are:(i)
That they are warm climatic plains having coarse grass with scattered trees on the
margins of the tropics.
(ii)

Average rainfall is 100-150 cm.

(iii)

Wet seasons alternate with prolonged dry seasons.

(iv)
Flora and fauna are drought -tolerant. Dominant flora include mainly grasses, shrubs
and few trees species e.g. Acacia, Eucalyptus, Phoenix etc also available.
(v)
Fauna include antelopes, zebra, giraffe, elephants, tigers, lions. Kangaroos are
common only in Australia.
Temperate grasslands of the world include steppes of Europe and Asia, prairies
of Canada and North America, pampas of South America, Tussocks of New Zealand and
Veldts of Africa.
Important features include:(i)

Annual rainfall is 25-75 cm

(ii)

Summer drought and winter blizzards are severe

(iii)

So il is rich in humus

(iv)
Dominants include short and tall species of grasses Grazing animals (e.g. antelopes,
zebra, bighorn -sheep, deer, elk etc.) and burrowing animals (e.g. rats, mice, rabbits, prairie
dogs, ground squirrels) are consumed by carnivores e.g. wolves and predatory birds etc. The
various components of grassland ecosystem are given below:(i)

Abiotic component:

It includes predominantly the nutrients present in the soil and the atmosphere.
Elements like C, H, O, N. P, S etc. come from carbon dioxide, oxygen, water, nitrates,

20
phosphates, sulphates etc. Present in the atmosphere and soil of the region. Besides, certain
trace elements are also present in the earth crust. Climatic (light, temperature, humidity,
rainfall etc) and edaphic factors also constitute part of abiotic component.
(ii) Biotic component:
It comprises producers, a variety of consumers and decomposers.
(a)

Producers:

These are mainly grasses and few species of other herbs and shrubs. The
predominant species of gras ses include Andropogon, Panicum, Desmodium, Cynodon,
Dichanthium, Digitaria, Setaria, Sporobolus etc.
(b)

Consumers:
These comprise the primary and secondary consumers.

(i)

Primary consumers:

These include the herbivores that feed mainly on grasses, other herbs and shrubs
available e.g. rats, mice, rabbit, hare, deer, sheep, goat, cows, buffalos etc. Also are present
termites, spiders and a variety of insects that feed on the leaves of the gras ses.

(ii)

Secondary consumers:

These include the carnivores that feed on herbivores e.g. snakes, lizards, foxes,
jackals, frogs, predatory birds etc. Certain predatory birds like hawks sometimes also feed
on some secondary consumers and thus occupying tertiary consumers position in the food
chain.
(iii)

Decomposers:

These include the bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes that feed on dead and decaying
organic matter. Important species of fungi include Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium,
Rhizopus, Fusarium, Cladosporium etc. These decomposers recycle the inorganic
substances back to soil and atmosphere for their availability to the producers.
Forest ecosystem:
Forests are one of the major terrestrial ecosystems which roughly cover 40% of the
worlds land. Ecologically, the term forest signifies a complex system composed of
distinct biological units called forest communities comprising trees and other woody
species with a fairly closed canopy. In simple words, forest is a final and complex stage of
ecological succession which is self-sustaining and where herbs, shrubs, trees, saprophytes,
parasites, herbivores and carnivores live together maintaining harmony. Forests in India
cover 19.45% of the total land area. Out of this, nearly 11.73% area is composed of dense
forests with crown density 40% or more, and nearly 7.2% comes under open forests with
crown density of trees 10-40%. Mangrooves are found only in 0.13% area. Besides, tree
lands with less than 10% crown density cover 1.79% area. A forest ecosystem has following
components:(i)

Abiotic component:

Abiotic components include the inorganic substances, organic substances and the
climatic and edaphic factors. The Inorganic as well as organic substances are present in the
soil and atmosphere. In addit ion to the minerals present in different types of forests, dead
organic debris is also available. Similarly, light conditions, moisture content etc. are

21
different due to complex stratification in the plant communities. Moreover, other climatic
factors like temperature, rainfall etc. also vary in different forest types.
(ii)

Biotic component:
The producers, consumers and decomposers constitute the biotic component.

Producers:
These are mainly trees that show much species diversity and greater degree of
stratification. Depending upon the kind of the forest formation in a particular climate, the
trees are of different kinds. Besides trees, a variety of shrubs and ground vegetatio n are also
present. Tropical forests in India include teak, axlewood, laurel, anjan, bijasal, red sanders
etc. Tropical dry evergreen trees are characterized by having short -boled evergreen trees
with leathery leaves. Major tree species are Jamun, ritha, Reunjha, Ziziphus, Glaberrina,
Albizia amara , satinwood, imli, neem etc. tropical thorn forests similarly have dominant
species like khair, axlewood, neem, sandalwood, Acacia senegal , Ranju, ak, palas, neem
etc. Sub -tropical forests have jamun, Machilus sp., Mehiosma sp ., chirpine etc. Tropical
moist deciduous forests in India have teak, sal, semul, sandal, haldu, dhaman species as
dominants. Temperate forests have oaks, conifers, semul as well as extensive growth of
grasses.
Consumers:
These include primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.
Primary Consumers:
These are the herbivores that feed on leaves of trees, shrubs and other ground
vegetation. Ants, Beetles, leafhoppers, bugs, spiders etc. feed on leaves of trees and rats,
mice, squirrels, flying foxes, rabbits, deer, nilgai, elephants etc. feed/graze on the leaves,
shoots and/or fruits of the producers.
Secondary consumers:
These are the carnivores that feed on herbivores e.g. snakes, lizards, foxes,
predatory birds etc.
Tertiary consumers:
These include the top carnivores e.g. lions, tigers etc. that eat the secondary
consumers.
Decomposers:
These are also termed as microconsumers that include a variety of microorganisms
such as bacteria (Bacillus Clostridium, Pseudomonas etc), fungi (Aspergillus sp., Fusarium
sp., Alternaria sp., Trichoderma sp., Comrinus sp. etc), actinomycetes etc. It is important to
point that rate of decomposition is more rapid in tropical and subtropical forests than that in
the temperate forests .
Desert ecosystem:
Deserts occupy approximately 1/5th i.e. 20% of the earth surface. The renowned
deserts of the world include Great Western desert (Death Valley) in the South -Western
USA, Sahara and Kalahari desert in North and South Africa respectively , Tibet, Gobi and
Thar deserts in Asia, Alabama Desert of south America and Central -Western Australia
desert.

22
Important characteristic features of desert ecosystem include: (i)

Scarcity of water due to extremely lows rainfall (5-25 cm a year).

(ii)

Days are extremely hot with temperature varying 500-600 C and nights are cold.

(iii)
Soil is sandy and dust storms are common in hot deserts (e.g. Sahara, Thar). On the
other hand, Gobi desert is a cold desert.
(iv)
Flora and fauna is scanty. Biotic life has special structural, physiological and
behavioral adaptations to withstand extremes of climatic conditions. Desert plants are hard
grasses. Acacias, Cacti, Euphorbias and several types of succulents. Fauna is typical e.g.
ants, locusts, scorpions, spiders, snakes, lizards, rats, gerbils, predatory birds, squirrels,
mongoose, foxes, jackals, kangaroo rats, desert cats etc. Various components of desert
ecosystem are categorized as under:
Abiotic component:
These include inorganic and organic subs tances present in soil and atmosphere, and
climatic factors.
Biotic component:
It includes producers, consumers and decomposers.
(a)

Producers:

These include primarily shrubs, few grasses and few scattered species of trees.
Shrubs are bushes with branched root system, branches and leaves variously modified to
minimize transpiration. Few succulents are also available.
(b)

Consumers:

The common fauna includes insects, spiders, burrowing animals (e.g. rats, mice,
gerbils) and grazing and browsing animals (e.g. camel), lizards, snakes, birds of prey etc.
These are categorized as primary and secondary consumers.
(c)

Decomposers:

Due to poor vegetation, decomposers like bacteria and fungi are also few. These
feed on dead and decaying organic matter, which is less.
Aquatic ecosystem:
These include fresh water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water ecosystems are of
further three types : (i)

Lentic (Standing water) e.g. ponds, lakes.

(ii)

Lotic (running water) e.g. rivers, streams.

(iii)

Wetlands e.g. marshes, swamps and bogs.

Marine ecosystems include

(i)

Open Ocean (pelagic)

(ii)

Upwelling regions

(iii)

Coastal ecosystems e.g. estuaries, wetlands, coral reefs, mangrooves.

23
Pond ecosystem:
Main components of pond ecosystem have been described at length earlier in this
unit. Zonation of the pond ecosystem is similar to that of lake ecosystem with the exception
that ponds are shallow water bodies while lakes are deep water bodies. Various zones are
explained below in lake ecosystem: Lake ecosystem:
Lakes are large natural standing water bodies formed when precipitation, land runoff and flowing water fills the depressions in the earth. Lakes consist of four distinct
zones which provide a variety of habitats and ecological niches for different types of
organisms. These zones are: (a)

Littoral zone:

It includes the shore and the shallow water zone. It contains a variety of free
floating producers, rooted plants and fauna e.g. frogs, snails, snakes etc. This region is rich
in nutrients and adequate sunlight is available.
(b)

Limnetic zone:

This zone includes open water zone of the surface layer which receives enough
sunlight for photosynthesis and therefore harbors variety of phytoplanktons; besides, plant eating zooplankton and fish are also abundant in this zone.
(c)

Profundal zone :

It is deep, open water zone. Fishes adapted to cold and darker water are found in
this region.
(d)

Benthic zone:

It is the bottom of the lake. The organisms abundantly found in this zone include
decomposers, detritus feeding clams and worm-like insect larvae. Decomposers act on dead
organic matter to recycle inorganic substances for their availability to the producers. In the
lake, eutrophication takes place due to input of nutrients from the surrounding areas. Most
lakes are subject to cultural eutrophication due to addition of nitrates and phosphates,
sewage and industrial wastes.
(i)

Abiotic component :

Inorganic and organic substances found dissolved in water and in the mud in shore
region as well as at the bottom of the sea constitute abiotic component. Climatic factor is its
another component that includes temperature, pH, availability of sunlight etc.
(ii)

Biotic component :
It comprises the following:

(a)

Producers:

Variety of free-floating phytoplanktons, rooted plants, submerged plants etc is the

producers. They are predominant in littoral and limnetic zone.
(b)

Consumers:
These are of many types: -

24
(i)

Primary consumers:
There are the herbivores e.g. zooplankton which feed on producers,

(ii)

Secondary consumers:

These feed on primary consumers and include insect larvae, small and large fish.
Sometimes, large fishes feed on small fish and thus occupy the position of tertiary
consumers.
(iii)

Decomposers:

Some species of bacteria and fungi, detritus feeding clams etc are the decomposers
found in benthic zone of lake. They act on dead organic matter.
Open seas:
These include the waters beyond the depth of about 200 meters from the shore.
Major oceans of the world cover approximately 70% of the earth surface. Each ocean
represents a very large and stable ecosystem. Physical features like temperature, pressure
and dissolved oxygen content vary greatly with the depth of the ocean. The open sea has
three regions: (i)

Photic region:

(ii)

Aphotic region:

(iii)

Abyssal region:

Photic region contains phytoplanktons and zooplanktons. Nektons are found both in
photic and aphotic zones. The abyssal region is inhabited by predators. The benthic fauna is
comprised mainly of consumers, scavengers and decomposers.
Biotic components of ocean ecosystem are
(a)

Producers:

These trap radiant energy of the sun with the help of photosynthetic pigments and
convert solar energy into chemical energy. Producers are mainly phytoplanktons e.g.
diatoms, dinoflagellates and algae (green, brown and red).
(b)

Consumers:
These are heterotrophic macroconsumers. These are: -

(i)

Primary consumers:
Crustaceans, molluscs, fish etc that feed on producers.

(ii)

Secondary consumers:

These are carnivores e.g. fishes such as Herring. Shad, Macherel that feed on
herbivores.
(iii)

Tertiary consumers:

These are other carnivorous fishes which feed on secondary consumers e.g.
Haddock, Cod etc.

25
(iv)

Decomposers:

Bacteria and fungi are the micro -organisms that feed on dead organic matter of
producers and macroconsumers.
Estuaries
Mouths of rivers or coastal bays are commo nly known as estuaries. Estuary waters
are very fertile. It is so because in this region minerals as well as oxygen, carbon dioxide
and light are available in plenty. The estuary water is less saline because of more wave
action and rapid circulation of nut rients. Estuaries therefore have more species diversity
than the fresh water up the river or adjoining sea region. Biotic component of estuaries
include planktons (producers), nektons (e.g. bony fishes) and benthic organisms (e.g rooted
plants, clams, snails, prawns, crabs, skates and rays). Phytoplanktons and rooted plants are
the producers . These are, in turn, eaten up by zooplankton which is subsequently consumed
by secondary consumers like small and large fish. Clams, bacteria and fungi are the
decompos ers present in benthic region and feeding on dead organic matter.

26

3. BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION

K. S. Bangarwa
Department of Forestry
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004

What is biodiversity?:
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of genetic material, species and
ecosystems found in nature. Some species, like gorillas, have won our hearts and minds
simply for their grace and beauty. Countless less -charismatic species -many too tiny to see
provide services that ensure the Earth remains habitable into the future. Collectively,
biodiversity stabilizes our atmosphere and climate, protects water catchments and renews
the soil. It also helps to keep ecosystems adaptable, should environmental conditions
change abrupt ly. The diversity of nature is the foundation of the worlds material wealth.
From biodiversity, we develop food crops and derive the raw inputs and genetic materials
for industry, agriculture and medicine. These benefits are worth many billions of dollars
each year, and people spend further billions to appreciate nature and its diversity through
tourism and recreation. Biodiversity also provides valuable indirect services through natural
ecosystems. The total number of species on the earth is estimated to range from 5-50
million, but only about 1.8 million species have so far been described. Biodiversity has
three levels, (i) genetic, (ii) species, and (iii) community and ecosystem.
Genetic diversity:
Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species; the differences
could be in alleles (different variants of same genes), in entire genes (the traits determining
particular characteristics) or in chromosomal structures. The genetic diversity enables a
population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection. If a species has
more genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions. Lower
diversity in a species leads to uniformity, as is the case with large monocultures of
g enetically similar crop plants. This has advantage when increased crop production is a
consideration, but can be a problem when an insect or a fungal disease attacks the field and
poses a threat to the whole crop. We know that each species, varying from bacteria to
higher plants and animals, stores an immense amount of genetic information. For example,
the number of genes is about 450-700 in Mycoplasma, 4000 in Escherichia coli , 13000 in
Drosophila melanogaster, 32000-50000 in Oryza sativa , and 35000 to 45000 in Homo
sapiens.
The amount of genetic variation is the basis of speciation (evolution of new
species). It has a key role in the maintenance of diversity at species and community levels.
The total genetic diversity of a community will be greater if the re are many species, as
compared to a situation where there are only a few species. Genetic diversity within a
species often increases with environmental variability.
Species diversity:
Species are distinct units of diversity, each playing a specific role in an ecosystem.
Therefore, loss of species has consequences for the ecosystem as a whole. Species diversity
refers to the variety of species within a region. Simplest measure of species diversity is
species richness, i.e., the number of species per unit area. The number of species increases
with area of the site. Generally, greater the species richness, greater is the species diversity.
However, number of individuals among the species may also vary, resulting into differences
in evenness, or equitability, and consequently in diversity. Suppose, we are having three
sample areas. In the sample area 1, there are three species of birds. Two species are
represented by one individual each, while the third species has four individuals. In the
sample area 2 that h as the same three species, two individuals represent each species. This

27
sample area shows greater evenness, and there are equal chances for a species being
represented in a sample. The sample area 2 will be considered more diverse than the first. In
t h e s ample area 3, an insect, a mammal and a bird represent the species. This sample area is
most diverse, as it comprises taxonomically unrelated species. In this example, we find
equal number of species but varying number of individuals per species. In nature, both the
number and kind of species, as well as the number of individuals per species vary, leading
to greater diversity.
Community and ecosystem diversity:
Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem has three perspectives. Alpha
diversity (within -community diversity) refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same
community/habitat. A combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to
represent diversity within a community or habitat. Species frequently change when habitat
or community changes. The rate of replacement of species along a gradient of habitats or
communities is called beta diversity (between -community diversity). There are differences
in species composition of communities along environmental gradients, e.g., altitudinal
gradient, moisture gradient, etc. Higher the heterogeneity in the habitats in a region or
greater the dissimilarity between communities, higher is the beta diversity. Diversity of the
habitats over the total landscape or geographical area is called gamma diversity.
Ecosystem diversity describes the number of niches, trophic levels and various
ecological processes than sustain energy flow, food webs and the recycling of nutrients. It
has a focus on various biotic interactions and the role and function of keystone species.
Studies in temperate grasslands have shown that diverse communities are functionally more
productive and stable, even under environmental stresses such as prolonged dry conditions.
The number of habitats or ecosystems can vary within a geographical area. We also
know that savannas, rain forests, deserts, lakes and wetlands and oceans are major
ecosystems, where species live and evolve. The number of habitats/ ecosystems present in a
region is also a measure of biodiversity.
In In dia, we are endowed with a rich diversity of biogeographically distinct regions
due to varying physical conditions and species groupings. Among the biogeographical
regions, Deccan peninsula has the most extensive coverage of the Indian landmass (42 per
c e nt). The most biodiversity -rich zones, Western Ghats and northeast, account for 4 and 5.2
per cent of the geographical area, respectively. Each biogeographical zone has several
habitats, biotic communities and ecosystems. A large number of species found in these
zones are endemic or exclusive to India. About 33 per cent of the flowering plants recorded
in India are endemic to our country. Indian region is also notable for endemic fauna. For
example, out of the recorded vertebrates, 53 per cent freshwater fis h, 60 per cent
amphibians, 36 per cent reptiles and 10 per cent mammalian fauna are endemic. The
endemic are concentrated mainly in northeast, Western Ghats, northwest Himalaya and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A very high number of amphibian species are endemic to
Western Ghats. However, the biological diversity of many ecosystems still remains poorly
explored in India. These ecosystems include the deep oceans, wetlands and lakes, and
habitats such as the tree canopy and soil of tropical rain forests.
Gradi ent of biodiversity:
Biodiversity varies with change in latitude or altitude. As we move from high to
low latitudes (i.e., from the poles to the equator), broadly speaking, the biological diversity
increases. While in the temperate region, the climate is severe with short growing period for
plants, in tropical rainforests; the conditions are favourable for growth throughout the year.
Favourable environmental conditions favour speciation, and make it possible for a larger
number of species to occur and grow. For example, mean number of vascular species per
0.1 ha sample area in tropical rain forests varies from 118-236, whereas it is only in the
range of 21-48 species in the temperate zones. A correlation between diversity and latitude
is also found for a wide variety of taxonomic groups, such as ants, birds, butterflies, and
moths, etc.

28
Similarly, we generally notice a decrease in species diversity from lower to higher
altitudes on a mountain. A 1000 m increase in altitude results in a temperature drop of
about 6.5C. This drop in temperature and greater seasonal variability at higher altitudes are
a major factor that reduces diversity. The latitudinal and altitudinal gradients of species
diversity are two master gradients, although regional and taxa -related exceptions do occur.
Also, it is expected that more complex and heterogeneous the physical environment, more
complex and diverse will be the flora and fauna.
Biodiversity in India:
Indias biological diversity is one of the most significant in the world. As many as
45,000 species of wild plants and over 77,000 species of wild animals have so far been
recorded, together comprising about 6.5 per cent of worlds known wildlife. Equally
impressive is the range of domesticated biodiversity. At least 166 species of crops and 320
species of wild relatives of crops are known to have originated here yet, at least 10 per cent
of Indias recorded wild flora, and possibly more its wild fauna, are on the list of threatened
species, many on the verge of extinction. Biological extinction, which led to the
disappearance of one species in several hundred years, has now been replaced by
accelerated rate of extinction of the species. Habitat destruction, hunting and other forms of
over exploitation, poisoning, displacement or predation by exotics, and other factors have
been the immediately apparent cause of this decline in both wild and domesticated
biodiversity. Today, we are probably loosing one species every year.
India: A mega diversity nation:
Our country has a special place as one of the worlds biologically rich nations.
India is rated among the top ten or fifteen nations for its great diversity of plant life,
especially angiosperms, from which new drugs are being discovered every day. We are
equally rich in insect, amp hibia, reptile, bird and mammalian species of great economic
potential. Many of these organisms are endemic to India and are found nowhere else in the
world. India is also a source of traditional crop varieties. Many are disappearing rapidly as
only high y ielding varieties are being grown.
Number of species of bacteria, fungi, plants and animals in India
Taxon
Bacteria
Fungi
Algae
Bryophyta
Pteridopyta
Gymnosperms
Angiosperms
Insecta
Mollusca
Pisces
Amphibia
Reptilia
Aves
Mammalia
Total

Number of species
850
23000
2500
2564
1022
64
15000
53430
5050
2546
204
446
1228
372
108276

Percentage
0.8
21.2
2.3
2.4
0.9
0.1
13.9
49.3
4.7
2.4
0.2
0.4
1.1
0.3
100.00

Indias explosive population and the related need for land and natural resources, is
rapidly eroding this great source of potential wealth. Short -term gains are being made,
leading to long -term ecological and economic losses.
The rate at which the extinction of species is occurring throughout the country
remains obscure. It is likely to be extremely high as our wilderness areas are shrinking
rapidly. Our national hot spots are in the forests of the Northeast, the Western Ghats and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The rate of deforestation and fragmentation of these

29
forests far exceeds our capability of identifying economically viable species in these remote
tracts.
The major determinants of highly varied patterns of ecosystems in the Indian sub continent are geographical, topographical, hydrological and climatic factors. Variation in
moisture levels, because of the amount of precipitation and the length of the monsoon in
different regions, plays a major role in the pattern of regional species diversity. The gre at
physical variations from the lofty mountains regions, to low lying plains, with the formation
of multiple watersheds, are responsible for local variations in species diversity. The highest
concentrations of species are found in the North -East of India, the Western Ghats and the
Andaman and Nocobar Islands. In these areas, both plant and animal species abound. Their
evergreen forests, though structurally and functionally similar show marked differences in
their component species.
The sixteen major forest types of India are distributed in10 distinctive biogegraphic
zones, having 25 sub -divisions and a much larger variety of ecosystems. These have 45,000
species of plants, which constitute 6.4% of plant species on earth.
Indian species diversity
Species
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibia
Angiosperms

Wor ld Ranking
8 th
8 th
5 th
15 t h
15 t h 20 th

Number of species
3
1200
453
182
14500

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands alone have as many as 2200 species of flowering
plants and 120 species of ferns. India has 77000 species of animals of these 50000 are
insects in which there are 13000 butterflies and moths. It is estimated that the number of
unknown species could be several times higher. Indias avifauna is remarkably rich and its
1200 bird species cover 14% of world avifauna. India has 350 species of wild mammals,
living in different ecosystems. Out of 135 genera of land mammals in India, 85 (63%) are
found in the North East. A major proportion of amphibia and reptiles, especially snakes, are
concentrated in the Western Ghats. Among the endemic species i.e. those found only in
India, a larger proportion is concentrated in the three high diversity zones. Out of the total
species of amphibia found in India, 62% are unique to this country. Among lizards, of the
153 species, 50% are endemic. High endemism has also been recorded for various groups of
insects. Several marine worms, centipedes, mayflies and fresh water sponges are also
known to be endemic.
Plant and animal diversity in India 6.5% of World species
Recorded species in India

Plants: 45000 7% of global species (BSI

Updated) Animals 77000- 6.4% of global
species ZSI, 1991)

Specially high species diversity of Ferns (1022), Orchids (1082)

Special value due to its high mega -diversity, high endemism and distinctiveness of
ecosystems.
Plant endemism
Hot spots

North -East India, Western Ghats, Andaman &

Nicobar Islands (WCMC, 1988)

Plant endemism

33% of Indian endemic species are of

flowering plants. 18% of all plants are
endemic. (BSI)

Western Ghats

1500

Plant

species

endemic

to

India

30
North East Himalayas

2000

(WCMC (1988)

Animal diversity of India in global context

Insects

50,000, Butterflies -13000 (ZSI, 1991)

Birds

12,000 14% of world avifauna

Reptiles

453

Animal endemism in India

Hot spots

Of 135 genera, 85% (63%) are in North East

India

WCMC

1988

Mammals

Relatively low endemism

Birds

Relatively high endemism

Reptiles

Lizards 50% are endemic

Amphibia

Very high endemism 62% are endemic

(mostly in Western Ghats)

Marine sediment worms, Freshwater

sponges, Mayflies, Centipedes

High endemism

Hotspots of biodiversity:
A hot spot can be defined as an area which faces threat from human activities and at
the same time supports a unique biodiversity and contains outstanding examples of
evolutionary processes of speciation and extinction. There are eighteen hot spots of
biod iversity all over the world. There are 49555 endemic species of higher plants that is
20% of the worlds total plant species.
Out of recognized 18 hot spots (species rich threatened areas), 14 are located in the
tropics. India has two hot spots, one in the northeastern region extending to Burma and
China, which is often considered as a cradle of angiosperms and endowed with wild genetic
resources of plants, animals and microbes of unknown potential value. The second hot spot
is the Western Ghats. Although, a total of 45,000 plant species and 75,000 animal species
have been recorded for India, the actual number may be one fold higher. This generalization
is based on the following facts:

There are several species rich habitats, which are not yet explored.

Explored regions are not intensively studied for taxonomic diversity.

The insect fauna and soil biota are poorly known.

The freshwater and marine biota, particularly phyto- and zoo- plankton have not yet
received the attention biologists.

31
The g lobal hotspots and the number of endemic species
Region
Cape Region (South Africa)
Upland Western Amazonia
Atlantic Coastal Brazil
Madagascar
Philippines
Borneo (North)
Eastern Himalaya (India)
SW Australia
Western Ecuador
Colombian Choco
Peninsular Malaysia
California Floristic Province
Western Ghats (India)
Central Chile
New Caledonia
Eastern Arc Mts (Tanzania)
SW Sri Lanka
SW Cote dIvorie
Total
Threats to Biodiversity:

Higher plants
6000
5000
5000
4900
3700
3500
3500
2830
2500
2500
2400
2140
1600
1450
1400
535
500
200
49555

Tropical deforestation:
The very biodiversity that nurtured human cultural diversity since times
immemorial is now threatened. In fact, the present era is often described as an era of
species extinctions. The following figures illustrate the magnitude of the erosion of
biological diversity. The rate of species loss is as fast today as it was at the time of
extinction of dinosaurs some 65 million years ago. The species loss is a threat to mankind
next only to thermonuclear war. Of the estimated 10 million species, only 1.4 million
species have been catalogued. A total of 50-90% of the species are confined to tropical
forests. At the current rate of tropical deforestation (17 million hectares per year), 4-8% of
the rain forest would be sentenced to extinction by 2015 AD and 17-35% by 2040 AD. In
the assumption that the global total of species is 10 million, 20-75 species per day would be
condemned by 2040 AD. This means that 15% of Earths species will be doomed over the
next 25 years.
Recent preliminary studies on freshwater rotifers revealed several new species from
a few lakes located in and around Delhi. The taxonomic diversity of microbes is still in the
infant stage. About 12 biogeographical zones are recognized for Indian region, but the
delimitation of ecosystems and their communities is not yet initiated. In other words there
is no information about the ecosystem diversity.
A staggering number of known species of plants and animals are threatened. For
example, out of 15,000 known species of flowering plants, 2,000 species are threatened. At
the present rate of habitat loss, several hundreds of known and unknown species will vanish
by the turn of the next century.
Biological invasions is a threat to biodiversity:
The other major threat to biodiversity is biological invasions. Th e forests are
replaced by the worlds notorious weeds such as Lantana sp., Mikania sp. and Eupatorium
sp. in the Western Ghats, Central India, Eastern Himalayas and northwestern Himalayas.
The tropical monsoon forests of most of the flood plains of major and minor rivers have
now been replaced by Lantana sp. In the Aravallis, Prosopis juliflora has totally eliminated
indigenous biotic communities over thousands of hectares. Over-exploitation of plant and
animal species is also responsible for the loss of biodiversity. The extremely low viable
population of several animal species is due to over-exploitation. Similarly, the over
exploitation of medicinal plants and plants of horticultural and industrial importance has
reduced many species population far below the viable size. For example, the import of

32
Coptis teeta to Japan and other west European countries made the species on the verge of
extinction. Several orchid species are extinct in their wild habitats, particularly in the
northeastern Himalayas.
Other t hreats to biodiversity:
The other direct threats to biodiversity include:

Pollution of soil, water and atmosphere.

Global climatic changes

Industrial agricultural.

The Global Biodiversity Strategy also identified the following factors that
contribut e indirectly to the loss of biodiversity:

The unsustainably high rate of human population growth and natural resource
consumption.

The steadily narrowing spectrum of traded products from agriculture, forestry and
fisheries.

Economic systems and policies that fail to value the environment and its resources.

Inequity in the ownership, management and flow of benefits from both the use and
conservation of biological resources.

Deficiencies in knowledge and its application.

Ha bitat loss and fragmentation:

The destruction of habitats is the primary reason for the loss of biodiversity. When
people cut down trees, fill a wetland, plough grassland or burn a forest, the natural habitat
of a species is changed or destroyed. These ch anges can kill or force out many plants,
animals, and microorganisms, as well as disrupt complex interactions among the species. A
forest patch surrounded by croplands, orchards, plantations, or urban areas is an example of
fragmented habitats. With the fragmentation of a large forest tract, species occupying
deeper parts of forests are the first to disappear. Overexploitation of a particular species
reduces the size of its population to an extent that it becomes vulnerable to extinction.
Extinction of species:
Extinction is a natural process. Species have disappeared and new ones have
evolved to take their place over the long geological history of the earth. It is useful to
distinguish three types of extinction processes.
(i)

Natural extinction:

With the change in environmental conditions, some species disappear and others,
which are more adapted to changed conditions, take their place. This loss of species, which
occurred in the geological past at a very slow rate, is called natural or background
extinction.
(ii)

Mass extinction:

There have been several periods in the earths geological history when large number
of species became extinct because of catastrophes. Mass extinctions occurred in millions of
years.

33
(iii)

Anthropogenic extinction:

An incre asing number of species are disappearing from the face of the earth due to
human activities. This manmade mass extinction represents a very severe depletion of
biodiversity, particularly because it is occurring within a short period of time.
Examples of threatened species in India
Category

Plants

Animals

Critically endangered

Berberis nilghiriensis

Sus salvanius
(Pigmy hog)

Endangered

Bentinckia nicobarica

Ailurus fulgens
(Red Panda)

Vulnerable

Cupressus cashmeriana

Antilope cervicapra
(Black buck)

Conservation of Biodiversity
The conservation of biodiversity should be aimed at the building of a sustainable
society. To achieve this, the biodiversity conservation strategy must include:

Study

Use

Save
The interrelationships among these three components are depicted below:

Save

Study

Use
The scope of biodiversity conservation and action
plan is illustrated below. The Global Biodiversity
Strategy document identifies five key strategic objectives
for biodiversity conservation:

The development of national and international policy

framework that foster the sustainable use of
biological resources and the maintenance of
biodiversity.

Promotion of conservation of local communities

through appropriate incentives.

Strengthening and application of the tools for

conservation.

The human capacity for conserving and using

biodiversity
sustainably
must
be
greatly

Farm, Village, Forest

or
Laboratory

Bioregional

National

International

34
strengthened, particularly in the developing countries.

Conservation action must be catalyzed through international cooperation and national

planning.

The document also calls for a decade of action to conserve the worlds biodiversity
for the benefit of present and future generations. The action includes:

Establishing a national policy framework for biodiversity conservation.

Creating an international policy environment that supports national biodiversity

conservation.

Creating conditions and incentives for local biodiversity conservation.

Managing biodiversity through the human environment.

Strengthening protected areas.

Conserving species, populations and genetic diversity.

Expanding human capacity to conserve biodiversity.

An amount of $52 billion is needed for implementing the action plan for biodiversity
conservation.

Conservation of biodiversity in India:

Conserving biological diversity is an ethical imperative because all life has a right
to exist, and humans should not knowingly cause any loss of this diversity. From a more
practical angle, biological diversity provides many benefits to humans, supporting the
systems that store and cycle nutrients essential for life, absorbing and breaking down
pollutants, recharging groundwater, producing soil and protecting it from excessive erosion,
providing the basis for all improvements to domesticated plants and animals, and providing
numerous raw materials for industry and medicine. In more general terms, the variation in
life provides the basis for adapting to changing conditions.
There are two basic strategies of biodiversity conservation, in situ (on site) and ex situ (off
site).
A.

In situ conservation strategies:

The in situ strategies emphasize protection of total ecosystems. The in situ approach
includes protection of a group of typical ecosystems through a network of protected areas.
1.

National parks and wildlife sanctuaries:

These are areas of land and/or sea, especially dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources. These
are managed through legal or other effective means. Examples of protected areas are
National Parks, and Wildlife Sanctuaries. World Conservation Monitoring Centre has
recognized 37,000 protected areas around the world. As of September 2002, India has 581
protected areas (89 National Parks and 492 Wildlife Sanctuaries), covering 4.7 per cent of
the land surface, as against 10 per cent internationally suggested norm. The Jim Corbett
National Park was the first National Park established in India.
Functions of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries
(i)

Biodiversity preservation
Gene resources
Species protection
Ecosystem diversity
Evolutionary processes

35
(ii)

Ecological processes

(iii)

Fixing and cycling of nutrients

Soil formation
Circulation and cleansing of air and water
Global life support
Plants absorb CO 2 , give out O2 ; Water balance

Watershed protection

(iv)

Erosion control
Local flood reduction
Regulation of stream flows

Consumptive benefits

Fuel wood
Fodder
Fibre

(v)
(vi)
(vii)

Education and research

Recreation tourism
Non-consumptive benefits
Aesthetic
Spiritual
Cultural/historical
Existence value

(viii)

Future values
Option value
For unknown uses that may be discovered in future.

2.

National biosphere reserves:

The National Man and Biosphere Committee of the Department of Environment has
already identified fourteen as potential areas for biosphere reserves. These cover all the
major bio -geographic regions of the Indian sub -continent.
Considering national priorities on environmental conservation, the above areas have
been identified based on their rich genetic diversity, floristic uniqueness, endemic wealth of
flora/fauna, and tha t they are, in totality, representative of the ecosystems occurring in
different biogeographic regions. It could be possible to do so since basic data to identify
such zones on the above criteria have already been gathered.
National biosphere reserves
Year

Name

Location

Indian part of Gulf of

1 1989 Gulf of Mannar Mannar between India and
Sri Lanka

State

Tamil Nadu

Type

Coasts

Area
( k m2 )
10500

2 1989 Sunderbans

Part of delta of Ganges and

West Bengal
Barahamaputra river
system

Gigantic
Delta

9630

3 1988 Nanda Devi

Part of Chamoli District,

Pithoragarh District &
Almora District

West
Himalayas

5860

Uttranchal

36

4 1986 Nilgiri

Part of Wynad , Nagarhole ,

Tamil Nadu,
Bandipur and Mudumalai,
Kerala and
Nilambur, Silent Valley
Karnataka
and Siruvani Hills

Western
Ghats

5520

5 1998 Dehang Debang

Part of Siang and Debang

valley

Arunachal
Pradesh

East
Himalayas

5112

6 1999 Pachmarhi

Part of Betul District ,

Hoshangabad District and
Chindwara districts

Madhya
Pradesh

Semi -Arid

4926

7 1994 Similipal

Part of Mayurbhanj district Orissa

Deccan
Peninsula

4374

8 2005

Achanakamar Amarkantak

9 1989 Manas

Part of Anuppur, Dindori

and Bilaspur districts

Madhya
Pradesh ,
Chattisgarh

Part of Kokrajhar,
Bongaigaon , Barpeta ,
Nalbari, Kamrup and
Darang District

3835

East
Himalayas

2837

10 2000 Kanchanjunga

Parts of Kanchanjunga
Hills

Sikkim

East
Himalayas

2620

11 2001 Agasthyamalai

Neyyar, Peppara and

Shenduruny Wildlife
Sanctuary and their
adjoining areas

Kerala

Western
ghats

1701

12 1989 Great Nicobar

Southern most islands of

Andaman and Nicobar
Islands

Andaman and
Nicobar
Islands

Islands

885

13 1988 Nokrek

Part of Garo Hills

Meghalaya

East
Himalayas

820

14 1997 Dibru -Saikhowa

Part of Dibrugarh District

and Tinsukia District

Assam

East
Himalayas

765

B.

Ex situ conservation strategies:

The plant and animal genetic resources are conserved essentially through ex situ
conservation strategies by the institutes of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research
(ICAR) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. There are no separate
organizations for the conservation of forests and microbial genetic resources, although the
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) and the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Govt. of India is attempting to conserve the genetic diversity o f
forest trees. Through grant-in -aids, the Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science
and Technology, Government of India has created national facilities for conservation of
microbial genetic resources and medicinal plant genetic resources through ex situ gene
banks. The department is also intending to establish genomic libraries for threatened texa.
In spite of massive efforts by the different Ministries of the Government of India to
prevent mass extinction of species, a single anthropogenic activit y -habit loss and
fragmentation -is rapidly eroding the biodiversity and to some extent almost nullifying the
conservation efforts.
The ex situ conservation strategies include botanical gardens, zoos, conservation
stands, and gene, pollen, seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks. Seed gene banks are
the easiest way to store germplasm of wild and cultivated plants at low temperature in cold
rooms. Preservation of genetic resources is carried out in field gene banks under normal
growing condition.

37
In vitro conservation, especially by cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen at a
temperature of 196C, is particularly useful for conserving vegetatively propagated crops
like potato. Cryopreservation is the storage of material at ultra -low temperature either by
v e ry rapid cooling (used for storing seeds), or by gradual cooling and simultaneous
dehydration at low temperature (used for tissue culture). The material can be stored for a
long period of time in compact, low maintenance refrigeration units. Conservation of
biological diversity in botanical gardens is already in practice. There are more than 1500
botanical gardens and arboreta.
Source of food and improved varieties:
Biodiversity is of use to modern agriculture in three ways:
(i)

as a source of new crops,

(ii)

as a source material for breeding improved varieties, and

(iii)

as a source of new biodegradable pesticides.

Of the several thousand species of edible plants, less than 20 plant species are
cultivated to produce about 85 per cent of the worlds food. W heat, corn and rice, the three
major carbohydrate crops, yield nearly two third of the food sustaining the human
population. Fats, oils, fibres, etc. are other uses for which more and more new species need
to be investigated.
The commercial, domesticated species are crossbred with their wild relatives to
improve their traits. Genes of wild species are used to confer new properties, such as
disease resistance or improved yield in domesticated species. For example, rice grown in
Asia is protected from the four main diseases by genes received from a single wild rice
species (Oryza nivara ) from India.
Diversity is the basis of selection and further more it is the raw genetic material for
continuous improvement in domesticated plant species. Diversity of wild species provides a
good source of genes for imparting tolerance/resistance to many stresses. Dependence on
wild plants still continues not only for improvement of agricultural crops but also for
medicines, aromatic substances, spices, some fruits, fodder, utility items like brooms, and
fuel, paper pulp, timber and veneer. As far as non -agricultural items are concerned, people
are still in hunter-gatherer stage because of the dependence on the wild stock. We must now
switch over to cultivating the foregoing sp ecies, particularly medicinal and aromatic plants,
on account of the renewed emphasis on herbal medicines, and forest shrub/tree species to
meet wood needs. Another reason to conserve biodiversity is that one can not foretell the
type of biomolecules needed for human welfare in years to come, and the genes needed in
future for fortifying our crop plants and domesticated animals against diseases and vagaries
of nature and enhancing their productivity.
Domestication for utilization in agroforestry:
Once upon a time, even mango trees were wild. Then many people had the good
idea of growing trees that produced larger and tastier fruit and the tree was brought in from
of forest, cultivated on agricultural land and it became domesticated. In recent years, tastes
around the world for exotic flavours and fruits have been growing rapidly along with an
emerging world culture in this global village. At the same time, researchers have been
turning their attention to a whole new range of tropical trees and shrubs that produce
delectable fruit and other products, but the vast majority of these are still wild or
undomesticated. Many species are also under threat as tropical forests continue to vanish.
The idea of domestication is to identify and improve agroforestry tree species according
to farmer and market demand, and to make the planting material available to farmers in the
tropics. And this is a concept that is rapidly bearing fruit.

38
The improvement of trees and shrubs is as much a social and political challenge as a
biological one. To develop and promote a tree -planting culture among a diverse client group
of resource -poor farmers, we need to better understand many diverse issues, ranging from
germplasm demand and supply to the way that farmers take decisions on trees and crops on
their farms. Domestication efforts will have to focus first on priority species that have been
determined followed rigorous characterization methodologies, and that farmers themselves
see as the most valuable and profitable, remembering that priorities can vary tremendously
for different farmers, and even over time for an individual farmer.
Domestication of trees has been receiving a good idea of attention recently,
following a number of articles and conferences. Domestication of any plant species involves
selection and management by humans and is not only about breeding per se. Selection can
be deliberate or inadvertent. Management is also linked to the genetics of a plant, as the
ability of a plant to be managed in a certain way or ways is often expressed genetically.
This is a type of genotype x environment interaction resulting from the management
environment. The direction and speed with which domesticated trees diverge from their
wild progenitors will depend on physical environment, size of the population, heritability of
traits under selection, mating system, intensity of selection and inherent variability of the
traits.
Cloning is the ultimate means of capturing useful genetic variation because there is
no recombination or segregat ion of genes. But there is a need to screen large numbers of
trees to identify clones with superior traits. Vegetative propagation, however, is not genetic
improvement in itself, and regular testing and introduction of new material is strongly
advocated. For agroforestry trees that have not been conventionally propagated this way,
this method should be considered initially only for those that produce high-value products fruits or timber, for instance.
Without taking into account as -yet undiscovered plant species and ongoing
taxonomic debates, it is safe to say that there are 50,000 tree species now growing on the
planet. More than 2500 of these have been described for use in agroforestry systems. Even
so, ethnobotanical studies continue to reveal a vast array of new tree species that people
find important as sources of food, medicines, fibre and other products. The assertion that
untapped potential exists is unequivocal, but the question that remains is how best to
allocate scarce research resources to such a plethora of species. It is an extremely expensive
exercise to carry out the rangewide exploration and collection required for genecological
studies, and this can be justified only after a species has proven itself. The paradox is that a
species may not be able to prove itself until its full intraspecific variation has been tested.
However, fitness of purpose of agroforestry trees remains the prime objective of
domestication, and providing a choice of priority species to farmers best ensures this. From
s u rveys of both buyers and suppliers of forest tree germplasm, it is clear that we are dealing
with an imperfect market. There is no premium paid for quality (physical or genetic) and
there is little appreciation of intraspecific diversity.
Germplasm, almost without exception, is marketed under the species name only.
Greater awareness of differences among individual trees of the same species and attachment
of names to such differences would help improve the situation.
Above all, domestication of trees and shrubs must be farmer centred. For improved
agroforestry trees to reduce deforestation and environmental degradation there must be both
adequate delivery of germplasm and an engendering of a tree-planting culture among
farmers. An understanding of marketing by farmers is also required.
Drugs and medicines:
Biodiversity is a rich source of substances with therapeutic properties. Several
important pharmaceuticals have originated as plant -based substances. Examples of plant derived substances developed into valua ble drugs are: Morphine (Papaver somniferum),
used as an analgesic; Quinine (Chinchona ledgeriana ) used for treatment of malaria; and

39
Taxol, an anticancer drug obtained from the bark of the yew tree (Taxus brevifolia ,
T.baccata ). Currently, 25 per cent of the drugs in the Pharmacy are derived from a mere 120
species of plants. But, throughout the world, traditional medicines make use of thousands of
plant species. Plants can also be used for the manufacture of innumerable synthetic
products, called botanoch emicals.
Aesthetic and cultural benefits:
Biodiversity has also great aesthetic value. Examples of aesthetic rewards include
ecotourism, bird watching, wildlife, pet keeping, gardening, etc. Throughout human history,
people have related biodiversity to the very existence of human race through cultural and
religious beliefs. In a majority of Indian villages and towns, plants like Ocimum sanctum
(Tulsi), Ficus religiosa (Pipal), and Prosopis cineraria (Khejri) and various other trees are
planted, which are considered sacred and worshipped by the people. Several birds, and even
snake, have been considered sacred. Today, we continue to recognise plants and animals as
symbols of national pride and cultural heritage.
Ecosystem services:
Biodiversity is essential for the maintenance and sustainable utilization of goods
and services from ecological systems as well as from the individual species. These services
include maintenance of gaseous composition of the atmosphere, climate control by forests
and oceanic systems, natural pest control, pollination of plants by insects and birds,
formation and protection of soil, conservation and purification of water, and nutrient
cycling, etc. These ecosystem services have been valued in the range of 16 to 54 trillion
(10 1 2 ) US dollars per year.
Conserving biodiversity legal issues:
An implementation of action plan for conservation of Biodiversity requires
knowledge of resources, documentation, legal framework and above all will for
implementation. Our constitution enshrines the concept of environment conservation. It has
laid an important trail for all citizens in the Section on Directive Principles of State Policy
by assigning the duties for the States and all citizens through Article 48A and Article 51A
(g) which state that the State shall endeavour to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes and rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for the
living creatures. Overtime, a legal and policy framework has been developed which relates
specifically to biological diversity. The Indian Forest Act, 1927,The Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 amended in 1983, 1986 and 1991; The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 amended
in 1988, and The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 are the major Acts on the legal side.
These are supported by number of State laws and statues concerning forest and other natural
resources. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 amended in 1988; The
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 amended in 1988 and a notification
on Coastal Regulation Zone, 1991 have indirect impact on conservation of Biodiversity by
controlling pollution of water and air quality. The National Conservation Strategy, 1992
outlines the policy actions required to give greater attention to Biodiversity conservation.
The Forest Policy as amended in 1988, stresses the sustainable use of forests and on the
need for greater attention to ecologically fragile and biological rich areas.
Future strategies:
Considering the diverse nature of Biodiversity, magnitude, task and limited
knowledgeable manpower, in -depth and quick analysis is imperative for evaluation our
status indifferent areas in order to draw action points for assessing the requirement and
formulation of appropriate enactments/ legislations at various levels dealing with issues
such as the conservation of biodiversity, access to biological resources and biotechnology
development. Besides mobilization and Participation of NGOs, local communities/people
and other in implementation procedure is a dire need of today. The implementation of the
Convention not only requires decisive National/State level actions to introduce Biodiversity
concerns into various economic sectors such as agriculture, forestry, wildlife and fisheries

40
to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of biological resources, but also requires
dialogues and open discussions and the issues like, what conservation method is required?
How can these measures be implemented? What additional inputs are required for better and
effective conservation to make the resourc es sustainable? How relevant is existing
technology for sustainable use? What arrangements are necessary for improvement and
technology transfer? What are the priorities in relation to R & D in technological fields?
and so on. Many more similar questions could be raised for evaluation of present status and
to plan out strategy for conservation of Biodiversity.

41

4. NATURAL RESOURCES

Rita Dahiya, V. K. Phogat and S. C. Mehta

Department of Soil science
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004

Life on this planet earth depends upon a large number of things and services
provided by the nature, which are known as Natural resources. Thus, water, air, soil,
minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are all examples of natural resources. There are
two parts of the word Resource Re and source. Re means certain duration or again and
again while the meaning of source is means. Thus, Resource means such source on which
we can keep ourselves dependent.
The natural resources are of two kinds:
(1)

Renewable resources which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a

given span of time e.g. forests, wildlife, wind energy, biomass energy, tidal
energy, hydro power etc. Solan energy is also a renewable form of energy as it
is an inexhaustible source of energy.

(2)

Non-renewable resources which cannot be regenerated e.g. Fossil fuels like

coal, petroleum, minerals etc. Once we exhaust these reserves, the same cannot
be replenished.

Definitions:
(i)

E. W. Zimmerman : Resources means not only the features of the

environment which are considered to be capable of serving mans needs. They
are given utility by the capabilities and wants of man.

(ii)

P. E. Macnall: Natural resources may be defined as those resources which

are provided by nature and which are useful to men.

(iii)

Jackie Smith: Resource is a feature of environment that is of value to man in

one form or another.

(iv)

Funk and Wagnalls : Resources are the available natural means of

advantages or means with capacity of power to achievement or means giving
fertility in skill in making any situation.

Thus, from the above -mentioned definitions, it can be said that the all physical and
biological factors that are related to the functioning areas of human being are called
resources. In the same way, the things that are useful for human life and existence are
resources.
Resource is a form of energy or matter, which is essential for the functioning of
organisms, populations and ecosystems. In the particular case of human beings, a resource
is any form of energy or matter essential for the fulfillment of physiological, socio economic and cultural needs, both at the individual level and that of the community. To
make study of these resources easy, they are classified as follows:
(i)

Non-exhaustible resources.

(ii)

Non-exhaustible but mutable resources.

(iii)

Exhaustible resources.

42
(iv)

Non-convertible maintainable resources.

(v)

Exhaustible but renewable resources.

(vi)

Total exhaustible resources.

Classification of Resources

Exhaustible Resources

Non-exhaustible Resources

Immutable

Mutable

Convertible

Maintable

Non-Convertible

Non- Maintable

Resuable

Non-Resuable

Renewable Resources
Renewable resources are those which are reproducible. It includes wildlife and
natural vegetation of all kinds. The soil itself may be considered a renewable resource
although severe damage is difficult to repair because of the slow rate of soil forming
processes. The natural drainage of waters from the watershed of a region can be maintained
indefinitely by careful management of vegetation and soils and the quality of water can be
controlled through pollution control. Renewable resources are capable of being regenerated
or replaced by ecological processes on a time scale relevant to their use.
Renewable resources are further classified into biotic or living renewable resources
and abiotic or non-living resources.
(i)

Biotic or living renewable resources:

This is known as the biotic resources. It includes the vegetation, animals, human
beings, etc. There is birth -development -death stage in the life of these biotic resources.
These resources are capable of reproducing the species of their own kind. It is not
exhaustible resource but it is capable of reproduced. Thus, these sources are renewable.
(ii)

Abiotic or non-living resources:

The resource that is not living and immovable is called as abiotic resource. It
cannot move. Abiotic resources include the natural cycles such as carbon cycle, nitrogen
cycle, water cycle and soil. The cycles are working continuously. We get oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and water from these cycles. These resources are non -exhaustible. It
means that these resources are renewable resources.
Non-renewable resources:
Resources that are not reproducible and are obtained from finite non-living reserves
are called non-renewable resources. e.g. coal and metals. Resources that are declined with
the use are non -renewable resources. There are two types of non -renewable resources. They
are as follows:

43
(i)

Biotic or living non-renewable resources:

This includes mined products and coal. Coal is produced from the vegetation so it is
called as biotic or living resource. These resources are exhaustible resources because it
comes to an end with once used. It cannot be reproducible or reusable. In the same way,
fossil fuels, natural gases and mined products are examples of non -renewable biotic
resources.
(ii)

Abiotic or non-living non-renewable resources:

This includes metals such as copper, steel, aluminium, gold, silver. These resources
once taken from the mines can not be made available again from the same mine. So these
resources are non -renewable abiotic resources. These resources do not have the capacity to
reproduce it.
In this chapter we sh all discuss in detail about the following natural resources:
(i)

Water Resources

(ii)

Mineral Resources

(iii)

Land Resources

(iv)

Forest Resources

Water resources:
Water is a natural resource on this earth and about 73% of earths surface is covered
with water in form of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers etc. Water is essential for all living beings.
Most of the animals and plants have 60-75% water in their body.

Use and over utilization of surface and ground water:

Due to the unique properties of water, it is of multiple uses for all living organisms.
Most of the life processes are accomplished with water present in the body. Uptake of
nutrients and their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of
wastes require water. Human being depends on water for almost every developmental
activity. Water is used for drinking, washing, irrigation, transportation, waste disposal,
coolant etc., and regulates our climate.
Exponentially growing population and industrial exp ansion have increased the
water demands many times. World wide, about 70 percent of the water is used for
agriculture. In India, about 93 % of water is used for agricultural purposes. Although water
is very abundant on this earth, but about 97% is salty water (ocean). Remaining about 3%
is fresh water. Out of this 3% of the fresh water, over 75% is locked up in form of polar ice
and remaining 25% is readily available to us in form of groundwater and surface water. The
water in streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs is known as surface water.
Over exploitation of groundwater for drinking, irrigation, domestic and industrial
purposes has resulted in a rapid depletion of groundwater in various regions leading to
falling of water table. Adverse effects of over utilization of groundwater are:
(a)

Land subsidence:

When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge, it results in the sinking of
overlaying land surface. The land subsidence causes cracking in buildings, fracture in water
and sewer pipes, reversing the flow of canals etc.

44
(b)

Falling of water table:

Pumping of groundwater is done extensively in arid and semi arid regions for
irrigating field crops. However, it is not advisable to do excessive pumping as it would
cause a s harp decline in crop production due to falling of water table.
(c)

Waterlogging:

When excessive irrigation is done in areas where underground water is brackish, the
water table rises gradually in these areas and causes waterlogging and salinity problems.
Floods:
In India, the rainfall is erratic and 90% of the total rainfall of the country is
received during monsoon (July -September). Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low
lying areas. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over flowing of lakes and rivers
resulting into floods. Deforestation, overgrazing, rapid industrialization, global warming
etc. have also significantly contributed to rise in the incidence of floods, which otherwise is
natural disaster.
Floods occur frequently in some parts o f countries like India and Bangladesh. India
is the most flood affected country in the world after Bangladesh. The major flood prone
states of India are Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Orrisa and Uttar Pradesh. Although,
people of Bangladesh are accustomed to moderate flooding during monsoon as they utilize
the flood water for growing paddy, but severe floods in 1970, 1988 and 1991 resulted from
excessive Himalayan runoff and storms caused massive deaths and damages. Networking of
rivers is being proposed at national level to deal with the problem of floods.
Drought:
Countries lying in the arid and semi arid regions usually experience frequent
droughts which are often extending to one year duration. If annual rainfall is below normal
and less than evaporation, drought conditions are created. Unfortunately, the droughts prone
areas are often having a high population growth wh ich leads to poor land use and makes the
situation worse.
The drought is although meteorological phenomenon but activities like over
grazing, deforestation, mining etc. tend for spreading of drought affected areas. Intensive
cropping pattern and over exploitation of scarce water resources for irrigation to get high
productivity has converted drought prone areas into desertified ones. For example in
Maharastra there has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over
exploitation of water by sugarcane crop having high water requirement.
(i)

Remedial measures:

Mixed cropping helps to optimize production and minimize the risks of crop
failures. Social forestry and wasteland development can be proved quite effective to fight
the problem.
Conflicts over water:
Essentiality of water and its unequal distribution has often led to inter-state or
international dispute. There have been constant conflicts over sharing of river waters in our
country because each major river flows through more than one state. For examples, there
are disputes over the sharing of Satluj-Yamuna water (SYL) by Haryana and Punjab,
Krishana river water by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh etc.
Dams -benefits and problems:
(i)

Benefits:

River valley projects with big dams have been considered to play a key role in the
development process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the
largest number of river valley dams. These projects provide employment and raise the living

45
standard of the tribals residing nearby. Dams help in checking floods and famines, generate
electricity, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas
and promote fishery etc.
(ii)

Environmental problems:

Big dams have proved to cause many environmental problems and therefore often
dams become a subject of controversy. The environmental problems due to big dams are:
(i)

Displacement of tribal people

(ii)

Reducing the forest areas

(iii)

Loss of aquatic flora and fauna

(iv)

Reduction in storage capacity of big dams due siltation and sedimentation

(v)

Continuous reduction in soil productivity in majority of canal command areas due

waterlogging and salinity

(vi)

Spread of water borne diseases

(vii)

Microclimatic changes

Although, the dams are built to serve the society with multiple uses but it has
several serious side effects. That is why now there is a shift towards construction of small
dams or mini-hydel projects from big dams.
Mineral resources:
Minerals are natura lly occurring inorganic crystalline solids having a definite
chemical composition and physical properties. There are a large number of minerals
occurring in the earth. Minerals are constituents of rocks. Most common minerals
composing most of the rocks are : quartz, feldspar, biotite, mica, dolomite, calcite, laterite
etc. The minerals are composed of elements like silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium,
magnesium, iron etc.
(i)

Use and exploitation of minerals:

Minerals are very important for the economy of a country. These are used in
domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors in a number of ways. The main
uses are:

Development of machineries, equipments and industries

Generation of energy e.g. coal, uranium etc.

Construction materials for housing

Means of transportation

Telephone wires, cables, electronics devices for communication

Medicines particularly in Ayurvedic

Formation of alloys for various purposes

Agro -chemicals as fertilizers and pesticides

Jewellery

(ii)

Types of minerals:
Minerals are basically of two types:

(a)

Non metallic minerals e.g. graphite, diamond, quartz, feldspar.

(b)

Metallic minerals e.g. Bauxite, laterite, hematite etc.

46
Since the very beginning of human civilization, man has been using metal very
extensively. The two of the major epochs of human history are even named after metal as
Bronze Age and Iron Age. The reserve of metals and the technologies for their extraction
h ave been the key factors in determining the economy of nation. The Japan for example, has
developed efficient technologies to upgrade mineral resources to high quality finished
product to sustain its economy. Iron and steel are used in maximum quantity (740x109 tons
annually) followed by manganese, copper, chromium, aluminum and nickel. Major reserves
of the important metals and their uses are given in Table 4.1, and uses of important non
metals are given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.1: Major reserves and important uses of metals
Metal

Major world reserves

Major uses

Aluminum

Australia, Guinea, Jamaica

Chromium
Copper

CIS, South Africa

USA, Canada, CIS, Chile,
Zambia

Electronics, transportation, utensil,

packing food items
For making high strength steel, textile
Electric and electronic goods, vessels

Iron
Lead

CIS, South America, Canada,

USA
CIS, USA

Manganese

CIS, South Africa, Brazil

Platinum

CIS, South Africa

Gold

CIS, South Africa, Canada

Use in automobiles, electronic goods,

medical uses
Ornaments, medical use, electronic uses

Silver
Nickel

Canada, South Africa, Mexico

CIS, Canada

Photography, electronics , jewellery

Chemical industry, steel alloys

Heavy machinery, steel product,

transportation
Leaded petrol, batteries, paints,
ammunition
For making high strength and heat
resistant steel , fertilizers

Source: Kaushik, Anubha and Kaushik, C.P. (2004). Perspectives in Environmental Studies.
New Age International Publishers

Table 4.2: Uses of major non metallic minerals

Non- metal
Silicate minerals
Limestone
Gypsum

Major uses
Sand and gravel for construction, bricks, pavement etc.
Used for concrete, building stone, agriculture for neutralizing
acid soils, cement
Used in plaster, wall-board, agriculture for reclamation of sodic
soils and waters

Potash, phosphorite

Used as fertilizers

Sulphur, pyrites

Used in medicines, batteries, fertilizers and in various industries

Thus, the CIS countries (The Commonwealth Independent States), USA, Canada,
South Africa and Australia are having the major world reserves of the most of the metallic
minerals.
Minerals are also classified as critical or strategic minerals based on their
importance and utility.

47

(a)

Critical minerals:

Minerals which are essential for the economy of the nation e.g.iron, aluminum,
copper, gold etc.
(b)

Strategic minerals:

Minerals which are required

manganese, cobalt, platinum, chromium etc.
(iii)

for

the

defence

of

country

e.g.

Major Minerals in India:

In India, the major minerals reserves are of coal and lignite (West Bengal,
Jharkhanda, Orissa, M.P., A.P.), Uranium (Jharkhanda, Rajasthan, Meghalaya, A.P.),
Alu minum (West Bengal, Jharkhanda, Maharashtra, M.P., Tamilnadu), Iron (Orissa, West
Bengal, Jharkhanda, Maharashtra, M.P., A.P., Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Goa) and Copper
(West Bengal, Jharkhanda, M.P., A.P., Rajasthan, Bihar, Karnataka and Uttaranchal).
Among these minerals coal, lignite and uranium are the energy generating minerals while
iron, aluminium and copper are the commercially used minerals.
Environmental effects of extracting and using mineral resources
India is producer of about 84 minerals of wo rth rupees 50,000 crore annually. Some
examples of severe problems caused by the mining of different minerals are given below.
1. Jaduguda uranium mine in Jharkhand exposes the local people to radiation.
2.

Jharia coal mines (Jharkhand) leads to land subsidence and force the local people
for displacement.

3.

Toxic metal like hexavalent chromium from Sukinda chromate mine (Orissa) seeps
into the river posing serious health hazard due to highly toxic and carcin ogenic.

4.

Kudremukh iron ore mine in Karnataka causes river pollution and threat to
biodiversity.

5.

East coast Bauxite mine (Orissa) resulted in land encroachment and posed a serious
problem of rehabilitation of people.

6.

North -Eastern coal fields in Assam caused groundwater contamination of sulphur.

Mining:
Mining is done to extract minerals from deposits in soil. Generally deep deposits of
minerals are extracted by sub -surface mining and shallow deposits by surface mining. The
sub surface mining is mo re destructive, dangerous, and expensive. The risks of occupational
hazards and accidents are more in sub-surface mining. Mining activities damages the
environment in number of ways. Some of these are described as:
(i)

Removal of vegetation and surface soil:

The topsoil as well as the vegetation is removed from the mining area which leads
to ecological imbalances. The exposed soil is prone to erosion and the mining site losses it
aesthetic value.
(ii)

Land subsidence:

Underground mining causes subsidence of land which may ultimately results in

cracks in houses, undulation in roads and bending of rail tracks, and cracking in
underground pipes.
(iii)

Pollution of underground water:

Sulphur, which is usually present as an impurity in many ores, makes the

u nderground water acidic. Leaching of some of the heavy metals into the groundwater also
contaminate it.

48
(iv)

Surface water pollution:

The runoff from mines which are acidic, containing high concentration of heavy
metals and radioactive substances accumulat es in the nearby streams and lakes.
(vi)

Air pollution:

Smelting (to separate and purify the metal from other impurities in the ore) emits
enormous quantities of air pollutants. The particulate matter, arsenic, cadmium, lead
particles, etc., go to the atmosphere and the public suffers from several health problems
upon their inhalation.
(vii)

Occupational health hazards

Most of the people working in mines suffer from various respiratory and skin
diseases due to constant exposure to the suspended matter and toxic substances.
Remedial measures:
Safety of mine workers is usually not a priority subject of industries. It is estimated
that there are 70 disabling (non-fatal) accidents and one death per 2.5 tons of mineral
produced. Therefore, it is essential to provide the safety measure to minimize the adverse
effect of mining. It is desirable, if possible, to adopt eco -friendly mining technology. For
example, the low grade ores can be better utilized by using microbial leaching technique.
The bacterium Thiobaci llus ferroxidans has been successfully and economically used for
extracting gold embedded in iron sulphide ore. The mined areas may be re -established by
vegetating with appropriate plant species, gradual restoration of flora, stabilization of the
mined la nds and prevention of toxic drainage discharge. Impacts of mining on environment
should be minimized by obeying the standards of Pollution Control Board for air emission.
Land resources:
Land is a primary natural resource for agriculture and environment. It provides us
food, fiber, fuel and the basic amenities of life. Soil, especially the top soil, is classified as
a renewable resource because it is continuously formed by natural processes though at a
very slow rate. Under most favorable conditions (vegetation, rainfall and temperature),
nature takes about thousands of years to form about 2.5 cm soil layer from parent rocks.
But, when rate of erosion is faster than rate of formation, then the soil becomes a non renewable resource. The rate of soil erosion is usually higher than the rate at which soils are
formed.
Land degradation:
With the increasing population growth the demand for arable land for producing
more food, fiber and fuel wood is increasing. To meet out the increasing demand for food,
the limited land resource is over exploited which cause land degradation. Land degradation
is a process where the productivity of the land is decreased. There may be various factors
responsible for soil degradation. For example, excessive mining of nutrients, loss of surface
soil as such (erosion), waterlogging, accumulation of salt and toxic substances etc.
Therefore, soil degradation must be checked to maintain soil productivity so that we may
secu re the future of the generations to come.
Soil erosion:
Soil erosion is the detachment and transportation of soil materials of the top layer
from one place to another. The agents transporting the soil materials may be running water,
blowing wind, gravity, human activities etc. Soil erosion results in the loss of fertility
because it is the top soil layer which is fertile.
Types of soil erosion:
Soil erosion is basically of two types:
(i)

Normal erosion or natural or geological erosion:

49
It is caused by the gradual removal of surface soil by natural processes. This type of
erosion is very slow and the rate of removal of the soil is always less than the rate at which
the soil is formed. This is a useful type of soil erosion and it helps in formation of soil,
development of landscapes etc.
(ii)

Accelerated erosion:

This is mainly caused by human activities such as deforestation, mining,

overgrazing, faulty cultivation etc. The rate of this type of erosion is much faster than the
rate of formation of soil, therefore, it called accelerated erosion. This erosion is very
harmful. Normally the accelerated erosion is called soil erosion.
Types of accelerated erosion:
Accelerated erosion is of two types - water erosion and wind erosion. Erosion
caused by water is called water erosion and if caused by wind is called wind erosion.
(i)

Types of water erosion:

(a)

Splash Erosion or Raindrop erosion:

This results from soil splash caused by the impact of falling rain drops. The
continuous impact of the raindrops compacts and seals the surface which causes surface
runoff. Its intensity depends upon size of raindrop and intensity of rainfall.
(b)
Sheet erosion:
Sheet erosion is the removal of a fairly uniform layer of soil from the land surface by
action of rainfall and runoff water. Sheet erosion continuously makes the soil shallower and
extremely harmful. It is usually so slow that the farmer is not aware of its existence. To the
eye, the field appears to be the same as before, but yields of crops begin to decline slowly.
(c)

Rill erosion:

Rill erosion is the removal of soil by running water from small, shallow channels which
develop due to concentration of surface flow along the slope. Rills generally develop on
bare and unprotected land. It is an intermediary stage between sheet and gully erosion and
clearly visible. The shallow channels can be smoothed out by normal tillage operations.
(d)

Gully erosion:

Gully erosion is the extensive removal of soil by running water, with the formation
of ravines or deep channels (U or V shaped) that can not be smoothed out completely by
normal cultivation. It is the advanced stage of rill erosion. Unattended rills widened every
year and begin to carry large sediment load. Gullies are more spectacular than other types
of erosion. They occur on sloppy lands.
There are also other types of water erosions such as landslides or slip erosion,
stream channel erosion, river bank erosion, slump ing and coastal erosion.
(ii)
Wind erosion:
It is the movement of soil by wind. This type of soil destruction is most common in
arid and semi -arid regions where precipitation (rainfall) is low. Wind erosion is mainly due
to a strong wind, low humidity, h igh temperature and in sandy soils.
Mechanics of Wind Erosion:
Wind erodes the soil in three steps:
-

Initiation of movement

Transportation either in air or along the surface

Deposition of soil particles at new locations.

50
(a)

Initiation of movement/Detachment:

The movement of soil particles is initiated as a result of turbulence and velocity of

the wind. The abrasive action of the wind results in some detachment of tiny soil particles
from the granules or clods. When the wind is laden with these soil particles, its abrasive
action is greatly increased. The impact of the rapidly moving grains dislodges other
particles from the soil clods and aggregates. These particles are now ready for movement.
(b)

Transportation:

A f t e r movement is initiated, the soil particles are carried by wind in three types of
movement, i.e. saltation, suspension and surface creep usually occurring simultaneously.
(i)

Saltation:

The movement of soil by series of short bounces or jumps just like grasshoppers
along the surface of land is called saltation. Soil particles of the size ranging from 0.1 to
0.5 mm usually move in this manner. Wind speed should be about 10 km/hr. This process
may account for 50 to 75% (major portion) of the total movement.
(ii)

Surface creep:

Surface creep is the rolling or sliding of large soil particles along the ground
surface. The particles carried by this method are too heavy to be lifted by the wind. Hence,
primarily they are moved by the impact of the particles in saltation rather than by direct
force of the wind. The bouncing particles carried by saltation strike the larger aggregates
and speed up their movement along the surface. These particles constitute the largest of the
erodible soil particles ranging in size from 0.5 to 1.0 mm. This type of movement forms
sand dunes. Soil creep may account for 5 to 25% of the total movement.
(iii)

Suspension:

It represents the floating of small sized particles (<0.1 mm) in the air stream.
Movement of these particles in suspension is usually initiated by the impact of particles in
saltation. They are often carried few kilometers above the ground in the atmosphere and
several kilometres horizontally from its original location, resulting in total loss to the
eroding area. They re turn to the earth only when the wind subsides and/or precipitation
washes them down. It accounts for as much as 40 percent of the total soil movement.
(c)

Deposition:

It depends on gravitational force. When gravitational force is greater than the force
holding the soil particles in air i.e. wind velocity. Wind velocity decreases and the particles
start depositing.
Soil Conservation Practices for Erosion Control :
Control of water erosion requires the best agronomic, soil management and
engineering practices that protect the soil and reduce runoff.
(i)

Agronomic Practices:

These include crop rotation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, contour strip
cropping and mulching. These practices help to reduce impact of raindrops as well as the
runoff water.
(a)

Crop rotation:

Erosion is higher in fallow soil than in cropped soil . Erosion is much greater in
widely row spaced crops like cotton, maize than close g rowing crops like wheat, berseem
etc. Forage crops and grasses reduce soil erosion considerably.

51
(b)

Contour cultivation:

On gentle slopes, it is the practices of conducting field operations like ploughing,

crop sowing etc in rows across the slope rathe r than up and down. Each row planted
horizontally along the slope acts as a small dam and help to hold soil and to slow down loss
of soil through run -off water.
(c)

Tillage:

In conventional methods, the land is ploughed and the soil is disturbed and
smoothed to make a seed bed tilth suitable for different crops. However, ploughing the soil
makes it susceptible to erosion when fallow. Conservation tillage, popularly known as zero
or minimum tillage causes minimum disturbance to the soil. These low intensit y tillage
practices favour consolidation of soil through better structure, infiltration and pore size
distribution.
(d)

Mulching:

Any material spread over soil surface is called mulch. It is effective in reducing
runoff and increasing infiltration of wate r.
(e)

Strip cropping:

It is a practice of growing alternate strip of erosion controlling crops and erosion

promoting crops such as grasses -maize -grasses -potato. It is a means of reducing the length
of slope. When the strips are laid out on the contours o n slopes, the system is called contour
strip cropping.
(f)

Agro -forestry:

It is a form of inter-cropping in which crops are planted between rows of trees or

shrubs. When the crop is harvested, the soil is not fallow as the trees and shrubs still hold
the soil particles and prevent soil erosion.
(ii)

Engineering Practices:

Engineering practices are used to control the movement of water over the land
surface. The practice depends on whether the objective is to reduce velocity of runoff water
or to increase surface water storage capacity or to safely dispose off the excess water. The
practices include terracing, bunding, dams etc.
(a)

Terracing:

A terrace is embankment or ridge of earth with nearly level top and steep or vertical
down hill face constructed along the contour of sloping land. It is a practice by which we
decrease the length as well as slope of the land. It needs leveling operations which are
costly and need technical knowledge. On hills, terraces perpendicular to slope is formed. In
high rainfall areas, ditches are also provided behind the terrace to permit adequate drainage.
(b)

Bunding:

Bunds are constructed along the field boundaries with out any reference to contours
to give more time for infiltration and reduce the runoff. On hills, contour bunds are
constructed which consist of building earthen embarkment across the slope, following the
contours.
(c)

Dams:

Dams are constructed for controlling gullies. These are called engineering
structures constructed to reduce the speed of runoff water.
(iii)

Wind erosion control:

The basic principle in the control of wind erosion is breaking the wind velocity at
t h e s o il-atmosphere interface and reduction in soil erodibility. This can be achieved through
the following measures:

52
(a)

Vegetation cover:

Protection of soil surface with a cover of vegetation or vegetative residues. Planting

of grasses and stubble mulch farming may be practiced.
(b)

Soil moisture conservation:

Adopting soil conservation methods is the most important for wind erosion control.
This can be done by contour ploughing, strip cropping, deep ploughing etc. at the time of
rain.
(c)

Increase surface roughness:

Roughen the land surface to reduce wind velocity and trap some of the moving soil
particles. This can be done by producing or bringing aggregates or clods at the surface
which are larger enough to resist the wind force. Stubb le mulch has also proven to be
effective in this manner.
(d)

Breaking wind velocity:

Strip cropping and alternate strips of cropped and fallowed land is effective in
reducing wind velocity, if done perpendicular to prevailing wind direction. Barriers such as
wind breaks and shelter belts are effective in reducing wind velocities and for trapping
drifting soil.
v A wind break is defined as any type of barrier for protection from winds, more
commonly made as mechanical or vegetative barriers for farm studs, gardens etc.
v A shelter belt is a longer barrier than a wind break and consists of a combination of
shrubs and trees intended for the conservation of soil and moisture and for the
protection of field crops.
Desertification:
Desertification is a p rocess in which the productive potential of soils under arid or
semiarid regions falls by atleast 10%. Moderate desertification is 10-25% reduction in
productivity, severe desertification causes 25-50% reduction while very severe
desertification results in more than 50% drop in productivity, and usually creates huge
gullies and sand-dunes. Desertification is characterized by devegetation and loss of
vegetation cover, depletion of groundwater, salinization and severe soil erosion.
Desertification leads to the conversion of croplands to desert like conditions in which
agricultural productivity falls. During the last 50 years about 900 million hectares of land
have undergone desertification over the world. This problem is especially severe in Sahel
region, just south of the Sahara in Africa. It is further estimated that if desertification
continues at the present rate then by 2010, it will affect such lands which are presently
occupied by 20% of the human population.
Causes of desertification:
Desertification may take place due to natural phenomena like climate change or
may be due to over-exploitation and mismanagement of land.
The major human activities responsible for desertification are:
(a)

Deforestation:

It is the process of cutting down the trees from forest. Upon deforestation, the
rainwater goes as runoff and relatively small amount of rainwater infiltrates into the soil to
nourish the plants or to recharge groundwater reservoir. Runoff water increases soil erosion,
loss of fertility and water as such.

53
(b)

Overgrazing:

The regions most seriously affected by desertification are the cattle producing areas
of the world as increasing cattle population heavily grazes in grassland or forests and
denudes the land area. The dry barren land becomes loose and more prone to soil erosion.
The dry barren land reflects more of the suns heat, changing wind patterns, driving away
moisture laden clouds leading to further desertification.
(c)

Mining and digging:

These activities are also responsible for loss of vegetation cover and denudation of
extensive land areas leading to desertification.
The UNEP estimates suggest that if we dont make sincere efforts now then very
soon 63% of rangelands, 60% of rain -fed croplands and 30% of irrigated croplands will
suffer from desertification on a world wide scale, adding 60,000 km2 of desert every year.
Waterlogging:
When free water is standing on the surface of soil, the soil is called waterlogged
soil. This condition usually arises under shallow ground water table due to seepage from the
adjoining canal or non -exploitation of the brackish groundwater and poor drainage of the
soil. Generally farmers apply flood irrigation to meet the water requirement of the crops.
Excess irrigation water, which is necessary for the leaching of salts beyond the root zone of
crops, may also sometimes causes waterlogging due to poor drainage condition of the soil.
Some soils are permanently waterlogged whereas some are seasonally waterlogged
especially during rainy season. Under waterlogged condition, plant growth and development
is restricted mainly due to the deficiency of oxygen as plant roots require oxygen for
respiration. Waterlogging is most often associated with the problem of soil salinity. The
damages caused by some major irrigation projects in terms of waterlogging and salinity is
given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Water logging and salinization caused due to some irrigation projects in
India
Irrigation Project

State

Indira Gandhi Canal

Rajasthan

Gandak

Bihar, Gujarat

Chambal

M.P., Rajasthan

Ram Ganga

U.P

Area affected
(thousand hectares)
Water logging
Salinity
42
29
211

400

98

40

195

352

Sri Ram Sagar

Andhra Pradesh
60
1
Source: Kaushik, Anubha and Kaushik, C.P. (2004). Perspectives in Environmental Studies.
New Age International Publishers
Salinity and sodicity problems:
Salt affected soils refer to the soils having excess of soluble salts and excess of
exchangeable sodium or both which adversely affect the growth of most of the crops.
Salinity refers to presences of excess of soluble salts in a soil and sodicity refers to
presences of excess of exchangeable sodium in a soil. Such problems commonly occur in
arid and semi arid regions of the world. In most of the salt affected soils the soluble salts
are primarily chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium. The other ions
that generally occur in minor amount are bicarbonate, carbonate, nitrate and potassium.

54
(i)

Sources of salts in salt affected soils:

The weathering of primary minerals is the direct as well as indirect source of all the
constituents of soluble salts found in soils. Saline soils usually occur in areas that receive
salts from other locations. The primary carrier of soluble salt is water. The other sources of
soluble salts are surface and ground waters, and oceans .
(ii)

Classification of salt affected soils:

The chemical criteria used for salt affected soils classification are electrical
conductivity of saturation extract (EC e ,), exchangeable sodium percentage of the soil and
pH of the saturated soil paste. Acco rding to USDA classification, the salt affected soils
have been classified into three categories viz: saline, saline -sodic and sodic. The limits of
the indices for the three categories of the salt affected soils are given in Table 4.4
Table 4.4: Classification of salt affected soils according to USDA classification
Index
Saline
>4

Categories
Saline-sodic
>4

Sodic
<4

ESP

<15

>15

>15

pH

<8.5

<8.5

>8.5

(iii)

Problems and reclamation of salinity and sodicity:

ECe (dS m- 1 )

The presence of excess of soluble salts in saline soils affects the plant growth due
to increase in osmotic potential of the soil solution. The reclamation of saline soils means
the removal of excess soluble salts from the root zone so that there is no injury to the crops
due to osmotic potential of the soil solution. The salts could be washed down by means of
flooding the saline soil by non -saline water. The depth of water needed to leach down the
excess soluble salt from the root zone mainly depends upon the initial salinity in the soil
profile and the permissible salinity level in the crop root zone.
The presence of excess of exchangeable sodium deteriorates the physical condition
due to dispersion of soil particles. The sodic soils can be reclaimed by replacing
exchangeable sodium by calcium followed by leaching. The source of calcium ions by
which sodium ions are replaced from the soil exchange complex may be in the form of
soluble salt. The most commonly used soluble salt is gypsum because it is easily available,
easy to apply and available in abundant amount.
Water conservation:
As water is most precious and essential resource, therefore, it should be conserved.
The following strategies can be adopted for conservation of water.
(i)

Reduce run-off:

Large amount of water is lost due to runoff on most of the soils. It can be reduced
by cultivation, terrace farming or surface water storage systems etc.

Contour cultivation: Small furrows and ridges across the slope trap rainwater
and allow more time for infiltration.

Terracing: It involves construction of a series of benches for catching the runoff

water.

Surface crop residues, tillage, mulch etc. help in reducing runoff by allowing
more water to penetrate into the soil.

55

Soil amendments: Amendments such as gypsum (CaSO 4 2H 2 O) when applied to

sodic soils improve soil permeability and reduce runoff.

Water storage structures like farm ponds built by individual farmers can be
useful measures for conserving water through reduction of runoff.

(ii)

Reducing evaporation losses :

This is more relevant in arid and semi -arid regions. Surface crop residues, tillage,
mulch etc. help in reducing reduction of evaporation of water from the soil surface.
iii)

iv)

Reducing irrigation losses:

Use of lined canals to reduce seepage

Irrigation in early morning or late evening to reduce evaporation losses.

Sprinkling irrigation and drip irrigation to conserve water by 30-50 %.

Growing crop varieties having less water requirement

Increasing block pricing:

The consumer has to pay a proportionality high bill with higher use of water, this will
help in economic use of water by the consumers.
Rain water harvesting:
Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the groundwater by collecting and
storing rainwater. This can be achieved by constructing special water-harvesting structures
like dug wells, percolation pits, check dams etc.
The annual average rainfall in India is 1200 mm, however, in most places it is not a
wide spread rather it is concentrated over the rainy season. It is an amazing fact that
Cherapunji, the place receiving the annual rainfall as 11000 mm still suffers from water
scarcity. The water flows with runoff and there is little vegetation to check the runoff and
allow infiltration.
The main objectives of rainwater harvesting are to:
v prevent flooding
v minimize runoff loss
v meet the increasing demands of water
v raise the water table by recharging ground water
v minimize groundwater contamination

Rainwater can be mainly harvested by:

v recharging the groundwater using Aquifer Storage Recovery technology
v storing in reservoirs
v constructing pits, dug -wells or check dams on small rivulets.

Watershed management:
In sloppy lands, including hilly terrain, heavy rainfall causes damage in the lower
catchment areas due to uncontrolled runoff water from the upper areas. It is, therefore,
necessary to protect the upper catchment areas through the watershed approach.
The watershed is the land area from which water drains under gravity to a common
out let or a drainage channel. Thus, watershed is a delineated area with a well defined
topographic boundary and one water outlet. The waters hed may be of different sizes ranging
from few square kilometers to few thousand square kilometers. The watershed involves

56
complex interactions of soil, land form, vegetation, land use activities and water. People
and animals are an integral part of a watershed having mutual impacts on each other.
Main objectives of watershed approach for the management of land, water and
vegetation are:

To establish a watershed as a basis to conserve degraded lands.

To develop and demonstrate location specific technologies for soil and water
conservation and sustainable crop production.

To provide the fodder, fruits and fuel resources through alternate land use system.

To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and landslides.

For the steep hill slopes , the following aspects are very important for proper
management of watersheds.

Adequate protection of land against soil erosion using soil conservation measures.

Maximum retention of rainfall within the area.

Storage of excess runoff water and its subsequent utilization for irrigation and
fishery

Based on the size of catchment of the watershed, the land may be put under
different uses such as agriculture, horticulture, agri-horticulture, agri-horti-silvi-pastural
and livestock based systems, etc.
A watershed affects every individual as it is directly involved in crop production;
water supply for irrigation, power generation and transportation; sedimentation of
reservoirs and erosion; floods and droughts.
(i )

Watershed degradation:

The watersheds usually degrade due to uncontrolled and unplanned land use
activities. Overgrazing, deforestation, mining, industrialization, shifting cultivation, fires,
erosion and ignorance of local people have been responsible for degradation of various
watersheds.
(ii)

Watershed Management Practices:

Management of watershed is not an individual activity. It involves lot of funding.

Therefore, Government of India included watershed management approach in a number of
progra mmes during Fifth Year Plan. The practices of conservation and development of land
and water have been undertaken according to their suitability for peoples benefit as well as
sustainability. Measures undertaken include:

(a)

Water harvesting:

In low rainfall areas, proper storage of water during rainy season was done for its
use during dry seasons. Water harvesting helps in moderation of floods in high rainfall
areas.
(b)

Afforestation and agro -forestry:

Afforestation and agro -forestry play a very important role in the development of a
watershed. The plantation helps to prevent soil erosion and retention of moisture. In high
rainfall areas woody trees are grown in between crops to substantially reduce the run off
and loss of fertile soil. Generally, trees like Eucalyptus and Leucaena and grasses like
Chrysopogon are grown along with maize or wheat. The suitable trees in agroforestry are
Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Tectona grandis (Teak) and Acacia nilotica (Kikar).

57
(c)

Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion and run off losses:

Several mechanical measures like terracing, bunding, bench terracing, no till

farming, contour cropping, strip cropping etc. are used to minimize runoff and soil erosion
particularly on the slopes of watersheds .
(d)

Scientific mining:
Due to improper mining, the hills lose stability resulting in landslides, rapid erosion

etc.
(e)

Public participation:

Peoples involvement is the key to the success of any watershed management

programme. Peoples cooperation as well as participation has to be ensured. Local people
must be motivated for protecting a freshly planted area and maintaining a water harvesting
structure implemented by the government or some other agency through campaigning or
paying certain incentives to them. Example of successful watershed management is at
Sukhomajri Panchkula, Haryana through active participation of the local people.

58
FOREST RESOURCES
Ravi Kumar
Department of Forestry
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004

Forests are one of the most important natural resources on this earth. Covering the
earth like a green blanket these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but
also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. Of the to tal
geographical area of India, 22.74 per cent is forest as against a minimum of 33 per cent
forest covers prescribed under National Forest Policy. Environmentally, the forests are very
important.
Chandogya Upanishad, a book thousands of years old says, Water is the essence of
earth and plants are essence of water. Forests are one of the worlds most abundant
resources. It is estimated that forests covered one quarter of the Earths entire land area in
1950 and one -fifth in 1980. Forest is the plant community predominantly of trees or other
woody vegetation, occupying an extensive area of land. In its natural state, a forest remains
in a relatively fixed self-regulated condition over a long period of time. Climate, soil and
the topography of the region de termine the characteristic trees of a forest.
Importance of forest resources:
(1)

The plants only possess the capacity to prepare the food which is required for the
living things. The herbivorous animals are directly and the carnivorous animals are
indirectly dependent upon the plants. The fruits, leaves, branches and roots of
plants are used as food. The life of many kinds of birds and animals is dependant on
the plants only.

(2)

Many kinds of medicines are made from the plants. In the modern age, a lot of
research is being carried on the medicinal value of the plants. These plants help to
protect the health of the living things e.g. neem, amla, hirda, aloevera, etc.

(3)

Some of the plants purify the air e.g. basil and neem. Some of the plants absorb the
toxic gases from the air. Therefore, it is very beneficial to plant trees around the
large-scale industries.

(4)

The roots of trees hold the soil together. Thus, forests help to prevent soil erosion.

(5)

Forest helps to maintain the amount of humidity to a desirable proportion. The

water absorbed by roots of plants is released by the leaves and mixes up with the
air. This helps to maintain the proportion of humidity in the air. When the clouds
pass through such humid territories, the increased amount of vapour causes rainfall.
Thus, forests cause sufficient rainfall.

(6)

We find different kinds of animals living in the forests. Since the forests have
protective atmosphere, we find large number of animals in the forests. The living
things perform an important role in the food chain. So, it is dangerous if any one of
the animals becomes extinct e.g. if the frogs become extinct, many birds and snakes
would have to starve. When snakes become extinct, the birds like eagles and hawks,
etc. would have to starve. Forests help to protect food chains.

(7)

The leaves and other parts of plants fall on the soil. They get decomposed and mix
up with the soil. This leads to the growth of many bacteria in the soil. It also
increases the fertility of the soil. It helps to incre ase the proportion of organic
matter in the soil.

59
(8)

Forests help to protect from intense temperature. In equatorial countries, forests are
essential to maintain the temperature at a particular level.

(9)

Forests are renewable resources. We can get permanent supply of lac, gum, wax,
catechu, colour and wood from them.

(10)

Forests help to control the floods.

(11)

In the day time, plants prepare their food with the help of carbon -dioxide. In this
process, they release oxygen into air. Plants help to maintain the proper proportion
of oxygen into air. The places, where oxygen is available in plentiful proportion,
are favourable for maintaining good health. People feel happy to work in such
places.

(12)

Some industries are entirely dependent upon forests e.g. wood -cutting, paper
industries, fruit collection, tinned fruit juice and kernel, wax, lac, gum and honey collection, etc.

(13)

Abundance of trees help for sustenance of animal life. The places which have large
numbers of trees and animals are developed into sanctuaries. The tourists frequently
visit these places. Thus, tourism development takes place which helps to bring in
foreign currency.

(14)

The dense forests near sea -shore help the ship -building industries. This promotes
international trade.

Types of Forests:
Forests are one of the most valuable natural resources. The country comprises of
four well-defined relief features, namely, the great Himalayan mountain ranges, the Indo Gangetic plains including Thar desert region, the Southern peninsula and the Coastal plains.
The climate is of tropical monsoon type with three distinct seasons. Because of wide range
of climatic variation, the composition of flora and fauna varies considerably. India is one of
the 12-mega diversity countries having vast variety of flora and fauna commanding 7 per
cent of worlds biodiversity. It supports 16 major forest types (Champion and Seth, 1968)
varying from alpine pasture in Himalayas to temperate, subtropical, tropical forests, and
mangroves in the coastal areas.
Forests by vegetation type
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Vegetation Type

Area (million
ha)
4.5
1.9
23.3
0.7
29.4
5.2
0.1
0.3
3.7
0.2
1.6
2.6
0.2

Tropical wet evergreen forest

Tropical semi -evergreen forest
Tropical moist deciduous forest
Littoral and swamp forest
Tropical dry deciduous forest
Tropical thorn forest
Tropical dry evergreen forest
Sub-tropical broadleaved hill forest
Sub-tropical pine forest
Sub-tropical dry evergreen forest
Montane wet temperate forest
Himalayan moist temperate forest
Himalayan dry temperate forest
Sub-alpine
Moist alpine forest
3.3
Alpine forest
Total
77.0
Source: National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) India, 1999.

Percentage of
Forest Area
5.8
2.5
30.3
0.9
38.2
6.7
0.1
0.4
5.0
0.2
2.0
3.4
0.2
4.3
100

60
The recorded forest area in the country is 778,229km2 (or 23.68% of the countrys
geographic area) comprising of 423,311 km2 of Reserved Forest (12.88% of countrys
geographic area), 217,245 km2 of Protected Forest (6.61%) and 127,881 km2 of Unclassed
Forest (3.89%).
Forest Area in States and Union Territories
State/UT

Total
geographical
area
Area
Rank

Forest and tree cover

Area

Per cent

Forest Cover

Area

( i n k m2 )
Rank

(per
cent)
23.20

Rank

Andhra
2,75,069
4 56,539
20.55
63,814
2
Pradesh
Arunachal
83,743
14
68,382
8166
51,540
61.55
6
Pradesh
Assam
78,438
16
28,761
3667
27,018
34.45
11
Bihar
94,163
12
7,178
762
6,078
6.45
24
Chhattisgarh
1,35,191
10
62,721
46.39
59,285
43.85
4
Delhi
1,483
30
268
18.08
85
5.73
31
Goa
3,702
29
2,292
61.91
1,224
33.07
29
Gujarat
1,96,022
7
25,532
13.03
18,999
9.69
15
Haryana
44,212
20
2,932
6.63
1,551
3.51
28
Himachal
55,673
17
14,844
26.66
37,033
66.52
8
Pradesh
J&K
2,22,236
6
25,093
11.29
20,230
9.10
14
Jharkhand
79,714
15
27,728
34.78
23,605
29.61
12
Karnataka
1,91,791
8
41,820
21.80
38,724
20.19
7
Kerala
38,863
21
17,480
44.98
11,221
28.87
20
Madhya
3,08,245
2
83,679
27.15
95,221
30.89
1
Pradesh
Maharashtra
3,07,713
3
56,185
18.26
61,939
20.13
3
Manipur
22,327
23
17,355
77.73
17,418
78.01
16
Meghalaya
22,429
22
17,191
76.65
9,496
42.34
21
Mizoram
21,081
24
18,560
88.04
15,935
75.59
18
Nagaland
16,579
25
13,826
83.39
8,629
52.05
22
Orissa
1,55,707
9
54,747
35.16
58,135
37.34
5
Punjab
50,362
19
3,188
6.33
3,059
6.07
27
Rajasthan
3,42,239
1
24,464
7.15
32,494
9.49
10
Sikkim
7,096
28
3,284
46.28
5,765
81.24
26
Tamil Nadu
1,30,058
11
27,634
21.25
22,871
17.59
13
Tripura
10,486
26
8,209
78.29
6,293
60.01
25
Uttar Pradesh
2,40,928
25
21,833
9.06
16,826
6.98
17
Uttranchal
53,483
18
25,036
46.81
34,662
64.81
9
West Bengal
88,752
13
14,074
15.86
11,879
13.38
19
Andaman &
8,249
27
6,997
84.82
7,171
86.93
23
Nicobar
Chandigarh
114
33
23
20.28
32
28.45
32
Dadra & Nagar
491
31
260
52.95
203
41.34
30
Haveli
Daman and Diu
112
34
14
12.80
1
0.63
33
Lakshdweep
32
35
25
76.56
0
0.00
34
Pondicherry
480
32
75
15.42
0
0.00
35
Total
32,87,263
778,229
23.68 7,68,436
23.38
Source: State of Forest Report -2003, Forest Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Dehradun

61
Problems relating to forests:
For man, forests have been a source of recreation and the dev elopment of his
culture and civilization. Man has overexploited the forest resources in order to develop a
better life. The irresponsible behaviour of human being has created many problems related
to forest resources. These problems can be stated as follows :
1.

Deforestation:

In many countries in the world, due to ignorance and irresponsible behaviour, there
is deforestation for the fulfillment of basic human needs and grazing of animals. Prior to
industrial revolution, 40 per cent of land was covered by forests. Now-a-days, only 26 per
cent of land is covered with the forest.
2.

Clearance for roads and dams:

Clearance for roads and dams has directly resulted in deforestation. Often, several
development encourages timber exploitation which opens the fo rest for agricultural
settlement and fuelwood salvaging. About half of all logged tropical forests are eventually
used for farming.
3.

Shifting cultivation:

Shifting cultivation or Jhum farming is a 9000-year old practice. It is also known as

slash and burn method of farming. Annually about 5000 km of forest is cleared for this type
of farming. This type of cultivation is always meant to fulfill local needs or onsite demands
to meet the requirements of the cultivating groups or villagers nearby. This method causes
extreme deforestation. This leads to the destruction of rare plants on a large-scale.
4.

Clearance in Amazon forests:

Amazon forest consists of medicinal and rare plants. These plants are useful for
making medicines. The owners of medicine factories purchase the wood chopped down by
the tribals and other people. This leads to the destruction of rate medicinal plants. If the
dense forest in this region is developed, we will have to face the serious problems in future.
5.

Forest fire:

Forest, sometimes may suffer from forest fire. In fact, some of the forest fires are
deliberate burning of trees by smugglers. Often with the knowledge or even connivance of
the forest guard, the trees are set on fire. Late on, this timber is auctioned as burnt t rees at a
very low price and the smugglers buy the same.
6.

Mining operations:

Mining operations have a serious impact on forest areas. Large areas are clearfelled and laid barren as a result of open cast mining of mica, coal, manganese, limestone,
etc. This results in turning of forest into pastures.
Deforestation - causes and consequences:
(i)

Loss of potential commodities and services

v Industrial timber
v Wide assortment of non -timber products and services

(ii)

Decreased fuelwood availability

v Increased time and money costs of ostentation
v Negative effects on health and nutrition.

62

(iii)

Impacts on agriculture
v Erosion and soil compaction reduce on-site productivity.
v Irregular water flow jeopardizes lowlands irrigation.
v Desertification pushes back cropping and grazing

(iv)

Impacts on downstream infrastructure and human life

v Sedimentation fills irrigation systems, canals, reservoirs.
v Floods and landslides damage roads, bridges, buildings, crops and fishing.
v Floods claim personal property and human lives.

(v)

Impacts on natural habitats and biological resources

v Reductions and extinctions of genetic resources.
v Threats to domesticated plant and animal breeding.
v Lessened opportunities for research and education.

(vi)

Negative impacts on indigenous cultures

v Loss of lands for hunting, fishing, gathering, farming.
v Vulnerability to diseases and human rights abuses.
v Loss of traditional ecological knowledge.

(vii)

Impacts on climate

v Release of carbon into atmosphere

v Changes in local and regional precipitation patterns.
Deforestation has far reaching consequences, which may be outlined as follows:
(1)

It threatens the existence of many wildlife species du e to destruction of their natural

habitat.

(2)

Biodiversity is lost and along with that genetic diversity is eroded.

(3)

Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.

(4)

Problems of soil erosion and loss of soil fertility increase.

(5)

In hilly areas, it often leads to landslides.

Mining, Road Construction and Developmental Projects:

Most mining work has been unscientific with no environmental protection. There
have developed large tracts that lost productivity. There have been water and air pollution,
despoliation of land and deforestation, noise and ground vibration problems, etc. Mined
areas are to be reclaimed for agriculture, forestry, fisheries and recreation. There exist
standard methods for reclamation. During last 20-30 years, a number of mining operations
have been started in the country. These affected forest and cultivated land areas. Such
operations have been taken mainly in U. P., Bihar, M.P., Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The
use of land of large-scale for townships, communication, excavation and transport affected
the socio -economic and ecology of these areas. Ecological problems developed in coal mine
areas in Ranchi, Hazaribad (Bihar), Bina Project (U.P.) and Singrauli Complex at Gorbi
(U.P.) and Jayant (M.P.). In Ranchi, several hundred sq. km of land has been converted to
bad lands. In Singrauli complex, forests and hillocks have been erased due to construction
of high power transmission lines, roads and rail tracks. Establishment of other factories as
cement and super thermal power station around coal mines have resulted into environment
degradation.

63

There are two successful cases of reclamation of mined areas in India. These are
Neyveli Lignite Corporation Ltd. in Tamil Nadu and stone Quarries of Sayaji Iron Works in
Guja rat. There is a need to have legal protection and to revise the Mines and Minerals
(Regulations and Development) Act. 1957 (MMRD Act) to bring it in the environmental
concern.
Mining is a biotic factor in which man is exploiting the resources of nature,
especially the minerals. This activity is done for various purposes such as mineral
extraction, road construction and major hydroelectric projects. This activity has reduced the
mineral resource itself and at the same time has caused considerable adverse changes in the
ecosystem. The extraction of minerals and material requires removal of vegetal cover, soil
mantle and excavating overlying rock masses (overburden),which commonly exceed the
volume of material extracted. Some of the important minerals, which are extracted by
mining, include limestone, dolomite, phosphorite, gypsum, graphite and magnesite.
Surface or open cast mining causes as considerable loss to vegetation and soil cover
particularly in the Himalayan areas. Mining affects the distribution of plant species, reduce
the vegetation cover and habitat and causes the loss of soil cover and increases the soil
erosion. This activity sometimes results into the instability of slopes in the hilly areas,
landslide and sliting up of rivers. The abandoned mi nes are invaded by exotic species such
as Lantana camara, Euphorbia royleana, Eupatorium species etc. These lands ultimately
convert into wastelands or highly degraded lands. Mining activity also affects the survival
of native species such as orchids and s ome medicinal plants.
Construction of dam, power stations, roads, highways, railways, opencast coal and
lime stone mines and similar other projects. Hydroelectric dams in the name of development
destroy thousand of square kilometer of tropical forests. Th e process of filling the
reservoirs may drown large tracks of forests, displace people and kill wildlife. Although,
dams are intended to provide inexpensive electricity many of them are economic failures
because of lack of environmental planning.
Measures for conservation of the forests:
Forests play an important role in maintaining the environmental balance. So, this
factor is very important and it must be conservated. This is duty of every human being. Man
has exploited the forest resources for his selfish needs. Now, it becomes necessary to
protect these forests. To conservate these resources, some programmes are to be managed.
Scientific management of the forest has become a necessity in modern times. The measures
for conservation of forests can be given as follows:
(1)

Different plant species can be planted for different purposes such as timber,
fuelwood, forest produce, soil erosion control, watershed protection, dune
stabilization and industrial purposes.

(2)

The forest management strategy should aim at maintaining and improving

sustainable supply of goods and services to meet the needs of urban and rural poor
in such a way that annual or periodical removal of forest produce may not endanger
the further yields.

(3)

The existing forests must be protected and the degraded forests must be restored.
These areas should be located in the water regimes in different areas. No
commercial exploitation can be allowed in these areas and protection from fuel
starved, rural poor and fodder-starved cattle should be provided. The forest should
also be protected from fires.

(4)

Silviculture practice of conservation has become important in modern times. It

causes faster rate of development of the forest. Artificial forests of single dominant
species can be maintained.

64
(5)

The conservation and protection strategy should also include public participation to
save the forests from degradation.

(6)

Community forestry programmes can be introduced. The farmers must be

encouraged to plant trees on their own farms by distributing free or subsidized
seedlings.

(7)

Strict laws are to be passed against wood -cutting, hunting of birds and animals, etc.

(8)

To conserve the forest resources, to save the forest from wild fire and natural
calamities, etc. it is necessary to conduct regular survey of animals and plants in the
forest.

65
FOOD RESOURCES

R. K. Nanwal, Ved Pal Singh, A. S. Bangarwa and K. P. Singh

De partment of Agronomy
CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar 125 004 (India)

We have thousands of edible plants and animals over the world out of which only
about three dozen types constitute the major food of humans. The main food resources
include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley, oats, cassava, sweet potato, sugarcane, pulses,
sorghum, millet, about twenty or so common fruits and vegetables, milk, meat, fish and
seafood. Amongst these rice, wheat and maize are the major grains, about 1500 million
metric tons of which are grown each year, which is about half of all the agricultural crops.
About 4 billion people in the developing countries have wheat and rice as their staple food.
Meat and milk are mainly consumed by more developed nations of No rth America,
Europe and Japan who consume about 80 per cent of the total. Fish and seafood contribute
about 70 million metric tons of high quality protein to the worlds diet. But there are
indications that we have already surpassed sustainable harvests of fish from most of the
worlds oceans.
Food supply:
Overall, the global food situation has improved over the past 20 years, but poverty
is still widespread. Poverty remains the principal challenge for sustainable production of
sufficient healthy food for the worlds population. There are major differences between
countries, and even within a country dietary differences can be large. The problem of
hunger has been solved for most people, however, 800 million people remain undernourished. Highest number is in Asia. Human dietary needs range from 8-17 MJ day-1
(2000 -4000 kcal y - 1 ) depends on weight, age, sex, reproductive status (pregnancy, lactation)
and physical activity. In Africa, the number of under-nourished people is increasing. A
varied diet usually satisfies the need for proteins, minerals and essential components such
as vitamins. However, vitamin and micronutrient deficiencies are common in many
countries. Globally, at least 40 million children are vitamin A-deficient, of whom 13
million already have eye damage and some go blind. Iodine deficiency disorders (e.g.
goitre) affect around 600 million people. Iron deficiency occurs in all countries: more than
2000 million people are anaemic, the majority living in Asia. The condition is most
prevalent among women, especially those who are pregnant.
Worldwide, the cereals are the most important food crops. Their production in
developing countries has steadily increased. Other important crops are sugarcane,
sugarbeet, potato, cassava, sweet potato and soybean. It is of crucial importance to stabilize
supplies and prevent shortages. Developing countries have, on the whole, increased their
net importation of food. The annual growth rate in world agricultural production was 2.3%
in the period 1970-1999 and is expected to be 1.8% during 1988/90-2010. For developing
countries, the numbers are 3.3 and 2.6%, respectively, in the same periods. Three-quarters
of the increase in agricultural production was due to increased yields, and a quarter to the
increase in harvested area. For Africa, the main increase was due to an expansion of the
cultivated area. About 30% of world cereal production is used as feed for animals.
Production of oil seeds serves for humans and animals, and mostly consumed in developed
countries .
World food production problems:
Food production is a function of crop yield, number of crops per year, and
cultivated area. A sustainable food production implies that available resources are used as
efficiently and equitably as possible, resources in t his respect meaning:

66
(i)

natural resources the availability of suitable agricultural land, fresh water,

nutrients and energy;

(ii)

technology genetic improvements of crops and animals, plant protection,

irrigation, machinery and equipment, access to cheap and reliable transport;

(iii)

knowledge its generation, maintenance, transfer and adaptation into agricultural

management practices. Climate does put a ceiling on productivity, but is largely
beyond human control.

Problems:

Increased productivity has not been achieved without social or ecological costs.

Pollution of surface and subsurface waters by agri-chemicals, their residues and

contaminants, rendering them unsafe or unsuitable for other uses, and disturbing
natural systems.

Contamination of products with residues of agri-chemicals rendering them unsafe

for certain for consumption.

Necessitating farms to be larger and less labour intensive in order to produce at

competitive prices.

Making agri-chemicals a significant part of the cost of production and thereby an

economic strain in seasons of low yield or low returns.

Providing inputs that allow farming to extend to fragile land, increasing the
competition with nature conservation and, when poorly maintained, leading to
problems of soil erosion and siltation.

Salinization through failure of provision for drainage.

Impact of overgrazing and agriculture:

A.

Overgrazing:

Livestock wealth plays a crucial role in the rural life of our country. India leads in
live stock population in the world. The huge population of livestock needs to be fed and the
grazing lands or pasture areas are not adequate. Very often we find that the live stock
grazing on a particular piece of grassland or pasture surpass the carrying capacity.
Impact of overgrazing:
Land degradation:
Overgrazing removes the vegetal cover over the soil and the exposed soil gets
compacted due to which the operative soil depth declines. So the roots cannot go much
deep into the soil and adequate soil moisture is not available. Organic recycling also
d e c lines in the ecosystem because not enough detritus or litter remains on the soil to be
decomposed. The humus content of the soil decreases and overgrazing leads to organically
poor, dry, compacted soil. Due to trampling by cattle the soil loses infiltration capacity,
which reduces percolation of water into the soil and as a result of this more water gets lost
from the ecosystem along with surface run off. Thus overgrazing leads to multiple actions
resulting in loss of soil structure, hydraulic conductivity and soil fertility.

67
Soil erosion:
Due to overgrazing by cattle, the cover of vegetation almost gets removed from the
land. The soil becomes exposed and gets eroded by the action of strong wind, rainfall etc.
The grass roots are very good binders of soil. When the grasses are removed, the soil
becomes loose and susceptible to the action of wind and water.
Loss of useful species:
Overgrazing adversely affects the composition of plant population and their
regeneration capacity. The original grass land consists of good quality grasses and herbs
with high nutritive value. Then the livestock graze upon them heavily, even the root stocks
which carry the reserve food for regeneration get destroyed. Now some other species
appear in their place. These secondary species are hardier and are less nutritive in nature.
As a result of overgrazing vast areas in Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are
getting invaded by thorny bushes, weeds etc. of low fodder value. Thus overgrazing makes
the grazing land loose its regenerating capacity and once good quality pasture land gets
converted into an ecosystem with poor quality thorny vegetation.
B.

Agriculture:

In the early years of human existence on this earth, man was just a h unter-gatherer
and was quite like other animal species. Some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago he took
agriculture by cultivating plants of his own choice. He used the practice of Slash and burn
cultivation of shifting cultivation, which is still prevalent in many tribal areas, as in the
North East Hills of India. The type of agriculture practiced these days is very different
from the traditional ones and their outputs in terms of yield as well as their impacts or the
environment show lots of differences.
Trad itional agriculture and its impacts:
It usually involves a small plot, simple tools, naturally available water, organic
fertilizer and a mix of crops. It is more near to natural conditions and usually it results in
low production. It is still practiced by about half the global population.
The main impacts of this type of agriculture are as follows :Deforestation:
The slash and burn of trees in forests to clear the land for cultivation and frequent
shifting result in loss of forest cover.
Soil erosi on:
Clearing of forest cover exposes the soil to wind, rain and storms, thereby resulting
in loss of top fertile layer of soil.
Depletion of nutrients:
During slash and burn the organic matter in the soil gets destroyed and most of the
nutrients are taken up by the crops within a short period, thus making the soil nutrient poor
which makes the cultivars shift to another area.
Modern agriculture and its impacts:
It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high -tech
equipments and lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation
water. The food production has increased tremendously, evidenced by green revolution .
However, it also gave rise to several problematic off-shoots as in chapter five.

68
Conservation of natural resources - role of individuals:
The fast growth in agricultural production and allied industries that took place in
the past, has led to several new challenges, making further growth possible only if these
challenges are met appropriately and timely. Degradation of land and water resources, loss
of plant biodiversity, shift of agricultural land for non -agricultural uses, environmental
pollution and resultant climate change have all led to a fatigue in agricultural production
and widening gap between rich and poor are important post-green revolution issues
threatening food security.
Notwithstanding the merits and/or demerits of current technologies, the fact
remains that there is no time to relax. Due predictions, as made by the western world in
mid-sixties on impending food crisis in developing countries and consequent potential for
famines and starvation deaths, have again started coming. The Washin gton based
Worldwatch Institute had predicted in 1995 that China and India would face a serious food
shortage and India alone has to import 45 million tonnes of food grains by the year 2030.
Time has come to prove these predictions false once again through conversion of
weaknesses into strengths and threats into opportunities by adopting appropriate policies
and R & D strategies leading the nation to a Second Green Revolution.
Shrinking agricultural land:
The per capita availability of agricultural land in India has decreased from 0.46 ha
in 1951 to 0.26 ha in 1981 and further decreasing to 0.15 ha in 2000 AD as against the
average of 0.6 ha at global level. Number of persons per hectare of net cropped area has
increased from about 3 in 1951 to 5 in 1990, 5 to 6.5 in 2000 and estimated to increase 8
persons in 2025. The situation of rapidly declining land: man ratio is likely to further
worsen owing to competitive demands for food, fibre, fuel, fodder, timber and
developmental activities such as, urbanization and industrialization, mining, brick kilns,
road construction, reservoirs, etc.
Land degradation:
Land degradation refers to decrease in soil productivity including its present and
potential capabilities through deterioration of physical, chemical and biological features.
Human induced degradation can be either displacement of soil material, mainly by water
and wind, or soil deterioration resulting from salt accumulation, loss of nutrients or through
physical processes including waterlogging.
Out of the total geographical area of 329 million ha, 187 million ha representing
57% presently suffers from various kinds of degradation problems. While water erosion is
the major cause contributing to loss of top soil (132 million ha) and terrain deformation
(16.4 million ha), wind erosion is dominant in western region resulting in 13 million ha
degraded land.
Water crises:
The challenge of growing water scarcity is becoming increasingly serious due to
wasteful use of the already developed water resources. Siltation of reservoirs is causing
significant loss of the created potential at the rate of about 1 lakh hectares annually. Most
irrigation projects are operating at a low efficiency in the range of 30-40 per cent, losing
rest of the water during conveyance from the reservoirs to the fields. Water gets misused by
farmers for various reasons, including lack of realization of the cost of water, lack of
concern for damage and deprivation to the downstream farmers from the overuse of water in
the upstream, disregard to ill consequence of waterlogging and salinization, and lack of
access to water management technologies which could enhance the efficiency of irrigation
and water use.

69
In tube well irrigated area, there has been an overexploitation of ground water
leading to decline in water table in many areas of the northwestern plains. A critical
appraisal of existing rainwater availability shows:

India receives 400 million ha m of rain water annually.

Nearly 160 million ha m falls on agricultural land.

Around 24 million ha ma equivalent rainwater is available for harvesting in smallscale water harvesting structures.

Nearly 186 million ha mt. goes to rivers as run -off.

About one -fourth of the total annual rainfall is received before or after the cropping
season.

Climate change:
Global warming owing to emission of green house gases has emerged as an
important issue in last two decades. The six major gases responsible for global warming are
carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), nitrous oxide (NO 2 ), hydrofluorcarbons (HFCs),
perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluorides (HSFs). There is no ambiguity in the
data that since 1860, concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen 30% i.e.
from 280 ppm to 365 ppm. It is now projected that south Asia might have an increase in
temperature from 0.1 to 0.3 C by 2010 and 0.4 to 2.4 C by 2070. The sea levels are also
expected to rise between 15 to 94 cm over the next century, thus increasing the
vulnerability of coastal low-lying areas. Similarly, d ecrease in stratospheric ozone has been
observed for winter months between 1969 and 1988 in the range of 3.4 to 5.1 per cent
between 30 N and 64 N. Ozone depletion may lead to increase UV radiation with adverse
impact on earths environment and mankind.
Agriculture has both a cause and effect relationship to climate change. Reports
indicate the contribution of methane emission from submerged rice paddies and
mechanization in agriculture towards emission of green house gases. Systematic database on
t h i s aspect would be extremely necessary while setting future research strategies. In the
context of global climate change, agricultural scientists need to answer following questions:
q

Does Indian agriculture contribute towards green house gases?

If so, what is the emission level of these gases?

Do we have quantified data on CO 2 , CH4 and NO2 emission?

q
q

How could these gases be reduced from agricultural systems?

What is the likely effect of global warming on agricultural production?

Future Strategies: A new paradigm shift:

Eco -approach:
More than half of the required growth rate in yields has to come from research
efforts by developing location -specific low input use and eco -friendly technologies. In this
context, eco-regional planning assumes great significance. Research activities have to be
upscaled within the eco -regions and by developing R & D priorities between and within
e c o -regions. Success of this approach would necessarily depend on harmony between
priority setting at the eco-region level and effective execution at the local levels. More
specifically, the approach involves the following important aspects:
v Characterization and inventorisation of on -farm and off-farm resources in different
e c o -regions.

70
v Identification and prioritization of researchable issues (especially non-sustainability
parameters) to plan sustainable agricultural strategies and technology development.
v Development of mecha nism for collaborative research on the prioritized issues
involving NARs, IARCs, ARIs and other international organizations, donors and
NGOs.
v Development of methodology for synthesising research into application tools for
specific geographic domains within the eco-region; and
v Development of a system for impact assessment in the eco -region according to
predetermined sustainability criteria.

Land use planning involving GIS and simulation modelling techniques have to be
blended with this approach, which will offer agro -technologies tailored to match the
resources and needs of the regions with a commitment to improve the productivity of scarce
resources, while protecting the quality of soil and water for prosperity.
Precision farming practices:
Every shrinking resource base, increased cost of production and ecological
concerns necessitate for precision farming, which refers to most efficient use of inputs and
agronomic practices. In other words, use of inputs as per requirement. In this context, it is
pertinent to mention that application of fertilizer nutrients on the basis of soil test value
will not only economise on the cost of fertilizer application but will also minimize soil
deterioration. Land levelling and root zone wetting through micro -irrigation system might
lead to efficient use of scarce water resources. Also use of sprinkler and drip irrigation
systems would not only enhance water use efficiency but would also enable effective use of
nutrients for higher crop productivity. Thus, precision agriculture needs to be promoted in a
big way.
Integrated nutrient management (INM):
Integrated nutrient supply refers to supplementary as well as complementary use of
organic manures, crop residues, green manures, biofertilizers, and rural and industrial waste
along with chemical fertilizers for meeting nutrient demand of agricultural production
systems. The degeneration of soil fertility owing to over mining of nutrients and inadequate
replenishment through fertilizers can only be curbed through adoption of INM technology.
China has successfully sustained the productivity level of rice-wheat -system for over a
century by meeting over 50% of N requirement through organic sources as against our
experience with same cropping system by using chemical fertilizers within three decades,
which convincingly shows the importance of conjunctive use of organic sources with
inorganic fertilizers. Models of int egrated nutrient management for different agro ecological regions and cropping systems should be developed to impact guidance on
rational and efficient nutritional use.
Critical analysis of available information shows that problems of degradation of soil
health and ground water pollution are caused due to imbalanced fertilizer use, inadequate
use of organic manures and residues, high losses and low use efficiency, and that no
verifiable evidences exist to prove fertilizer use per se as a cause of such prob lems. Thus,
while responding to the alarm of ecological security raised by environmentalists on the
basis of experiences of some highly industrialised countries in temperate and humid
climates using excessive amounts of fertilizers, we should not loose sig ht of our food
security concerns. It would be wise to talk about sustainability at reasonably higher
productivity levels in developing countries like ours, where sub -optimal fertilizer use
continues to be major constraint to low crop yields.

71

Integrated pest management (IPM):

Indiscriminate use of pesticides adversely affects the ecological balance resulting
in pest resurgence, pesticide resistance, pollution of environment and accumulation of
pesticides residue at toxic levels in the food chain. It is increasingly evident that chemical
pesticides alone can not provide desired protection against all pests. Integrated pest
management (IPM) technology involving all available pest control measures, namely, host
plant resistance, pest-specific bio -control agents, botanical pesticides, use of botanical
agents, and cultural practices, need to be propagated in the interest of cost-effectiveness and
ecological security. Several studies, both on-farm and off-farm, have revealed the
importance of IPM approach in improving both the productivity and profitability especially
through reduction of costs on inputs.
Diversification of agriculture:
Diversification in agriculture assumes significance with both ecological and
balanced nutrition viewpoints. The present agricultural scenario, especially in irrigated
areas, is dominated by monoculture of certain crops as more than 80% of our food comes
from about 10 crop species. Crop diversification may prove to be of paramount importance
in mitigating the problems arising on account of monoculture e.g., diversifying rice-wheat
system with crops such as berseem, mustard, sugarcane, etc. has been found to effectively
minimize Phalaris minor infestation, while inclusion of legumes for grain, fodder or green
manure impro ves the fertility and soil physical health. A historical retrospection reveals
that new crops with economic viability have always made dent as they spread faster and
adopt well due to adoption of proper technology packages. Glaring examples of crop
diversification are: rice in Punjab and Haryana, wheat in West Bengal, groundnut in
Gujarat, soybean in Madhya Pradesh and winter maize in Bihar. Sunflower, which hitherto
found a niche in south India, is rapidly expanding in northern states as well. Further,
c u ltivation of pulses and oilseeds in rice-fallows of eastern India, and French bean in
northern plains are likely to make sizeable difference. Emphasis needs to be laid on
identification of promising crops and cropping systems with higher and stable yield and/or
profit in different agro -ecological regions for need -based diversification of the existing
production systems.
Diversification is also critical to overcome the problems that are currently
associated with the most productive cropping systems sustainability. For example, in the
existing rice -wheat system, replacement of either crop for overcoming the problem of weeds
or incorporation of a legume crop such as mungbean to ensure less dependence on chemical
fertilizers or incorporation of a green manure crop for organic recycling are some of the
distinct advantages.
In view of change in food consumption patterns in recent years, research
strategies, on diversification should not be restricted to crops and cropping systems, but
also include the enterprises like dairying, horticulture and vegetables. A more diversified
food basket will provide food security and improve the quality of life by adding to
nutritional status of our people.

72

5. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
S. C. Mehta and Rita Dahiya
Department of Soil Science
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004

Environment is the combination of air, water and land, inter-relationships among

themselves as well as with living beings. Environment thus includes all the biological and
non -biological things surrounding an organism. A thorough knowledge of biology,
microbiology, genetics, atmospheric sciences, physics, chemistry, mathematics, etc. is
prerequisite to understand the environment. Every living beings requires healthy and
favorable environment for their normal life cycle. Unfavorable alteration by addition of
some harmful substances pollutes the environment and the substances polluting it are called
pollutants.
Environmental pollution is of different kinds depending on the nature of pollutants.
Industries, automobile, nuclear reactors, mining of minerals, thermal power plants,
agricultural activities, etc. generate different types of pollutants causing pollution to the
environment. Due to awareness of importance of the environment and the impact of
pollutant on environment, some of the industries are now adopting environmental friendly
technologies for the disposal of their wastes. Excessive use of fertilizers, especially
phosphatic fertilizers (Cd & Pb pollution) and injudicious disposing off industrial and
sewage water as irrigation are also sources of environmental pollution. Heavy metals
present in the soil are readily absorbed by the plants and get entered into the food chain of
human and animals. The environmental pollution includes water pollution, soil pollution,
air pollution, etc.
Water pollution:
Water is essential for all living beings. It is used for drinking, cooking, washing,
bathing, irrigation, coolant for therma l power plants, industrial operations, and disposal of
industrial and sewage wastes.
Water pollution alters it physical properties, chemical composition and biological
characteristics, and makes it unsuitable for drinking and agricultural uses. Water pollution
occurs when chemicals or wastes enter water faster than they can be removed by natural
processes.
(i)

Sources of water pollution:

Water comes from rivers, ponds, lakes or underground. Water is a unique solvent
and has the property to dissolve many substances in it and therefore, easily get polluted.
Pollution of water can be caused by two sources:
(a)

Point sources:

Point sources are specific sites near water sources which directly discharge
effluents into them. Major point sources of water po llution are industries, power plants,
underground coal mines, offshore oil wells etc.
(b)

Non-point sources:

The discharge from non -point sources is not at any specific site, rather these
sources are scattered, which pollute water individually or colle ctively. Major non -point
sources are surface run -off from agricultural fields, atmospheric deposition etc.

73
(ii)

Sources of groundwater pollution:

India has 32.3 million ha m available groundwater per annum (Kaushik and
Kaushik, 2004 1 ). Groundwater is generally expected less prone to pollution as the soil act as
filter and has property to retain various pollutants/ contaminants of the solution passing
through it. Due to increasing urbanization and industrialization, threats to groundwater
pollution have increased. Septic tanks, industrial effluent, deep well injection, mining etc.
are mainly responsible for groundwater pollution, which is irreversible. The main
groundwater pollutants are heavy metals, fluoride and nitrate which cause serious health
hazards. Safe limits of some pollutants in water for drinking purpose are given in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Tolerance limits of some toxic metals in drinking water
Element
Tolerance limit (ppm)
Fluoride
1.5
Lead
5.0
Mercury
0.001
Nickel
0.5
Arsenic
0.1
Chromium
0.5
Cadmium
0.001
Iron
0.1
Manganese
2.0
Copper
0.2
Zinc
5.0
Aluminum
1.0
Cobalt
0.2
Source: Iqbal, M., Srivastava, P.S. and Siddiqi, T.O. (2000). Environmental hazards plant
and people. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi.
(iii)

Sources of surface water pollution:

The major sources of surface water pollution are:

(a)

Municipal wastes:

Waste water from residential areas, including kitchen, toilet, bathing, washing and
cleaning, are discharged into fresh surface water sources causing their pollution. Domestic
sewage effluent contains significant amounts of phosph ate and nitrate. Phosphates are
widely used as water softeners in washing powders. The problem is more severe in big
cities.
(b)

Industrial effluents:

Industrial effluents containing toxic chemical, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols,
cyanides, radio active substances, etc. are major sources of water pollution. Synthetic
detergents used in washing and cleaning produce foam which pollutes the fresh water.
Agrochemicals like fertilizer (nitrate and phosphates) and pesticides washed by rain water
a s s u rface run -off are also sources of water pollution. Pesticide residues are transmitted in
the environment through air, water and soil and accumulated in the water bodies.
Characteristics of the effluents of some important industries are listed in Table 5.2.

Kaushik, Anubha and Kaushik, C. P. (2004). Perspectives in Environmental Studies. New

Age International Publishers.

74
Table 5.2: Properties of effluents from different industries
Industry
Steel
Textile
Pesticides
Fertilizers
Rubber
Pain t

Characteristics
Acidic, phenols, oils, iron salts, suspended solids and metals
High BOD, suspended and dissolved solids, acids, chromium,
chlorine and dyes
Aromatic compounds, acidic and high organic matter content
High ammonia and fluoride content, acidic or alkaline, organic
matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
Chlorides, suspended and dissolved solid, and high BOD
High BOD, synthetic, pigments and heavy metals like aluminum,
chromium and lead
Low pH, organic matter

Acid
Distillery
Petroleum refinery

Very high COD and BOD, acidic, high organic matter, high
suspended and dissolved solids, foul odour
High COD, hydrocarbon alcohol, phenols, oils, metals, and resins

Plastic
Pharmaceutical

Acids, phenols and formaldehyde

Organic and inorganic reducing agents, silver and alkalis

Source: Iqbal, M., Srivastava, P.S. and Siddiqi, T.O. (2000). Environmental hazards
plant and people. CBS Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi.
(c)

Effects of water pollutants:

The effects of various water pollutants are discussed below:

Organic matter :
Pollutants containing organic matter on reaching to water bodies increases the
organic matter content of the water which is subsequently decomposed by the
microorganisms. For decomposition of the organic matter, the microorganisms utilize the
dissolved oxygen. Thereby reduces the dissolved oxygen content of the water. Amount of
dissolved oxygen depends on aeration, photosynthetic activity in water, respiration of
animals and plants and ambient temperature. The demand of dissolved oxygen increases
with addition of organic matter which is expressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD).
The BOD is the amount of dissolved oxygen required to aerobically decompose organic
matter of a given volume of water. More BOD values of any water sample are associated
with its poor water quality. The metabolic activity by bacteria (during decomposition of
organic matter) requiring oxygen may reduce the normal dissolved oxygen content (8-15
mg/l) of water to less than
1 mg/L, below which most fish cannot survive. For some fish
s p e c i e s , 5-8mg/L of dissolved oxygen is required whereas some species like carp can
survive at 3.0 mg/L of dissolved oxygen. The oxygen demand is also measured by chemical
oxygen demand (COD), which is amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize the
wastes.
Nutrients:
Nitrates and phosphates derived fro m waste waters are nutrients that promote plant
and algae growths, which upon dying and subsequently decaying consume oxygen of water.
Under anaerobic conditions foul smelting gases are produced.
Excess growth or
decomposition of plant material will change the concentration of CO 2 which will further
change pH of water. In addition to having detrimental visual effect on lakes, algae can be
toxic to cattle, spoil the taste of water, plug filtration unit and increase chemical
requirements in water treatment.
Drinking of water, excessive in nitrate, causes blue baby syndrome. The disease
develops when a part of hemoglobin is converted into non functional oxidized form.

75
Pathogens:
Sewage waste water contains many viruses, pathogenic and non pathogenic micro organisms. The water contaminated with sewage water causes many water born diseases like
dysentery, cholera, jaundice, typhoid, etc.
Toxic and hazardous compounds:
The presence of pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, acids, alkali, cyanides
and many other organic and inorganic compounds are harmful to living organisms,
including human and aquatic life. Some of the pesticides, for example, DDT, aldrin,
dieldrin etc. have been banned due to their harmful effects on the human health. The
pesticides like DDT are not water soluble and have affinity for body lipids. These
substances tend to accumulate in the organisms body. This process is called
bioaccumulation. The concentration of these toxic substances builds up at successive levels
of food chain. This process is called biomagnifications.
Potentially toxic elements:
Potentially toxic elements are mercury, cadmium, fluoride, lead, cobalt, arsenic.
The main sources of these elements are industrial and sewage wastes, fertilizers and
manures in soil plant system. In soil, these elements react with both organic and inorganic
matter and may become available to vegetation and ultimately consumed by animals/human
being.
Mercury is harmful metals, and accumulates in the living organisms. In Japan,
people suffered from a disease called Minamata due to consumption of methyl mercury
contaminated fish caught from Minamata bay in Japan. This disease results numbness of
body parts, vision and hearing problems, and abnormal mental behavior. Mercury content of
t he above ground plant parts is generally low.
Cadmium is also toxic element and has tendency to accumulate in leafy vegetable
tissues rather than in fruits and seeds. But, it has also been reported that the water
contaminated with cadmium had caused the disease called Itai -itai in the people of Japan by
consumption of cadmium contaminated rice. This disease affects the bones, liver, kidney,
lungs, pancreas and thyroid.
Fluoride, if contained in high concentration in drinking water, causes defects in
teeth and bones called fluorosis.
Lead requires very high concentration to produce toxic response. Higher
concentration causes anemia, loss of apatite, damage of liver, brain and kidney.
Cobalt causes diarrhea, low blood pressure, bone deformation if pres ent in high
concentration in water.
Arsenic also causes mental disturbance, lungs cancer, ulcer etc.
Control of water pollution:
Water pollution can be reduced by adopting following strategies:
v Sewage and rain water should be disposed off through separate drainage pipes to
prevent overflow of sewage with rain water. There should be sufficient space between
these pipes to prevent mixing in case of any leakage.
v Sewage water should be treated properly by primary and secondary treatments to reduce
t he BOD, COD levels up to the permissible levels before using for agricultural
purposes.

76
v Use of agrochemicals like pesticides/insecticides for control of pests/diseases as per
recommended dose. Excessive use of these pesticides will enhance their residua l effects
and will enter into the food chain. Avoid using pesticides on sloped lands to reduce
their contamination through surface run off.
v Judicious use of fertilizers especially nitrogenous in the paddy crop will reduce nitrate
pollution. Encourage nit rogen fixing crop to supplement the use of fertilizers.
v Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.
Soil pollution:
The soil acts as filter by its sieving action, adsorption and precipitation of chemical
substances and decompos ition of organic materials but its capacity is limited to process the
ever increasing quantities of potentially toxic residues and waste products dumped into the
soil. When the filtering and buffering capacity of the soil is over exploited by applying
substantial amounts of various kinds of wastes to the soil, the soil may act as medium for
transmission of pollutants to the ground resources or directly to the growing plants and
finally to the food chain.
The presence of toxic substances and pathogens wh ich deteriorate the soil physico chemical properties, reduce soil productivity is called as soil pollution.
Sources of soil pollution:
(i)

Domestic/Municipal wastes:

Municipal wastes (like domestic waste- kitchen wastes, sewer waste, polyethylene
bags, papers, plastics, metallic canes and containers etc,; hospital wastes - syringe, used
bottles (glass and plastics), bandage, cotton, etc. and domestic industries - paints, varnish,
dye, yarn waste etc) are generally dumped into the soil as landfills which cause soil
pollution. Leachates from landfill sites and sewage tanks contain harmful and toxic
substances, enter into the soil and ultimately pollute the soil. The sewage sludge also
contains various types of pathogen organisms, viruses and bacteria which contaminate the
soil.
(ii)

Industrial wastes:

Wastes from chemical industries, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, textile mills, steel
industries, distilleries, refineries, pesticides and fertilizer factories, pharmaceutical
industries, cement industries etc are discharged into the soil or disposes off on the soil
surface. The toxic metals like mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic etc contained in the
industrial wastes pollute the soil.
(iii)

Use of agro -chemicals:

Excessive use of pesticides/insecticides in crops to kill pests causes the soil pollution
because of their persistence in soils for a long time especially under the temperate
conditions. Due to their residual effe cts some of the pesticides such as DDT eldrin etc., are
banned.
(iv)

Excessive use of fertilizers:

To get the maximum production, higher doses of fertilizers are added into the soil
which contaminates the soil with the toxic elements present in the fert ilizers. For example,
SSP contains Cd and Pb.

77
(v)

Radioactive substances:

The radioactive wastes discharged from industries and laboratories, and the aerial
falls out during nuclear tests are the sources of the soil pollution. These nuclear wastes
containing radio isotopes of radium, uranium, thorium, strontium, iodine, cesium etc
persist for a long time in the soil and continue to emit hazardous radiations.
Effects of Soil Pollution:
The soil pollutants initially are taken up by plants and ult imately enter into the food
chain affecting animal and human beings.
i)

Sewage and industrial effluent:

Sewage waste having pathogenic bacteria, virus and intestinal worms may cause
various types of disease. The industrial waste chemicals like acids and alkalis affect soil
productivity by deteriorating its physical, chemical and biological properties. The toxic
chemicals and heavy metals from pesticides, insecticides, fertilizer, steel industries wastes
etc. inhibit the non -target organisms, soil flora and fauna, and reduce soil productivity.
ii)

Radioactive fallout :

Some of the radio isotopes replace essential elements in the body and cause
abnormalities e.g. strontium-90 instead of calcium gets deposited in the bones and tissues.
The bones become brittle and prone to fracture. Radioisotopes which attach with the clay
become a source of radiations in the environment.
Control of Soil Pollution:
v The sewage waste water and industrial effluents should be properly treated to reduce
the BOD and COD levels up to the permissible levels before discharging them into the
soil or using for agricultural.
v Municipal wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by using incineration
pyrolysis etc.
v Farm wastes and cattle dung should be used for generation of biogas.
v Biodegradable substances, farm wastes, cattle dung etc should be utilized for
preparation of manures and these manures should be added into the soil for increasing
soil productivity.
v Pesticides/insecticides for control of pests/diseases
recommendations so as to minimize their residual effects.

should

be

used

as

per

v Judicious use of fertilizers especially phosphorous will reduce cadmium pollution.

v Grow trees to conserve soils .
Nuclear hazards:
Radioactive materials are present in the nature and are used for producing nuclear
energy. The unstable isotopes of the radioactive substances disintegrate until a stable
isotope is formed by emitting energetic particles/radiations. The energetic particles/
radiations emitted during the radioactive decay are alpha particles, beta particles, gamma
radiations and neutron radiations. The alpha particles (helium ion) are fast moving
positively charged particles; beta particles are high speed negatively charged electrons,
gamma rays are high energy short wave electromagnetic radiation (no mass and no charge),
and neutron radiations are high energetic neutrons produced during spontaneous fission of
nuclear reactors. These high energy particles/radiations have variable penetration power

78
depending upon their energy and charge. The high energy neutrons have highest penetration
power because they are neutral in nature and alpha particles have lowest penetration power.
The energetic neutrons can penetrate through paper, aluminum and even through lead but
gamma radiations can pass through paper and aluminum but not through lead, on the other
hand beta particles can be blocked by a wood or a few millimeters of aluminum sheet and
alpha particles can even be stopped by a sheet of paper. Higher is the penetration power of
the particles/ radiations, higher is the harmful effects in the environment. The radioactivity
of radioactive substances depends on its half life, i.e., the time it takes for half of the
substance to decompose. For example, half life of uranium ( 238 U) is 4.5 10 9 years and that
of iodine (137 I) is 24 seconds.
(i)

Sources of radioactivity:

Emission of radiation during radioactive disintegration is known as radioactivity.

The sources of radioactivity can be grouped into two types: (i) Natural sources and (ii) man
made sources.
(a)

Natural Sources:

The main natural sources of radioactivity are cosmic rays from outer space and
radioactive radon -222 present in rocks which are parent materials of soils.
(b)

M a n-made sources:

The man made sources of radioactivity are nuclear power plants, exposure to Xrays, from X-ray machines used for medical purposes, reprocessing of spent nuc lear fuels,
testing of nuclear weapons under ground or under oceans, instruments test laboratories and
mining of radioactive substances etc. Nuclear reactors to be used for producing electricity
are also source of radioactive radiations because nuclear reactors require large amount of
water to act as coolant medium. Once used, this coolant water containing small amount of
radioactive substances is released into river or sea.
(ii)

Effects of Radiations:

The effects of radiations on living organisms depend upon energy and charge of the
radiations, penetration of the radiations, half life of the radiations, presence of the source
inside or outside the body, dose of radiations beyond a threshold level, and duration of
exposure to radiations. The radiations have adverse effects on the human health because
the nuclear particles/radiations ionize the atoms of water or other molecules of the cell. For
example, alpha particles are more dangerous than beta particles if they enter the body
through breathing being positively charged although the penetration power of alpha
particles is lower than beta particles. On the other hand, alpha particles cannot penetrate the
skin to reach internal organs whereas beta particles can damage the internal organs.
v The radiations exposure beyond threshold level induces mutation in the DNA and
thereby affects the functioning of genes and chromosomes. Such genetic mutation may
be transmitted to offspring and later generations. Exposure of high dose of radiations
for long time cause skin cancer.
v

Exposure to radiations may result miscarriages, eye cataract, skin and breast cancer.
Accumulation of radioactive iodine (I131 ) in human thyroid gland may causes cancer.
Similarly accumulation of strontium (Sr 90 ) having half life of 28 years in bones may
cause bone cancer and leukemia. The nuclear radiations emitted from the radioactive
substances present in soils or rocks contaminate the water bodies and groundwater and
thus affect the aquatic life directly and to human beings indirectly by entering into the
food chain.

79
Control of Nuclear Pollution:
Nuclear power plants should be setup carefully after studying long term and short
term effects of radiations. Materials related to radioisotopes should be disposed off
properly.
Oil slicks:
Oil production and transportation results in oil slicking and causes environmental
pollution. Off-shore oil drilling and gas operations are being conducted in Bombay high and
near Madras coast. Such operations cause pollution of the off-shore waters from blowout of
the oil wells and dumping of oil-based drilling mud and leakage of oil during production,
storage and transportation. The large tankers containing oil are transported by ships or
cargos which cause oil spillage. A pollution threat is also posed by the pipelines, laid on the
ocean floor, from off-shore platform, to storage facilities.
Control of oil slicks:
Potential of aerial photography and especially infrared, ultraviolet and micro
wave imagery in surveillance and oil slick detection should be evaluated in detail. Specific
compounds or materials can be used to collect or sink oil slick.
Solid Waste Management:
Solid waste in the broad sense includes all the discarded solid materials from
municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, and sewage sludge. Solid waste is that waste
which is not transported by water and has been rejected for further use. There is an
increase in the amount of waste proportional to the increase in human population. It is now
realized that if waste generation continues with this speed then there will be serious
problem of its management.
(i)

Sources of solid wastes:

Sources of urban, rural and industrial solid wastes are described below:

v The waste from home (domestic waste) contains discarded materials like polyethylene
bags, plastic, empty bottles, broken glassware, waste papers, cloth/rags, food waste,
sewage sludge etc.
v The wastes from shops like waste paper, rotten fruits, vegetables waste, packaging
material, cans, bottles, polyethylene bags, etc.
v The wastes from hospitals include anatomical wastes, pathological wastes, used
syringes and bandages, etc.
v The waste materials from farm/dairy farms are mainly cattle dung, cattle urine etc.
v The industrial waste consists of a large number of materials including packaging
material, organic wastes, acids, bases and metals etc. During some industrial processing
large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials are also produced. The main sources o f
industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries. Solid
wastes from other types of industries include scrap metal, rubber, asbestos debris,
plastic, paper, glass, paints, dyes, scrap leather, ceramics, heavy metals, batt eries etc
v The waste from thermal power plants includes mainly fly ash. It is produced in large
quantities. To dispose off this fly ash, brick kiln owners were encouraged for use of
these materials for preparation of bricks. Due to transport problem it was not
materialized.

80
(ii)

Types of solid waste:

Solid wastes are of two types

(a)

Biodegradable:

The solid materials that can be degraded by micro -organisms are called bio degradable wastes. The wastes include fruits/vegetable wastes, leftover food, used tea
leaves, egg shells, dry/green leaves, plant parts, etc
(b)

Non-biodegradable:

The wastes that can not be degraded by micro organisms are called non biodegradable wastes or known as rubbish materials. Th e rubbish materials mainly are
polyethylene materials like bags and bottles, scrap metal, glass bottles etc.
(iii)

Effects of solid wastes:

v Domestic solid wastes generally thrown on the roads or road side causes blockage on
roads. In some undeveloped area, peoples throw their wastes near their houses or on the
way. These domestic wastes materials when unattended by the municipal committee
workers produce foul smell and breed various types of insects and bacteria which
ultimately spread diseases.
v Industrial solid wastes are major sources of toxic metals causes changes in physico chemical and biological characteristics. The higher concentration of toxic substances
may leach or percolate to contaminate the ground water. For example heavy metals like
zinc, lead and mercury when enter into the soil, affects the productivity and fertility of
the soil.
(iv)

Management of solid waste:

Biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste should be disposed off separately.

The solid waste can be managed in the following manners:
(a)

Reduction:

Reduction of source of solid waste is one of the important aspects of its

management. Judicious use of any metallic product or material will automatically reduce
the production of solid waste. If the demand for any metallic product is reduced then the
production of the solid waste is reduced further.
(b)

Recycling :

Recycling is the most important practice in which discarded materials is

reprocessed into new useful products after source reduction. This can be achieved by the
following steps:
Metal recycling:
Metallic products like aluminum (canes, sheets, utensils, pipes etc.), iron (canes,
sheets, tools, pipes, containers, discarded and damage appliances, automobile etc.) and
copper products can be recast into new products for further use. It will reduce the
production of solid waste as well as raw materials and save money. This process will help
in reducing space for dumping off.

81
Paper and glass recycling:
Waste paper can be recycled to prepare low quality paper and paper board and paper
baskets of different shapes. Recycling of paper will reduce cutting of trees for making fresh
paper.
Plastic recycling:
The discarded and broken plastic products like toys, furniture, plastic bottles,
polythene sheets, packaging materials and containers etc. can be recycled to new products
though the quality of the recycled products will be inferior yet it helps in managing the
production of solid waste.
(c)

Reuse:

Reuse of metallic, glass and plastics products/containers designed for a specific

purpose may be reuse for same or some other purposes. This will reduce solid waste
production and ultimately prevent pollution.
(d)

Sanitary landfill :

In a sanitary landfill, waste material collected from the different sites (municipal
points) is transported to a landfill site, spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered
with soil to prevent seepage of water into the landfill. The bottom of landfills is usually
made impermeable by layers of clay, sand and thick sheets of plastic. This impermeable
bottom of the landfill protects the leachate to percolate to ground water and prevents ground
water contamination. Leachate from bottom is pumped out and is treated for its reuse. The
wells are dug near the landfill site to monitor for any leakage.
(e)

Incineration:

Solid waste containing toxic and organic materials are burnt at high temperature to
kill the virus and harmful organisms . After incineration the solid waste are safely dispose
off.
(f)

Composting:

It is useful practice for beneficial dispose off degradable solid waste. This method
is useful particular in big cities having shortage of space for landfill. During composting,
bio -degradable wastes like vegetable waste, paper waste, yard waste, cattle dung, are
allowed to degrade or decompose in an aerobic condition at sufficient moisture. A well
decomposed nutrient rich environmental friendly manure is formed which can be used to
improve the soil physico-chemical properties as well as fertility and ultimately productivity
of soil.
Waste land reclamation:
Waste lands are those lands which are unproductive, degraded and unfit for
cultivation. The waste lands includes salt affected lands (saline, sodic and saline sodic),
sandy areas, water logged, eroded soils, barren hill-ridge, undulating uplands, snow covered
lands, coastal saline areas etc. The human activities, such as, deforestation, overgrazing,
mining and intensive and agricultural practices lead to formation of waste lands. Although
deserts are wastelands formed by natural process, but there are human activities which
accelerate the spreading of desert.
The problem of waste lands is severe in India where out of total land area of 329
million ha about 175 million ha are degraded lands. The extent of waste lands is maximum
in Rajasthan (36 million ha) followed by Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. In Haryana
the wastelands cover about 8.4% of the total land area.

82
(i)

(a)

Reclamation of wastelands:
Some important reclamation practices are discussed as below:
Leaching:

Saline soils can be reclaimed by leaching down the excess salt beyond root zone by
applying sufficient amount of good quality irrigation water. Before leaching the field
should be leveled.
(b)

Gypsum application:

In sodic soils excess of exchangeable sodium is replaced by applying sufficient

amount of calcium through amendments like gypsum, pyrites etc. followed by irrigation
with fresh water.
(c)

Drainage of excess water:

The waterlogged waste land can be reclaimed by removing excess of water using
artificial surface and sub-surface drainage.
(d)

Green manuring:

An Eco-friendly method to reclaim salt affected soil is by raising green manuring

crops. Green manuring with dhaincha (S esbania aculeata) and sunhump can be used to
improve the salt affected soils.
(e)
Biofertilizers: Blue green algae have been found to be quite promising as bio
fertilizers for improving salt affected soils.
(f)

Afforestation:

Afforestation is one of the best practices to prevent soil erosion and desertification
by plantation of trees.

83
AIR POLLUTION
Ram Niwas
Department Agricultural Meteorology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar 125 004

Air pollution is defined as an undesirable change in the physical, chemical or

biological characteristics of air that may be harmful to human, other life, plants and cultural
assests. In broad sense pollution is the thermodynamic disorder that is the byproduct of
e n e rgy conversion and the use of resources.
Air pollutants:
Air pollutants are of two types: gaseous and particulates.
(i)

Gaseous pollutants:

Gaseous pollutants are the pollutants in gas phase. They have the property of filling
any available space until their concentrations reach equilibrium by diffusion. If the space is
too large, the resulting concentration may be negligible. On the other hand, if space is
small, the resulting concentration may reach significant levels e.g. concentrations of carbon
d ioxide due to continuous running of a motor vehicles in a closed garage.
(ii)

Particulates:

Particulates are finely divided solids and liquids, such as dusts, fumes, smoke, fly
ash, mist and spray.
Dusts are small particles (1.0 to 1000 m) of solids created from the break up of
larger particles by operations such as crushing, grinding blasting etc.
Fumes are fine solid articles (0.03 to 0.3 m) that condense from vapors of solid
materials.
Smoke is unburned carbon (0.5 to 1.0 m) that results from the incomplete
combustion of carbon containing substances.
Fly ash (1.0 to 1000 m) is the non -combustible particles admixed with combustion
gases in the burning of coal.
Mists are the particles (0.07 to 10 m) formed from the condensation of liquid
vapors.
Sp rays are particles (10 to 1000 m) formed from the atomization of liquids
through nozzles.
There are two main groups of air pollutants based on their way of emission :
Primary and Secondary

Primary pollutants:
These emitted directly into the air are called primary pollutants e.g. particulates,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydro carbons.

84
Secondary pollutants:
They are pollutants produced through reactions between primary pollutants and
normal atmospheric compounds e.g. ozone in lower atmosphere over urban areas.
Sources and effects of pollutants:
(i)

SO 2 :

The major anthropogenic source of SO 2 is the burning of fossil fuels mostly coal in
power plants. Adverse effects include corrosion of paint and metals and injury or death to
animals and plants.
(ii)

Nitrogen oxides:

They are emitted mainly in two forms : No and No 2 . Nearly all NO 2 is emitted from
automobiles and power plants that burn fossil fuels. It causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat,
lungs and increase susceptibility to viral infections.
(iii)

Carbon monoxide:

Approximately 90% of the CO in atmosphere comes from the natural sources and
remaining 10% comes from incomplete burning of organic compounds, fires and
a ut o mobiles. It is hazardous to people with known heart disease, anemia or respiratory
disease. It may cause birth defects. It may cause death on long exposure to high
concentration.
(iv)

Photochemical oxidants:

They results from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen oxide and sun light. e.g. O3
and other photochemical oxidants known as PANs (peroxyacyl nitrates) occurs with
photochemical smog. At high concentration O3 kills leaf tissue and if pollutant level
remains high, kills whole plant. O3 also affect eyes and the respiratory system of human
beings and animals adversely.
(v)

Hydrocarbons:

Over 80% of hydrocarbons such as methane, butane and propane etc. are emitted
through natural sources. The most important anthropogenic source is the automobile. e.g.
gasoline in cars tank may spill and evaporates in atmosphere. The adverse effects of
hydrocarbons are numerous. At specific concentration they are toxic to plants and animals
or may be converted into harmful compounds through chemical changes in the atmosphere.
(vi)

Hydrogen sulfide:

It is produced from natural sources such as geysers, swamps and bogs and as well as
human sources such as petro leum refining and metal smelting. It is a highly toxic and
corrosive gas. It causes health problem ranging from toxicity to death of humans and other
animals.
(vii)

Hydrogen fluoride:

It is released from aluminium production, coal gasification and the b urning of coal
in power plants. Even at very low concentration
(1 ppb) it cause problems for plants and
animals.
(viii)

Particulate matter:

Farming adds considerable particulates to the atmosphere, as do desertification and

volcanic eruptions. Particulate matters are smoke, soot or dust, air born asbestos and small

85
particles of heavy metals as arsenic, copper, lead and zone, which are usually emitted from
industrial facilities such as smelters. Among most fine particulates (<2.5 m diameter) are
su lphates and nitrates. Fine particles are easily inhaled into the lungs where they can be
absorbed by the blood stream or remain embedded for a long period of time. Particulate
matter is particularly hazardous to the elderly, and those with respiratory prob lems such as
asthma.
Sources of air pollution:
The two major kinds of air pollution sources are stationary sources and mobile
sources.
1.

Stationary sources:

i)

Point sources:

These sources emit air pollutants from one or more controllable sites su ch as smoke
stacks of power plants at industrial sites.
ii)

Fugitive sources:

These sources generate air pollutants from open areas exposed to wind processes.
e.g. dirt roads, construction sites, farm lands, surface mines, storate piles and other exposed
areas from where particulates may be removed by wind.
iii)

Area sources:

These are the locations from which air pollutants are emitted from a well defined
area within which are several sources. e.g. small urban communities or areas of intense
industrialization within urban complexes or agricultural areas sprayed with herbicides and
pesticides.
2.

Mobile sources:

These are emitters of air pollutants which move from place to place while yielding
emissions. e.g. automobiles trucks, buses, aircrafts, trains etc.
Control measures of air pollution:
Air pollution control may be defined as the various measures taken to meet certain
emission standards. These measures may include changes in processes/raw materials or
modification of equipment. Another method is the installation of devices at the end of
process equipment to treat the exhaust gas stream. These devices are called air pollution
control equipment.
Particulate control devices:
There are three general types of particulate control equipment.

(i)

Force field settlers:

These are equipments that use a field of force for the collection of particulate.
There are three types of force fields : gravitional, centrifugal and electrical. Gravitational
settling chambers utilize gravitational force, centrifugal collectors utilize centrifugal force
and electrostatic pr ecipitators utilize electric field.

86
(ii)

Fabric filters:
They are based on the principle of filtration for the removal of particulates.

(iii)

Scrubbers:

They remove particulates from the exhaust gas stream by using water droplets for
capturing them.
Of the above, electrostatic precipitator and fabric filters possess the highest
collection efficiencies.
Some general control measures:
v Tall chimneys shou ld be installed in industries to reduce air pollution on ground.
v Better-designed fuel burning equipments should be used in homes and industries so that
complete burning of fuel takes place.
v Renewable and non -polluting sources of energy like solar energy and wind energy
should be used e.g. solar cookers, wind machines etc.
v Motor, vehicles should be maintained properly.
v Strict emission control for automobiles e.g. Euro -II.
v Zero pollutant automobiles should be manufactured and used. e.g. electric cars.
v There should be increased control on industrial activities and household activities that
are known to contribute to air pollution.
v More trees should be planted.
Noise pollution:
Noise means any irritating sound which
affects the physiological and psychological well
being of a person in an adverse manner. It is now
established that repeated exposure to noise may
either result in temporary or permanent hearing loss
which in extreme cases may lead to total deafness.
Further
noise
may
interfere
with
speech,
communication, disturb sleep and affect work
performance, thus causing anxiety in a person.
Sound pressure level The decibel scale:
Since the range of sound pressure commonly
encountered by the human ear is very wide, it has
been condensed into a more manageable logarithmic
scale by the acoustical scientists by devising the
concept of sound pressure level (LP ) given by
LP = 10 log10 (P2 /Pre 2 )
LP = 20 lo g 10 (P/Pre)
(dB)
Where,
Pre = International reference pressure of 2x10- 5 Pa
which represents the average threshold of

Fig. 5.1
Sound pressure level The decibel scale

87
hearing for normal healthy human ear.
P = Root mean square sound pressure (N/m2 )
An average normal human ear can respond to sound waves in frequency range of 20
Hz to 20000 Hz and to a pressure ranging from 20 Pa (~0 dB) which represents the
threshold of hearing to more than 100 Pa which corresponds to the threshold of pain (Fig.
5.1).
Sources of noise:
Noise sources may be classified differently:
(i)

Point source:

If the dimensions of a source are small compared with the distance to the listener, it
is called point source, for example fans, chimney stacks and loud speaker on a building.
(ii)

Line source:

If a noise source is narrow in one direction and long in the other direction compared
to the distance to the listener, it is called line source. It can be a single source such as a
pipe carrying turbulent fluid or it can be composed of many point sources operating
simultaneously such as a stream of vehicles on a busy road.
Based on the type of activity producing noise, it can be classified as traffic noise,
industrial noise, commercial noise, community noise etc.
Measures for noise control:
There are four methods of controlling noise: (1) Enclosing the noise (2) Enclosing
the noise receiver, (3) Putting a barrier between the noise source and the receiver (4)
Controlling the noise generator.
Silencers:
Control of noise at point of generation may be done with the help of mufflers or
silencers and isolation of noise source by vibration control. There are three types of
silencers.
(i)

Absorptive silencers:

In these silencers, a lining of some acoustic material is provided in the interior of

the duct. The duct may be straight or may have bands.
(ii)

Reactive silencers:

In these silencers, attenuation of sound of noise is achieved by reflecting the sound

waves so as to cancel the waves of incoming noise. Reactive silencers are found in trucks
and automobiles.
(iii)

Diffusers:

High wind velocity impinging on stationary air or solid objects produces noise due
to the turbulence created. Diffusers attenuate noise by reducing this velocity. The source
flow is diffused out into a multitude of tiny flows having lower velocities using some
appropriate mechanisms. The diffuser is an exhaust muffler/silencer, since it attenuates
noise by installing it at the end of duct or pipe.

88

Effects of noise pollution:

1.

Noise interferes in communication with other persons.

2.

Noise pollution reduces hearing capacity of a person. Prolonged exposure to loud

noise causes gradual hearing loss and ultimately leads to deafness.

3.

Noise causes irritability and headache. It also aggravates the existing disease of a
person.

4.

Noise increases nervous tension, blood pressure and beat trouble. Increase in blood
pressure affects brain and lever.

5.

Noise pollution causes impairment of night vision and decreases the rate of colour
perception.

Air pollutants dispersion:

Various meteorological variables like wind speed, wind direction, temperature, sun
light which results photochemical reaction and precipitation whic h wash out air pollutants
influence the quality of air even if the emission rate remains constant. The shape of plume
is function of temperature and wind profiles. The behaviour and dispersion of a plume
depend on lapse rate (decrease in temperature with height) which decides the stability
conditions of atmosphere. Unstable atmosphere is unfavourable for dispersion of pollutants.
Temperature inversion (increase in temperature with height) is favourable for pollutant
dispersion.
*Dry adiabatic (C/km)
>10

Wet adiabatic (C/km)

>5

Atmosphere
Unstable

=10

=5

Neutral

<10

<5

Stable

*The decrease in temperature with height in rising air parcel provided there is no exchange
of heat with surrounding.
Climatic change:
The mean annual temperature of the earth has swung up and down by several degree
Celsius over the past million years. Times of high temperature reflect relative ice-free
periods (interglacial periods) over much of the planet; times of low temperature refle ct the
glacial events. It is not yet clear weather our current warm climatic marks the end of the ice
ages or whether we are merely in an interglacial period with another glacial age due.
Global climate also changes over time scales shorter than that of glacial-interglacial
periods. e.g. continental glaciations ended about 12,500 years ago with rapid warming. This
was followed by a short cooling about 11500 years ago. Climate change over the past
18,000 year reflects several warming and cooling trends tha t heave greatly affected people.
e.g. During a major warming period from 1800- 1300 years, the Vikings colonized Iceland,
Green land and North America. When glaciers advanced during the cold period starting
from 1400 years ago (Little ice age). The Viking s ettlements in North America and parts of
Green land were abandoned.
Starting in approximately 1850, a warming trend become apparent, lasting until the
1940s, when temperatures began again to cool, followed by a leveling off temperature in
1950s and then a further drop in temperature during 1960s. Since then temperature has
increased steadily to approximately the mid 1990s (Fig. 5.2). It is evident from the record
of last 100 years that global mean annual temperature has increased by approximately

89
0.51.2 0 C. Furthermore, the period from 1986 through 1998 have been the warmest period
of years of the twentieth century.

Fig. 5.2: Hypothetical temperature trend in past century

A significant warming of 0.4C/100 y ears was noticed in the last century over India
but the rate of increase slowed down in the recent three decades. This warming was mainly
due to an increase in the maximum temperature.

Global warming:
The rate of increase in global warming was 0.5C during last 100 years. There were
a number of warm years in the 1980s and 1990s and 1998 broke those records month by
month. Global warming is defined as a natural or human induced increase in the average
global temperature of the atmosphere near Earths su rface. Water vapour and several other
gases, including CO2 nitrous oxides, methane, and CFCs warm earths atmosphere because
they absorb and reemit radiation. They trap some of the heat energy radiating from earths
atmospheric system. The trapping and warming is somewhat analogous to green house,
which is also traps heat. Thus the process has been called the green house effect. Actually,
trapping heat in atmosphere might better be called the atmospheric effect, because the
dominant process responsible for heating the air in a green house is quite different from that
which heats the lower atmosphere. The majority of natural green house warming is due to
water in the atmosphere. On a global level, water vapour and small particles of water in the
atmosphere produce about 85% and 12%, respectively of our total green house warming.
Potential effects of global warming:
If we continue emitting carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, it is estimated that by
the year 2030 the concentration of CO 2 will have doubled fro m pre -industrial revolution
concentrations. The average global temperature will have risen approximately 1 to 20 C.
Although the specific effects of this assumed temperature rise are difficult to predict, those

90
that are being taken seriously are changes in global climate patterns and rise in the sea
level.
Changes in climate pattern:
Estimates have been made of climatic change likely to occur by the year 2030
owing to the doubling of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and are given in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 : Probable change in climatic pattern if CO 2 concentration doubles

Sr.
No.

Region

Expected change in climatic

1.

Central North
America

Warming will vary from 20 t o 40 C in winter and 20 t o 30 C in

summer. Precipitation increases will range from 0% to 15% in
winter, but there will be decreases of 5% to 10% in summer.
Soil moisture by 15% to 20%

2.

Southern Europe

Warming will be about 20 C in winter and will vary from 20 to

3 0 C in summer. There is some indication of increased
precipitation in winter, but summer precipitation will decrease
by 5% to 15%, and summer soil moisture by 15% to 25%.

3.

Southern Asia

Warming will vary from 1 0 t o 2 0 C throughout the year.

Precipitation will change little in winter and generally will
increase throughout the region by 5% to 15% in summer.
Summer soil moisture will increase by 5% to 10%.

4.

Sahel

Warming will range from 10 t o 30 C. Area mean precipitatio n

will increase and area mean soil moisture will decrease
marginally in summer. However, throughout the region, there
will be areas of both increase and decrease in both parameters

5.

Australia

Warming will range from 1 0 to 20 C in summer and will be about

2 0 C in winter. Summer precipitation will increase by around
10%, but the models do not produce consistent estimates of the
changes in soil moisture.

Global warming will alter normal weather and climatic patterns, including change
in frequency or intensity of violent storms. The hypothesis is that warming ocean waters
could feed more energy into high magnitude storms, such as cyclones and hurricanes
causing a significant increase in their frequency or intensity.
In summary, global warming could affect earth in various ways, often for the
worse. These changes may affect crop production, forestry and human health. Mid altitude
climatic zone could shift north-ward by as much as 550 km over the next century. At this
rapid rate, some tre e species may be nearly eliminated. Furthermore, the expansion of
tropical climate zones expected in global warming will lead to an increase in tropical
diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever and viral encephalitis.
Rise in sea level:
Alth ough a precise estimate of the total potential rise in sea level is not possible at
this time, there is consensus that the sea level will infact rise. The sea level along much of
the US coast is already rising at a rate of 2.5 to 3.0 mm per year or about 10-12 inches per
century. The causes of rise are thought to be two fold: thermal expansion of warm ocean
water (primary cause) and melting of glacial ice (a secondary cause). The various models
predict that the rise may be anywhere from 20 cm to 2 meter (approximately) in the next
century. When considering a rise in the sea level, we must be concerned with the hundreds
of millions of people who live in low-lying areas of developing countries. The double
impact of a rising sea level and more frequent and powe rful cyclones and other tropical

91
disturbances would have a devastating effect on people in developing countries. e.g. two
cyclones that hit Bangladesh in the last 25 years killed more than 400000 people.
Acid rain:
Acid rain encompasses both wet (rain, snow, fog) and dry (particulate) acidic
deposition that occur near and down wind areas where major emissions of SO2 and nitrogen
oxides (NO 2 ) result from burning fossil fuels. Although the oxides (sulfur and nitrogen) are
the primary contributors, other acids are also involved in the acid rain problem. e.g. HCl
acid is emitted from cold fired power plants. In recent decades the problem of acid rain has
gained more and more attention.
All rains are slightly acidic because water reacts with atmospheric CO 2 t o produce
weak carbonic acid. Thus pure rainfall has a pH of about 5.6. Acid rain is defined as
precipitation in which the pH is below 5.6.
Causes of acid rain:
In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are transformed by reactions
with oxygen and water vapour to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These acids may travel long
distances with prevailing winds to be deposited as acid precipitation. Such precipitation
may be in the form of rainfall, snow, fog. Sulfate and nitrate particles may also be
deposited directly on the surface of the land as dry deposition. These particles may be
activated by moisture to become sulfuric and nitric acids.
Effects of acid rain:
Soils in sensitive areas loss fertility either because nutrients are leached out by acid
or because acid releases elements into soil that are toxic to plant. There is speculation that
sulfate and nitrate deposition affects the ability of trees to tolerate cold temperature, and
weakened trees are killed by cold conditions or become susceptible to diseases.
Acid rain affects a lake ecosystem by dissolving chemical elements necessary for
life and keeping them in solution so they leave the lake through water out flow. The death
of fish has been traced to acid rain, the result of industrial processes in other countries,
particularly Germany and Great Britain.
Acid rain damages not only forests and lakes but also many building materials,
including steel, paint, plastics, cement, masonary galvanized steel and several types of rock,
specially lime stone, sand stone and marble.
Ozone depletion:
Decrease in ozone concentration in stratosphere is termed as ozone depletion. CFCs
are responsible for most of the ozone depletion. There are no sinks for CFCs. That is the
processes those remove most of chemicals in the lower atmosphere -destruction by sun light,
rainout, and oxidation donot break down CFCs. However when CFCs wander to the upper
part of the stratosphere, reactions do occur. The highly energetic UV splits up the CFC,
releasing chlorine. When this happens, the following two reactions can take place.
Cl + O 3 ClO + O2
ClO + O3 Cl + O 2
These two equations define a chemical cycle that can deplete ozone. These reactions
may be repeated over and over again. It has been estimated that each chlorine atom may
destroy approximately 100,000 molecules of ozone over a period of 1 or 2 years before the
chlorine is finally removed from the stratosphere through other chemical reactions and
rainout.

92
The conc entration of atmospheric O3 was
using a Dobson ultraviolet spectrometer. The
measure the concentration of ozone. One Dobson
p p b O3 . Satellite measurements of concentration
continue today.

first measured in 1920s, from the ground,

Dobson unit is still commonly used to
unit is equivalent to a concentration of 1
of atmospheric ozone began in 1970 and

Member of the British Antarctic survey began measurements of O3 in 1957 and in

1985 and published the first data that suggested significant ozone depletion over Antarctica.
Satellite measurements were reevaluated and found to confirm the observations reported by
British Antarctic Survey. This depletion in ozone was dubbed the ozone hole. However,
there is not an actual hole in the ozone shield where all the ozone is depleted, but rather a
relative depletion in the concentration of O3 that occurs during the Antarctic spring. The
ozone hole was its largest ever in 1995 and it lasted longer than in any previous year. The
amount of depletion has varied from 15 to 80%. The size of the area of depleted ozone is
significant and has increased from a million square kilometers in the late 1970s and early
1980s to about 22 million square kilometers today. The concentration of O3 varied around
300 DU from 1957 to 1970 then sho wed drop to 200 DU in 1984. Ozone concentration was
about 250 DU in 1988 and a low of about 88 DU in 1994.
Dust pollution:
Pollution caused by suspension of dust particles is called dust pollution. The dust
particles created by anthropogenic activity are raised by high winds and dust storms. The
size of dust particles ranges between 1.0 and 1000 m.
Dust storm:
When the conditions over the desert and semi -arid areas are unstable and humidity
is low, convective clouds donot build up to greater heights. The down drafts from these
storms raise loose dust and cause dust storms. The mechanism of the formation of dust
storms is same as that of thunder storms. The vertical growth is arrested due to low
humidity aloft. The falling water drops evaporate quickly due to the temperature and low
humidity in low levels, hence hardly any precipitation reaches the ground. The dust storms
in western India are locally known as andhis. They are common over North -West India. It
is estimated that the quantity of raised d ust may be of the order of 50 to 500 kg/ha/day.
Nuclear accidents:
i)

Hiroshima:

The groups of people from whom the most reliable data have been gathered
concerning radiation hazards are the survivors of the atom bomb dropped on Hiroshima at
8.15 am, Aug. 6, 1945. Exhaustive studies have shown that the heavily exposed people
called the hibakusha had a 29% greater chance of dying from cancer than normal. Excess
numbers of Leukemia cases began appearing in the late 1940s and peaked in the early
1950s, but by the early 1970s they had dropped to levels near those of unexposed Japanese.
Dozens of mentally related infants were born in the area around Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
the months of following the blasts .
ii)

The fire of wind scale (Oct. 8, 1957):

This occurred in the plutonium production reactor and was the result of human error
coupled with inadequate operating instructions. A major fire had taken hold and was
consuming the uranium metal fuel and the graphite moderator. It was estimated that the
most hazardous release was that of 20,000 curies of I131 . It was decided that all the milk
from dairy herds should be disposed of within radius of about 25 miles.

93
iii)

Chernobyl:

The most recent and highly publicized nuclear disaster was Chernobyl, Ukrane in
April of 1986. Explosions from run away nuclear reaction burst through a 4000 tonne steel
concrete cover. The reaction core temperature was shown to be more than 200 0 C. Fuel and
debris shut into air and hit the surrounding areas. Radioactive particles spreadout in a
volcanic cloud alongwith streams of gases from molten mass in the core. In less than a
weak, deadly debris and gases had drifted over most of Europe. There were 30 deaths and
237 cases of severe radiation injury. Russian scientists estimate an increase in the cancer
rate of 0.04% over the next 20 years.
(iv)

Holocaust:

It is defined as a thorough/complete destruction especially including life. e.g.

destruction due to nuclear accidents. The incident of 9/11, 2001 in U.S.A. is also an
example of holocaust. Destruction of property (living and non living) and life completely
over accidental site and its surrounding has been termed as holocaust. For e.g. nuclear
accident such as Hiroshima, The fire of wind scale and Chernobyl etc.

94
FERTILIZERS, PESTICIDES AND THEIR IMPACT
ON ENVIRONMENT
Beena Kumari
Department of Entomology
CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004

Modern Agriculture and its impacts:

The use of chemicals and fertilizers to control insects -pests and to increase the
production have been known and practiced even in prehistoric days. Modern agriculture
makes use of hybrid seeds of selected and single crop variety, high-tech equipments and
lots of energy subsidies in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water. The food
production has increased tremendously, evidenced by "green revolution". However, it also
gave rise to several problematic off-shoots discussed below:
Impacts related to high yielding varieties (HYV):
The uses of HYVs encourage monoculture i.e. the same genotype is grown over vast
areas. In case of an attack by some pathogen, there is total devas tation of the crop by the
disease due to exactly uniform conditions, which help in rapid spread of the disease.
Fertilizers related problems:
(a)

Micronutrient imbalance:

Most of the chemical fertilizers used in modem agriculture have nitrogen,

phosphorus and potassium (N, P, K) which are essential macronutrients. Farmers usually
use these fertilizers indiscriminately to boost up crop growth. Excessive use of fertilizers
cause micronutrient imbalance.
(b)

Nitrate Pollution:

Nitrogenous fertilizers applied in the fields often leach deep into the soil and
ultima tely contaminate the ground water. The nitrates get concentrated in the water and
when their concentration exceeds 25 mg/L, they become the cause of a serious health hazard
called "Blue Baby Syndrome" or methaemoglobinemia. This disease affects the infants to
the maximum extent causing even death. In Denmark, England, France, Germany and
Netherlands this problem is quite prevalent. In India also, problem of nitrate pollution
exists in many areas.
(c) Eutrophication:
Excessive use of N and P fertilizers in the agricultural fields lead to another
problem, which is not related to the soil, but relates to water bodies like lakes. A large
proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus used in crop fields is washed off and along with
runoff water reach the water bodies causing over nourishment of the lakes, a process known
as Eutrophication (eu=more, trophic=nutrition).
Pesticide related problems:
Thousands of types of pesticides are used in agriculture. The first generation
pesticides include chemicals like sulphur, arsenic, lead or mercury to kill the pests. DDT
(Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) whose insecticidal properties were discovered by Paul
Mueller in 1939 belongs to the second -generation pesticides. After 1940, a large number of
synthetic pesticides came into use. As per Insecticide Act 1968 u/s 9(3), 190 pesticides are
registered for use in India as on 3.8.2006. Although these pesticides have gone a long way
in protecting our crops from huge losses occurring due to pests, yet they have a number of
side -effects, as discussed below:

95
(a)

Creating resistance in pests and producing new pests:

Some individuals of the pest species usually survive even after pesticide spray. The
survivors give rise to highly resistant generations. About 20 species of pests are now known
which have become immune to all types of pesticides and are known as "Super pests".
(b)

Death of non-target organisms:

Many insecticides are broad spectrum poisons which not only kill the target
species but also several non -target species that are useful to us.
(c)

Biological magnification:

Many of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and keep on accumulating in the food
chain, a process called biological magnification. Since human beings occupy a high trophic
level in the food chain, hence they get the pesticides in a bio -magnified form which is very
harmful.
Waterlogging:
Over irrigation of croplands by farmers for good growth of their crop usually leads
to water logging. Inadequate drainage causes excess water to accumulate underground and
gradually forms a continuous column with the water table. Under water-logged conditions,
pore -spaces in the soil get fully drenched with water and the soil-air gets depleted. The
water table rises while the roots of plants do not get adequate air for respiration.
Mechanical strength of the soil declines, the crop plants get lodged and crop yield falls.
Salinity problem:
A t present one third of the total cultivable land area of the world is affected by
salts. In India about seven million hectares of land are estimated to be salt -affected which
may be saline or sodic. Saline soils are characterized by the accumulation of solub le salts
like sodium chloride, sodium sulphate, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride etc. in the soil
profile. Their electrical conductivity is more than 4 dS/m. Sodic soils have carbonates and
bicarbonates of sodium, the pH usually exceeds 8.0 and the exc hangeable sodium
percentage (ESP) is more than 15%.
Causes:
A Major cause of salinization of soil is excessive irrigation. About 20% of the
world's croplands receive irrigation with canal water or ground water, which unlike
rainwater often contains dissolved salts. Under dry climates, the water evaporates leaving
behind salts in the upper soil profile.
Remedy:
The most common method for getting rid of salts is to flush them out by applying
more good quality water to such soils. Another method is laying underground network of
perforated drainage: pipes for flushing out the salts slowly.
Soil pollution:
Soil is the upper layer of the earth crust which is formed by weathering of rocks.
Organic matter in the soil makes it suitable for living organisms . Dumping of various types
of materials especially domestic and industrial wastes causes soil pollution. Domestic
wastes include garbage, rubbish material like glass, plastics, metallic cans, paper, fibres,
cloth rags, containers, paints, varnishes etc. Le achates from dumping sites and sewage tanks
are harmful and toxic, which pollute the soil.
Pesticides are used to kill pests that damage crops. These pesticides ultimately
reach the soil and persist there for a long time. Pesticides which are persistent in nature are

96
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides e.g. DDT, HCH, endrin, lindane, heptachlor,
endosulfan etc. Residues of these pesticides in the soils have long term effects especially
under the temperate conditions. From soil, these chemicals/ pesticides translocate into
plants and contaminate the final produce. From crop, their residues go into animals and in
turn to milk and products and animal products. Agrochemicals released with the wastes of
pesticide and fertilizer factories or during agricultural practices also reach the soil and
pollute it.
Effects of soil pollution:
Sewage and industrial effluents which pollute the soil ultimately affect human
health. Various types of chemicals like acids, alkalis, pesticides, insecticides, weedicides,
fungicides, heavy metals etc. in the industrial discharges affect soil fertility by causing
changes in physical, chemical and biological properties.
Some of the persistent toxic chemicals inhibit the non -target organisms, soil flora
and fauna and reduce soil productivity. These chemicals accumulate in food chain and
ultimately affect human health. Indiscriminate use of pes ticides specially is a matter of
concern.
Nitrogen and phosphorus from the fertilizers in soil reach nearby water bodies with
agricultural run-off and cause eutrophication. Chemi cals or their degradation products from
soil may percolate and contaminate ground -water resources.
Water pollution:
Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water making it unsuitable for designated use in its natural state.
Sources of water pollution:
Water is an essential commodity for survival. We need water for drinking, cooking,
bathing, washing, irrigation, and for industrial operations. Most of water for such uses come
from rivers, lakes or groundwater sources. Water has the property to dissolve many
substances in it, therefore, it can easily get polluted. Pollution of water can be caused by
point sources or non -point sources. Point sources are specific sites near water which
directly discharge effluents into them. Surface run -off from agricultural fields, overflowing
small drains, rain -water sweeping roads and fields, atmospheric deposition are the non point sources of water pollution.
Ground water pollution:
Ground water forms about 6.2% of the total water available on planet earth and is
about 30 times more than surface water (streams, lakes and estuaries). Ground water seems
to be less prone to pollution as the soil mantle through which water passes helps to retain
various contaminants due to its cation exchange capacity. However, there are a number of
potential sources of ground water pollution. Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemical,
tanneries) deep well injection, mining etc. are mainly responsible for ground water
pollution, which is irreversible. Ground water pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate
are posing serious health hazards.
Surface water pollution:
The major sources of surface water pollution are:
Agrochemicals:
Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates) and pesticides
(insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain -water and surface run -off, pollute
water.

97
Effects of water pollution:
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Compounds (Nutrients):
Addition of compounds containing nitrogen and phosphorus helps in growth of
algae and other plants which when die and decay consume oxygen of water. Under
anaerobic conditions foul smelling gases are produced. Excess growth or decomposition of
plant material will change the concentration of CO 2 which will further change pH of water.
Changes in pH, oxygen and temperature will change many physico-chemical characteristics
of water.
Pathogens:
Many wastewaters especially sewage contain many pathogenic (disease causing)
and non -pathogenic micro -organisms and many viruses. Water borne diseases like cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, jaundice etc. are spread by water contaminated with sewage.
Toxic Compounds:
Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides and many other organic and
inorganic compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms. "The non-biodegradable toxic
compounds biomagnify in the food chain and cause toxic effects at various levels of food
chain.
Some of these substances like pesticides, methyl mercury etc. move into the bodies of
organisms from the medium in which these organisms live. Substances like DDT are not
water soluble and have affinity for body lipids. These substances tend to accumulate in the
organism's body. This process is called bioaccumulation. The concentration of these toxic
substances builds up at successive levels of food chain. This process is called
biomagnification. Following is the example of biomagnification of DDT in aquatic food
chain:
Component
Birds

DDT concentration (ppm)

10.00

Needle fish

1.0

Minnows

1.0

Zooplankton

0.1

Water

0.000001

Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to cause various
health problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin et c. have therefore, been banned. Recently, in
Andhra Pradesh, people suffered from various abnormalities due to consumption of
endosulphan contaminated cashew nuts. Presence of pesticide residues above the maximum
residue limit (MRL) in mineral water and soft drinks have made a hue and cry in the
country.

98
Control of water pollution:
It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However, due
to absence of defined strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from non p oint sources. The following points may help in reducing water pollution from non -point
sources.
(i)

Judicious use of agrochemicals like pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce
their surface run-off and leaching. Avoid use of these on sloped lands.

(ii)

Use of nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.

(iii) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticide

Effects of pesticide/insecticide residues on human health:
Body burden of DDT and HCH
Being liphophitic in nature, DDT and BHC have accumulated in human adipose
tissues all over world. The body burden of DDT and its analogues in Japan, UK, USA,
West Germany, Australia, Canada and India has been 4.30, 2.60, 2.24, 4.90, 3.70, 0.44 and
22.58 ppm, respectively, and of HCH 2.44 to 9.83 ppm in Japan, 0.333 ppm in UK, 0.26
ppm in USA and 16.85 ppm in India (Kurtz et al., 1991). Kumar and Kaushik (1995) found
HCH upto 2.50 ppm and DDT upto 3.30 ppm in human adipose tissue, whereas in blood
serum t he respective amounts of these toxicants were 1.5 ppm and 13.35 ppm. In India, the
figures do not represent the entire population because these studies have mostly been
conducted in metropolitan cities where the food habits of people are quite different from
those of rural masses.
The toxic effects of a pesticide depend on its toxicological properties, level of
residues and the degree of exposure of human beings in residues. The more presence of
pesticide residues in food does not mean that it is hazardous. To be toxic the residues have
to be present in quantities large enough to be considered unsafe or toxic (greater than MRL)
which cause some disorder or disease in the body.
Pesticide vis-a -vis cancer risks :
None of the synthetic pesticides has be en classified by International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC, 1988) as carcinogenic to human beings. However, long -term
exposure to pesticide may lead to:
(i)

Suppression of immune system resulting in significant reduction in resistance to

bacteria l, viral and other possible infections.

(ii)

Promotion in tumor growth in many animal species.

(iii)

Adverse effect on brain, liver and kidney.

The relative risk factors for human cancer from pesticides are 0.00000761 as
compared to 0.0770 for cancer risk due to food related constituents.
Management of pesticide residues within safe limits in future agriculture:
Pesticide residues problem in India is basically associated with continued use of
persistent organochlorine pesticides. To avoid pesticidal contamination following
approaches can go a long way to ensure food safety and environmental health to future
agriculture:
v Pesticide users should adhere to Good Agricultural Practices.

99
v Regular monitoring of pesticide residues in environmental components to frame the
future policies.
v Persistent organochlorine pesticides should be completely phased out from agricultural
use.
v Integrated pest management (IPM) should find top priority.
v Easily degradable and safe pesticides should be used.

100
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON VEGETATION AND HUMAN HEALTH
J. C. Kaushik and Ravi Kumar
Department of Forestry
CCS Haryana Agricultural University
Hisar 125 004, India
The air at the earths surface consists primarily of Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen
(21%). The remaining 1 per cent includes water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). Since the
onset of industrial revolution, there has been a steady change in the composition of the
atmosphere mainly due to the combustion of fossil fuels used for the generation of energy
and transportation. Air pollution is a major environmental problem affecting the developing
and the developed countries alike. The effects of air pollution are very complex as there are
many different sources and their individual effects vary from one to other. The major air
pollutants include Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Ozone (O3), Peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), Hydrogen
fluoride (HF), Chlorine, Oxides of nitrogen and suspended particulate matter (SPM).
A lmost all air pollutants causing effects on vegetatioin and human beings are gases but
some particulate matter or dust may also have adverse effects.
Air pollutants and kind of injury to plants:
Some gas contaminants such as ethylene, ammonia, chlorine and sometimes
mercury vapours exert their injurious effects over limited areas. Frequently, they effect
plant and plant products stored in poorly ventilated warehouses in which the pollutants are
produced by the plants themselves (ethylene) and from leaks in the cooling system
(ammonia). However, the most serious and wide spread damage is caused by chemicals such
as Ozone, Sulphur dioxide, Peroxyacyl nitrate, Hydrogen fluoride and particulate matter.
High concentration or long exposure to these chemicals causes visible and sometimes
characteristic symptoms on the affected plants. Prolonged exposure of plants even to lower
doses weaken the plant, which are readily attacked by the insects and plant pathogens. The
major air pollutants affecting the plants are:Chlorine and hydrogen chloride:
These originate from oil refineries, glass factories and accidental spillages.
Chlorine on contact with plants causes wide spread chlorosis and varying patterns of
necrosis on the foliage, however, the symptoms varies amo ng different plants species. In
contrast to other pollutants, older leaves seems more susceptible than young ones. Exposure
to chlorine at a lower concentration of 0.10 ppm for at least two hours causes necrosis while
at lowered concentration it requires more time.
Fluorides:
Air borne fluoride compounds such as hydrogen fluorides and silicon tetrafluorides
are found in the vicinity of phosphatic fertilizer plants, pottery kilns or oil refineries etc.
Once entered into the leaf tissue, it rapidly translocated to leaf tips and margins. As a
result, tip and marginal necrosis of the foliage develops on broad leaved trees often with a
distinct narrow reddish brown line of dead tissue separating healthy from affected parts. In
conifers tip burn is a characteristic feature with a similar marked differentiation between
live and dead tissues.
Oxides of nitrogen:
These are considered to have more important role in the production of secondary air
pollutants such as ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
Ozone:
Oxides of nitrogen are produced by the combination of nitrogen and oxygen at the
high temperatures developing in vehicle engines and some industrial processes. In the

101
presence of sunlight, these oxides of nitrogen react with the oxygen in the air and with
hydrocarbons released by motor vehicles to produce ozone.
Sunlight
NO 2 + O 2

O 3 + NO

In the presence of unburned hydrocarbon radicals, however, the nitric oxide reacts
with these instead of ozone and therefore the ozone concentration builds u p .
O 3 + [NO + Unburned hydrocarbons from automobiles etc.] O3 + PAN (Peroxyacyl
nitrate)
Symptoms of ozone damage on broad leaved trees are limited to the upper surface
of the foliage which is covered with small irregular flecks varying in colour from white
through yellow to reddish brown. At first, small water soaked spots appear near the base of
the needle. The affected areas then colesce to form chloratic or necrotic bands. In case of
highly susceptible trees damage may extend up to tip necrosis.
A concentration of 0.2 to 0.5 ppm ozone will cause damage to susceptible plant
species after exposure even to a few hours.
PAN (Peroxyacetyl nitrate):
It is produced in a similar manner to ozone by the reaction of oxide of nitrogen and
unsaturated hydrocarbon emitted by vehicle engines, in the presence of sunlight. Not like
ozone, PAN produces symptoms on the under surface of the leaves of broad leaved trees.
The lower surface appears glazed or bronzed due to collapse of the mesophyll cells around
the stomata.
Sulphur dioxide:
It is produced from many industrial processes including the combustion of coal, oil
and gas, oil refineries and the manufacture of sulphuric acid. On broad leaved tree species,
sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) causes bleaching or necrosis of the interveinal regions of the foliage,
the veins remaining green. On conifers, the needles have brown necrotic tips, often with a
banded appearance which is probably related to successive toxic emissions.
Particulate matter:
Finely divided solids, known as particulates can also damage the young plants. The
important sources of particulates are coal or burning stones, cement factories and lime kilns
etc.
Deposition of genuine root which are different from sooty moulds are commonly
found on the foliage of trees close to industries, factories burning coal or oil. Deposits of
dust around cement factories may cause chlorosis and death in both broad leaves and
coniferous tree species.
Air pollution and human health:
Air pollutants that are inhaled have serious impact on human health affecting the
lungs and the respiratory system. These pollutants are also deposited on plants, soils and in
water, further contributing to human exposure. A brief impact of specific air pollutants on
human health is given below:
(i)
Exposure to volatile organic compounds can cause irritation of eyes, nose and
throat. However, headaches, nausea and loss of coordination have also been recorded in
severe cases. Prolonged exposure to these compounds may cause damage to the liver and
other parts of body.

102
(ii)
Ozone (O3 ) cause itching in eyes, burn and asthma. It lowers the body resistance to
colds and pneumonia.
(iii)
Carbon monoxide (CO) when combines with haemoglobin, lessens the amount of
oxygen that enters blood through our lungs. The binding with other haeme proteins causes
changes in the function of the affected organs such as the brain and the cardiovascular
system and also the developing foetus.
(iv)
Oxides of nitrogen can ma ke children susceptible to respiratory diseases
particularly in winter.
(v)
Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) in the air is caused due to the rise in combustion of fossil
fuels. It can oxydize and form sulphuric acid mist. SO2 in air leads to diseases of the lung
and other lung disorders such wheezing and shortness of breath.
(vi)

Formaldehyde causes irritation to eyes, nose and may cause in some people.

(vii)
Prolonged exposure to lead can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive
problems and in some cases cancer too. It is especially hazardous to children.
(viii) Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is a major cause of
ill health, as it is known to cause cancer not only to the smokers but affecting passive
smokers too. The effects ran ge from burning sensation in the eyes or nose, throat irrigation,
to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma and a decrease in lung function.
(ix)
Biological pollutants (Fungi, virus, bacteria, pollen, plant parts, etc.) can cause
asthma, hay fever and other allergic diseases in human beings.
(x)
Suspended particulate matter (SPM). It consists of dust, fumes, mist and smoke .
The main chemical components of SPM that is of major concern are lead, nickel, arsenic
and those present in diesel exhaust. These particle when breathed in, lodge in our lung
tissues and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.

103

6. SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

R. K. Khatkar and V.P. Mehta

Department Of Agricultural Economics
CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125 004

From Unsustainable to Sustainable Development:

(a)

Unsustainable development is that which leads to the reduction in the sum of

environmental capital, human resource capital, or human made capital
available to the future generations.

After independence, India launched a series of economic plans for rapid expansion in
agriculture, with a view to increase production and employment, to reduce poverty and
inequality of income and wealth and to establish a socialist society based on equality and
justice. But as a result of poor planning and in many cases because of mindless and ruthless
exploitation of natural resources, we have degraded our physical environment. By
environment we mean the whole complex of climatic, soil, water and biotic factors on
which we all subsist, and on which our entire agricultural and industrial development
depends. Rapid economic development is turning India into a vast wasteland. If poverty in
pre -Independence India was the result of under-utilization of resources, there is every
possibility that poverty , unemployment and inequality would continue to persist due to the
destruction of environment. The unsustainable development has caused:
i.

land degradation due to soil erosion, deforestation and chemical residuals etc.

ii.

ecological degradation due to overgrazing

iii.

land degradation due to water-logging and salinity owing to overexploitation

and non -judicious use of canal irrigation and depletion of underground water
table due to overexploitation of ground water

iv.

destruction of habitat

v.

environmental problems arising out of indiscriminate mining

vi.

atmospheric pollution
maintained automobiles

due

to

uncontrolled

industrialization

and

badly

Resource intensive technologies in agriculture has degraded the land and water
resources in terms of rise and depletion of water table, water-logging and salinity due to
lack of drainage which has lead to decline in land productivity. The indiscriminate and
non -judicious use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has contaminated the land and
water and caused health hazards to human , livestock and other flora and fauna on the
earth. The toxic effects of pesticides and herbicides in the form of food and water
contamination and pollution may adversely affect human and animal health and
eventually influence their overall productivity.
Thus, unsustainable development has adversely affected the natural resources, ecology,
economy and health of habitats.
(b)

Sustainable development:

Sustainable development is development which: integrates economic, environmental,

and social values during planning; distributes benefits equitably across socioeconomic

104
strata and gender upon implementation; and ensures that opportunities for continuing
development remain undiminished to future generations.
Sustainability is further defined in terms of equitability. Sustainability is
characterized by equitable distribution of benefits and opportunities across
socioeconomic groups, gender, and generations.
(c)

Sustainability concept can be classified as follows:

1a.

A sustainable state is one in which utility is non-declining through time

1b.

A sustainable state is one in which consumption is non -declining through time.

2.

A sustainable state is one in which resources are managed so as to maintain

production opportunities for the future.

3.

A sustainable state is one in which the natural capital stock is non -declining
through time.

4.

A sustainable state is one in which resources are managed so as to maintain

sustainable yield of resource services.

5.

A sustainable state is one which satisfies minimum conditions of ecosystem

stability and resilience through time.

(D).

SUSTAINABLE
PREMISES:

DEVELOPMENT:

UNDERLYING

PRINCIPLES/

Some of the principles/premises underlying the concept of sustainability development

are:
1.

It is an alternative design for development, which, by definition should be

environmentally benign and eco-friendly.

2.

The present generation should meet its needs without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their needs, i.e., to ensure that the productive assets
available to future generations are not unfairly diminished.

3.

That those who enjoy the fruits of economic development today must not make
future generations worse off by excessively degrading the earths exhaustible
resources and polluting the earths ecology and environment.

4.

There is a systematic relationship between consumerist human race and producer

natural system.

5.

That environment and development are not mutually exclusive: healthy environment
is essential to sustainable development and healthy economy.

6.

The economic development which erodes natural capital is often successful.

7.

That environmental mistakes of the past need not be repeated, as past patterns of
environment degradation are not inevitable.

8.

The development is not growth only, it should stand for broader goals of social
transformation.

105
9.

That sustainable development in the long run has to do with ecology, resources and
people, along with their services, institutions and other aspects of social
organization.

10.

The sustainable development has two major aspects: internally sustainable

development and externally sustainable development; without both, no real
sustainable development would exist; and

11.

That sustainable development is accountable to the poor, and hence, it should

ensure that the poor have adequate access to sustainable and secure livelihood.

Ecological
viable

Sustainable
solution
Socially
Desirable

Economically
Feasible

Fig. 6.1: Inter-section of three key elements that encompass the viewpoints of
ecologists, economists and sociologists for sustainable development.
(e)

Elements of sustainable development:

Population stabilization
New technologies/technology transfer
Efficient use of natural resources
Waste reduction and pollution prevention
Win -win situations
Integrated environmental systems management
Determining environmental limits
Refining market economy
Education
Perception and attitude changes (paradigm shift)
Social and cultural changes

106

Human capital
Strategic
planning/polici
Equitability
es/managemen
t
Habitats of
Economic
humanity
development

Environmenta
l capital

Extraction

Human-made
capital

Restoration
efficient
technologies

Fig. 6.2: A Dynamic Model of Sustainable Development

(f)

Environmental challenges and sustainable future:

The environment or a countrys natural capital can provide a sustainable flow of goods
and services that are needed for development. The main environment challenges we are
facing today include water and sanitation, energy and industrial growth, rural development
and international environment issues.
Emerging issues:
Some sustainable issues of development like government policies, market incentives,
and public pressure need to push reluctant public and private sector enterprises to waste
less, pollute less and meet modes of needs of low income households, women and socially
excluded groups. However, sustainable development will not result solely from a fortuitous
conjunction of correct pricing, sound regulation and enforcements, and inevitably sporadic
public pressure.
The challenge is too great; the gap between crisis and policy shifts is widening daily.
Only fundamental shift in culture, in the mindsets of enterprises managers, government
functionaries and owners of capital can extricate the Asia and the Pacific from a morass of
obsolete technologies and process designs and put in on the path to a revolutionary
transformation of production, consu mption and distribution of resources.
Resettlement and rehabilitation of people, its problems and concerns:
The displacement of people may take place due to acquisition of land either for (a)
irrigation project or (b) for power project and for any other big project to be established for
the welfare of the society. Then the resettlement and rehabilitation of such displaced people
are to be taken on priority basis.
There might be some social impacts of resettlement and rehabilitation in terms of
law and order, communication, education, health, electricity and so on. Thus, all these
aspects need to be taken into consideration before starting the resettlement and
rehabilitation process of the displaced people.

107
There might some problem arise such as resettlement site may be lesser productive
land, lack of adequate irrigation facilities, sanitary problem, lack of road, power, market,
school and other amenities required for healthy and congenial environment. Thus, it is the
duty of the government and resettlement and rehabilitation authority to take care of all these
problems and address all such problems on priority basis.
There must
rehabilitation:

be

the

provisions

for

social

amenities

for

resettlement

and

1. School
2. Drinking water
3. Health facility
4. Recreation facility
5. Marketing
6.Economic opportunities (employment and income opportunities)
7. Opportunities for self-employment.

Displaced persons can be resettled by offering them a package consisting of the

following:
(i)

Provision of alternative land,

(ii)

Provision of alternative rehabilitation sites and civic amenities thereon

(iii)

Provision of employment opportunities, and

(iv)

Payment of compensation over and above that is available in accordance with the
existing law under Land Acquisition Act.

Environmental Ethics: Issues and possible solutions:

It would be impossible to try to define sustainable development without discussing the

importance of ethics and culture. Ethics and culture are no less important with respect to
sustainable development than with respect to other issues such as birth control, gun control,
redistribution of wealth, etc.
A fundamental distinction can be drawn between two broad families of ethical systems,
humanist and naturalist moral philosophies. In humanist philosophies, rights and duties are
accorded exclusively to human beings, either as individuals or as communities. Whilst
human may be willing to treat other species tenderly or with respect, non -human things
have no rights or responsibilities in themselves. A naturalist ethic denies this primacy or
exclusivity to human beings. In this ethical framework, values do not derive from human
beings, have no human psychological basis, nor reside in humans exclusively. Rather, rights
can be defined only with respect to some natural system, including living and non -living
components. A classical exposition of this ethic is to be found in Aldo Leopolds A sound
County Almanac (1949), page 262:
A thing is right when it tends to p reserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the
biotic community. It is wrong when it tend otherwise.
It appears to be the case in practice that arguments based on a naturalistic ethic tend
to draw a distinction between projects having any ecological impact and those having
significant impacts on parts of the biosphere considered to be particularly deserving of
safeguard, perhaps because of their unusualness or scarcity.

108
The ethical dimensions of sustainable development are two fold: (1) our
relationship to fellow inhabitants of our country and planet and (2) our relationship to the
land and plant and animal inhabitants of the world. If many environmental professionals are
s h y , there is no shortage of ethicists, theologians and environmentalists willing to address
these questions.
Is it immoral that the United States has to import over one half of its energy
supply? Or that a child born into the culture of the US will consume 30 to 40 times per
capita the energy and natural resources of the average of the rest of the world and 200
times as much as several underdeveloped countries?
Issues:
The purpose of Fig 4 is to illustrate the interactions in terms of (1) the kinds of input
demands and stresses that the economic system places upon the natural system and (2) the
waste outputs and stresses which economic system places upon the natural system with
respect to the input demands posed by agricultural, industrial, commercial and residential
economic sectors comprising the whole economic system. There are a few broad categories
of stresses including: (1) the conversion of land and habitat to other uses; (2) ecological
depletion and possible extinction of living species through harvesting, hunting, fishing and
habitat conversion and (3) consumption of nonliving mineral and fossil fuel resources.
In terms of outputs and stresses which economic system places upon the natural system,
again some broad categories are noted, including (1) air and water pollutants and solid
wastes; (2) green house gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor and other trace gases,
and thermal energy; (3) altered land, which may have been cleared, denuded or paved and
(4) silt, minerals and nutrients, res ulting from erosion, runoff and decay products from both
organisms and solid wastes.
.
Possible solutions:
1.

Method of GDP calculation:

Perhaps the first constructive step towards dealing with this deficit problem is the
recognition that it exists. Towards this end, the U.S. Department of Commerce has recently
developed a new indicator of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which subtracts the
consumption of natural resources and costs of pollution and adds the benefits from
improvements in environmental quality.
2.

Fixing the economic system relations:

There are several basic, underlying reforms needed throughout the whole economic
system to reduce both the natural system inputs and pollutants and waste outputs. First,
w.r.t. the manufacturing sector, there must be more efficient product design and more
efficient manufacturing processes and quality control (more on this later). However, other
reforms are also needed within agricultural and commercial sector as well. Careful farming
methods, land use planning and proper production practices can all reduce soil erosion.
Better land use and transportation planning are necessary to reduce pollutants emissions and
impacts. And new communications technology will likely reduce the amount of business
travel, co mmuting and transportation pollution.
Another basic reform required to better integrate protection of natural system within the
macro -economy is a shift or economic substitution for the inputs. For example, economic
substitutions include a shift from foss il energy inputs to energy efficiency and renewable
energy (solar, hydraulic and wind etc.), a shift from a virgin resource to a recycled input
and a shift from prime agricultural land development towards other lands. Achieving
sustainable development in developing countries may even require some surprising shifts,
such as from one form of renewable energy (wood biomass) to another form of renewable
energy (solar, wind), or even a shift from wood to a fossil fuel (coupled with efficient
energy use).

109

3.

Economic incentives and disincentives:

The market focuses upon profit and tends to allocate and reward investments with
short -term paybacks without bothering about environment. The environment friendly
efficient product designs, manufacturing processes, quality products and economic
substitution of inputs requires some incentives in the present global free market economy
under WTO. Closely related to the use of economic incentives, however, is manufacturing
awareness and concern, changes in corporate culture and a concern for life cycle costs of
processes and products. Many such barriers must be overcome before economic
incentives can be fully effective.
Historically, within the field of environmental economics, economic incentives
have been frequently viewed as a form of payment or subsidy (incentive) or a form of tax
(disincentive) or a combination of both, which is sometimes referred to as push -pull. In a
broader sense, however, more basic tools such as targeted investment tax credits can be
important incentives to stimulate investment in more efficient manufacturing processes and
to adopt the life cycle costing approach as discussed below.
Other Western countries, more than the U.S., have relied upon tax policy to reduce
resource consumption and environmental impacts. Increasingly, though, environmental laws
call for emission charges and fees as disincentive for polluters. The present effort to revise
tax policy to replace tobacco subsidies with tobacco taxes to pay for health care
demonstrates a kind of push -pull tax policy; similar policies could actually become more
widespread as sustainable development issues such as global climate change, land use
and prime farmland protection become more prominent.
Undoubtedly, the strongest kind of incentive is a bottom-line cost saving through
efficient operation, which means minimizing the input energy and raw materials for
operations and reducing waste. Related to this must be an increasing awareness and
adoption of life cycle costing of products so that performance, durability and operation
costs are taken into account for lifetime of the product.
This neglect has generally hampered the adoption of state-of the -art energy
efficiency for homes and offices and fa ctories. At least in Western countries, another
important kind of economic incentive is the marketing and promotional value derived from
consumer preference of green products.
In the case of developing countries, there is potentially a particularly powe rful
economic incentive which could be used to promote sustainable economic development:
international
Bank and lending policies - giving preference to the environment friendly and
ecologically and economically viable and socially acceptable projects.
4.

A new kind of economic growth:

The U.N. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) observes,

sustainable development requires a change in the content of growth, to make it less
material and energy -intensive and more equitable in its impact. In a global, open
economy, the interactions between the economic and natural systems affect transfers at
regional levels from one region to another. Thus, a related feature is that the economic
demands from one region can cause problems of economic equity and human welfare and
stresses upon the natural system in another region. For example, in developing countries,
exports of cash crops and natural resources may reduce the land and natural resources
available to sustain the local population and concentrate the wealth from exports among a
relative few.

110

LIFE CYCLE
ASSESSMENT
*Inventory
*Impact
*Improvement

FULL- COST
ACCOUNTING
*Usual costs
*Hidden costs
*Liability costs

LIFE CYCLE DESIGN

*Conserve resources
*Prevent pollution
*Support sustainable development

Fig. 6.3: Designing Environmentally Compatible Products

Urban problems related to energy:

Migration of rural people to urban areas in search of jobs has lead to non -planned
development of cities. This has resulted in the shift of traditional energy sources of fuel
wood and cow-dung cakes for their domestic energy use to kerosene oil, cooking gas,
electricity etc. Thus, the demand for non-renewable sources of energy has increased
manifold. The increase in fossil fuel energy demand has put more pressure on oil import
bill. To repay the loans and heavy oil bills has aggravated the problem of over exploitation
of natural resources thereby leading to the environmental degradation.
In order to see how the world might make a successful transition to a new earthmanship
energy era, we need to look at several questions:
1.

How much energy do we use and waste?

2.

What are our present and future energy alternatives? How long will each alternative
last, and what are its net useful energy yield, relative cost, and environmental
impact?

3.

How can energy demand and waste (especially in developed nations) be reduced?

4.

What are the major principles of a short -intermediate - and long -term plan for
making a relatively smooth transit ion to a new earthmanship energy era?

To tackle this problem we have to make use of the available energy sources
efficiently. Further, there is a need to tap the alternative renewable energy sources which
are environment friendly:

111
(i)

Solar energy

(ii)

Bio -gas

(iii)

Wind energy

(iv)

Hydro -power

Equitable use of resources for sustainable life -styles:

People living in industrialized countries i.e. North-constitute a small fraction of
global population, yet at present, they consume a large share of the worlds natural
resources. While developing countries i.e. South -supporting larger portion of worlds
population are being deprived of resources needed for their future development by such
unscrupulous consumption by North. Larger consumption of fossil fuel in North has
contributed disproportionately to the built up of Co 2 in the atmosphere and thereby causing
threat to global climatic change through depletion of ozone layer. USA alone is consuming
one -fourth of the world energy consumption and 75 per cent of this is covering by the
import from developing countries.
Thus, to lead the sustainable lifestyles globally in the future, there is a need for
equitable use of resources among developed (North) and developing (South) countries. The
developed nations must pay for abatement and control of pollution and regeneration and
conservation of natural resources. For the development of technologies for the efficient
utilization of energy and natural resources the developed nations must provide generous
help to the developing countries.
Environmental protection system in India:
Environmental Laws:
The Indian Constitution provides for power sharing between the federal and state
governments. Parliament has the power to legislate for the whole country, while the state
legislatures are empowered to make laws only for their respective territorial jurisdictions.
Under Article 246 of the Constitution, the subject areas of legislation are divided between
the union and the states into three lists, union, state, and concurrent list. Central law
prevails over state law in the concurrent list, however, state law prevails if it has received
presidential assent. The Constitution also provides that the centre may enact laws on the
state list, after receiving consent from the respect ive states.
After the 1972 UN Conference on Environment and Human Development at Stockholm,
the Indian government incorporated Articles 48A, Article 51A (g), and 253 to the Indian
Constitution. On the basis of these articles, parliament enacted the Prevent ion and Control
of Pollution Act, 1981 (Air Act), and the Environmental Protection Act of 1986.
An outline of the environmental legislation in India is given below :
1.

The Water Act of 1974 (Amendment, 1988):

This is the first law passed in India whose objective was to ensure that domestic and
industrial pollutants are not discharged into rivers and lakes without adequate treatment.
The reasons is that such a discharge renders the water unsuitable for drinking, irrigation and
to support marine life.
In order to achieve its objective, pollution control boards at the central and state
levels were created to establish and enforce standards for factories discharging pollutants
into bodies of water. The state boards are empowered to issue consent for establishment
(CFE) whenever a firm wanted to establish a new factory and also issue consent for
operation (CFO) for existing factories. They were also given the authority to close factories
or, in the case of disconnecting power and water supply, issue directions to the concerned
departments for enforcement of boards standards.

112
2.

The Air Act of 1981 (Amendment, 1987):

The objective of the Air Act of 1981 was to control and reduce air pollution. The
working of this act and the enforcement mechanisms are similar to that of the Water Act.
What was novel was that the act also called for the abatement of noise pollution.
3.

Environmental Protection Act, 1986 (The EP Act):

The objective of the EP Act is to protect and improve the environment in the
country. It is an umbrella legislation that consolidated the provisions of the air and water
acts. Environmental disasters prodded the Indian government into passing comprehensive
legislation, including rules relating to storing, handling and use of hazardous waste.
The EP Act empowered the Indian government to make rules and regulations to
fulfil its objectives. Under this act and its rules the government takes all necessary steps,
such as the formulation of national environmental standards, prescribe procedures for
managing hazardous substances, regulate industrial locations, establish safeguards for
preventing accidents, and collect and disseminate information regarding environmental
pollution. It also empowered the government to set up parallel regulatory agencies to
protect parts of the environment and to delegate its powers to such an agency. For example,
the government could s et up an agency to protect coastal resources.
The EP Act provided for civil and criminal penalties for the violation of its
pollution standards. For example, it imposes a penalty for non -compliance of standards with
a fine of up to Rs. 1,00,000 or imprisonment upto five years, or both.
4.

The Product Liability Insurance Act (1991):

The focus of this act was to provide for the payment of immediate compensation to
the victims of industrial accidents.
Enforcement of environmental laws:
Environmental laws are enforced not only by pollution control boards set up at
federal and state levels, but also by the Supreme Court and the high courts of states through
a process called public interest litigation (PIL). Before describing the use of PIL, it is
instructive to learn about the structure of the Indian judicial system.
1.

Supreme court:

The Supreme Court is the apex court that has both original and appellate
jurisdiction. It is under this article that the court initia ted the concept PIL which is unique
to the Indian court system. Under it, any individual or group of individuals can ask the
court for relief against the actions or the lack thereof of the government or its agencies. The
court issues a writ of mandamus ord ering the government or its agencies to perform its
duties that are mandated by the law.
2.

High court:

The high court is the apex court of every state of the Indian Union and is
constituted under the provisions of the Indian Constitution. It, too, has writ jurisdiction
under Article 226 of the Constitution.
3.

PIL and the Indian courts:

The Indian liability system adopted PIL to safeguard the public at large by
increasing its accessibility. Under the provision of the PIL, a letter to the courts could be
treated as a petition. The courts even provide legal aid to argue the case on behalf of the
petitioner. The concept of PIL was initially adopted by Krishna lyer in 1976 (without

113
assigning the terminology) in the Mumbai Kumgar Sabha vs. Abdulbhai. In fact, the
terminology public interest litigation was used in Fertilisers Corporation Kamgar Union vs.
Union of India.
Issues involved in enforcement of toxicity : environmental legislation:
On the part of government for not implementing its order, in the Delhi
Transportation case of SC directed the Delhi state government to pay a fine of Rs. 25 crore
for non-implementation of its order. The focus should be on recovering costs from the
concerned authorities who were responsible for not implementing the court orde r, and
violation of rules and regulations, which is the cause of further environmental degradation.
Delays in the system:
The courts in general are unable to dispose of cases quickly. It may further
aggravate the damage caused by environmental pollution in the country. The study indicates
that the courts on average are unable to dispose of 71 per cent of the total cases within 180
days. In addition, they took more than four years to dispose of 31 per cent of the total time
limits and procedures for quick disposal in order to improve environmental quality in the
country.
Accountability issues:
Accountability of the functionaries of the Constitution of India is generally based
on the principle of safeguarding the interests of citizens and incorporation of trust among
the public on the functioning of the government. The provisions of the Constitution balance
power between the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary in order to ensure good
governance. For example, whenever the actions or inaction of the state infringes on the
rights of the public, by receiving an application, the judiciary needs to safeguard the
interests of the public at large. However, due to various reasons the legislature and the
executive work closely. For instance, the rules and regu lations are drafted and implemented
by the executives but enacted by the legislatures. Moreover, the success or failure of the
government in providing good governance to citizens is largely based on the actions and
inaction of the legislature and executive. The role of the judiciary becomes important in
litigation filed by citizens, when there is dissatisfaction about the law. Otherwise, the
judiciary has no role to play except when the government seeks legal opinion.
The experience of the functioning of the executive, legislature and judiciary reveals
that the system in the country works mostly to the advantage of the mighty, wealthy and
powerful citizens at the cost of public at large. Therefore, a citizen of India is unable to
utilise the privileges (rig hts and obligations) guaranteed under the Constitution. The
institutions that were established to serve the citizens of India are becoming the master of
the citizens. Thus, there is a need for a review of the working of the system in its totality
and tune the system in such a way that it helps the public at large. The establishment of an
apex body is one of the solutions. There is a need for an apex body, which should consist of
citizens belonging to the legislature, executive and judiciary, under the prov isions of the
Constitution to protect the interests of the public in India. It should assess and manage the
risk of environmental degradation in the spirit of public interest.
Overall, the study emphasizes the necessity of improving the functioning of the
liability system by making necessary changes not only in the substance of the law, but also
in the working conditions of the courts to protect and improve environmental quality in
India.
Public awareness:
Of the 25 million species of flowering plants wo rldwide, only 20,000 have so far
been listed as being of known medicinal value and only 5,000 have been phytochemically
studied.

114
As many as 75 to 90 per cent of the worlds rural people rely on verbal medicine for
their primary health care. Their role is all the more crucial in the gene -rich tropical Third
World countries like India where traditional medicine can form an important part of the
health care system.
The World Health Organisation has, in fact, recognised the potential for expansion
to these traditional systems and for accepting them as complementary to the modern
medicinal system in the primary health structure of the country.
The natural environment:
(i)

The atmosphere (ii)

The hydrosphere

(iv)

The geosphere

(iv)

The biosphere

(v)

Ecosystems

(vi)

Global cycles

The main environmental issues:

(i)

Global warming, its causes and effects.

(ii)

Ozone depletion and its effects.

(iii)

Biological diversity loss, its causes and effects.

(iv)

Biotechnology and its effects.

(v)

Deforestation, its causes and effects.

(vi)

Desertification, its causes and effects.

(vii)

Environment disasters and their effects.

(viii)

Pollution -causes and effects.

(ix)

Urbanisation and its environmental effects.

(x)

Environmental and health.

(xi)

Population and the environment.

In such a situation, it is of utmost importance and necessity to improve public

understanding of environmental risks and train them to help in reducing the same. Here
comes the role of environmental education. This education is necessary for promoting
harmonious relationship between man and environment.
Mass awareness for environmental problems:
The area of environmental awareness requires large scale participation of people.
One of the biggest challenges will be to educate the masses. It is not enough to educate
people about the dangers of all-round ecological degradation unless it is accompanied by
knowledge of methods of self-reliance and local ways of protecting the environment at
every doorstep. Every hu man being should be able to contribute towards environment
protection in his own way and in simplest possible ways. For this environmental literacy of
the masses is essential in order to lend a helping hand to the nations efforts to save the
people from environmental degradation.

115
In the third world countries, where literacy is low, the implementation of any
programme is a bit difficult.
The mass awareness programmes for environmental problems must be designed by
the decision maker for the people who are to be educated. The target groups are socially and
economically highly diverse. Therefore, keeping in view diversity of the group, special
message are to be designed and also the media for the dissemination of the messages.
A number of environmentalists have listed the replacement of attitudes and have
suggested the following ethical guidelines towards environment :
1.

The International Green Peace environmental organization is of the view that

Ecology has taught us that th e whole earth is part of our body and that we must
learn to respect it as we respect ourselves.

2.

Nature does not exist primarily for human use but for all living species.

3.

The primary purpose of man is to care for all other species and to share earths
finite resources.

4.

Natural resources are not infinite and must not be wasted. The wasteful use is
harmful and detrimental to the quality of life of other species.

5.

Even increasing production and consumption of material goods is not a right of

h u man being. Hence Gandhijis observation : There is enough for everybodys
need, but not for anybodys greed.

6.

As a part of nature, humans should work with nature for the stability and beauty of
biotic community.
In addition to the above people must cha nge their apathetic attitude towards nature.

Though academic exercise only better awareness can be created on various aspects
of environmental degradation such as :

Pollution and environmental decay.

Consumption and production due to overpopulation.

Preservation and protection of environment, and

Sustainable earth.

This attempt of inculcating awareness from the childhood stage can convert a
person into an emotional as well as an intellectual environmentalist. Ones achievement in
environmental research finding along with ones emotional attachment with the
environment as a whole must be appreciated. Besides, it will be easy to identify ones basic
needs and to define a life of simplicity in harmony with natural cycles.
Arresting degradation: suggestions
The following are some suggestions to prevent environmental degradation :
1.

One can define ones needs and wants and learn to satisfy oneself with simple
things.

2.

One should examine ones surroundings starting from ones own house,
neighbourhood, street, village, locality, etc. and find out what is ones own

116
responsibility for improving the environment and what are ones own bad habits
which deplete the environment.
3.

4.

Recalling the saying the Chinese philosoph er Confucius, The journey of the
thousand miles begins with one step. One should begin with enthusiasm :
(i)

To give up ones bad habits like smoking, drinking, non-vegetarianism,

uneconomic, unreasonable use of any sort of products or by-products of
n atural resources; and

(ii)

To lead a simple life to reduce consumption level and consequentially the

reduction of waste material and pollution.

People believe more on action and are convinced by action, not by words.
Therefore, one should try to become an environmental catalyst in action and should
be prepared for criticisms against his own environmental sins.

117

7. HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT

R. K. Khatkar and V.P. Mehta
Department of Agricultural Economics
CCS Haryana Agricultural University , Hisar- 125 004

Size and growth rate of population in India:

India today possesses about 2.4 per cent of the total land area of the world but she
has to support about 16 per cent of the world population. At the beginning of this century
Indias popula tion was 236 million and according to 2001 census, the population of India is
1027 million. A study of the growth rate of Indias population can be made from the Table
7.1.
Table 7.1: Growth of Population in India (1891 -2001)
Census Year

Population
(in million)

Increase or
decrease (in
millions)

Percentage increase
or decrease

1891
236
1901
236
0.0
0.0
1911
252
+16
+5.7
1921
251
1
0.3
(1891 -1921)
+15
+0.19
1931
279
+28
+11.0
1941
319
+40
+14.2
1951
361
+42
+13.3
(1921 -1951)
+110
+1.22
1961
439
+78
+21.5
1971
548
+109
+24.8
1981
683
+135
+24.7
(1951 -1981)
+322
+2.14
1991
844
+161
+23.5
2001
1027
+183
+21.3
Compound annual growth rate of population
1891- 1921
0.19
1921- 1951
1.22
1951- 1991
2.15
1981- 1991
2.11
1991- 2001
1.93
Source : Census of India 2001,Series 1, Paper 1 of 2001, Provisional Population Totals
Table 7.2: Average Annual Birth and Death Rates in India
Decade
Births per 1,000
Deaths per 1,000
1891 -1900
45.8
44.4
1901 -1910
48.1
42.6
1911 -2 0
49.2
48.6
1921 -3 0
46.4
36.3
1931 -4 0
45.2
31.2
1941 -5 0
39.9
27.4
1951 -6 0
40.0
18.0
1961 -7 0
41.2
19.2
1971 -8 0
37.2
15.0
1970 -7 1
36.9
14.9
1980 -8 1
33.9
12.5
1985 -8 6
32.6
11.1
1990 -9 1
29.5
9.8
2000 -0 1
25.8
8.5
Source : Census of India, 1971, Age and Life Tables and Census of India 1981, Series I, India, Paper 1 of 1984, and Office of
R e g i s t r a r G e n e r a l , a n d M i n i s t r y o f H e a l t h a n d F a m i l y W e l f a r e , A n n u a l R e p o r t ( 2 0 0 0 -0 1 ) , a n d E c o n o m i c S u r v e y 2 0 0 2 - 03

118
Population policy during the ninth plan (1997 -2002):
The Ninth Plan has identified three principal factors contributing to the growth of
population .They are :
v The large size of the population in the reproductive age group and its contribution to
population growth is estimated to be 60percent. It may be noted that as against 78.8
million married women in the age group 15-44 in 1961, their number has risen to 144.2
million.
v Higher fertility due to unmet need for contraception and its estimated contribution to
population growth is 20, percent .
v Higher unwanted fertility due to high infant mortality rate and its estimated
contribution to population growth is 20 percent.

The Ninth Plan hopes that with increased Reproductive and Child Health Care
(RCH), it would be possible to achieve the lower limits of Infant Mortality Rate (50 per
thousand),Crude Birth Rate (23 per thousand) and total Fertility Rate(2.6) by the year 2002,
RCH included the following:
v Effective material and child health care to ensure safe motherhood and child survival;
v Increased access to contraceptives,
v Legal abortion facilities for safe management of unwanted pregnancies;
v Effective nutritional services to vulnerable groups; and
v Prevention and treatment of sexually transmit -diseases (STD )and Reproductive Tract
Infections.
To achieve these objectives, the Draft Population Policy Paper emphasized the need to
allocate 3 percent of the total public sector plan outlay instead of the earlier meagre1.8
percent so that family planning and welfare services can be made universally available to
the entire population and the unmet needs for contraception can be taken of.
National population policy (2000):
The NDA Government finally decided on 15th February 2000 to adopt the National
Population Policy (2000) with a view to encourage two -child norm and aim at stabilizing
the population by 2046 A.D. The main features of the National Population Policy are as
under:
(1)

Reduction of infant mortality rate below 30 per 1000 live births.

(2)

Reduction of maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 1,00,000 live births.

(3)

Universal immunization.

(4)

To achieve 80 percent deliveries in regular dispensaries, hospitals and medical

institutions with trained staff.

(5)

Access to information,
communicable diseases.

(6)

Incentive to adopt two -child small family norm.

(7)

Facilities for safe abortions to be increased.

(8)

Strict enforcement of Child Marriage Restraint Act and Pre -Natal Diagnostic
Techniques Act,

(9)

Raising the age of girls not earlier than 18, and preferably raising it to 20
years or more.

containing

AIDS,

prevention

and

control

of

119
(10)

A special reward for women who marry after21 and opt for a terminal method
of contraception after the second child

(11)

In tegration of Indian System of Medicine in the provision of reproduction and

child health services.

(12)

Health insurance cover for those below the poverty line who undergo
sterilization after having two children.

(13)

The appointment of a National Commission on Population to be headed by the

Prime Minister to monitor the implementation of population policy.

The Action Plan drawn for the next 10 crucrial years included the following:
(1)

Self-help groups at village panchayat levels compris ing mostly of house wives will
interact with health care workers and gram panchayat.

(2)

Elementary education to be made free and compulsory.

(3)

Registration of marriage and pregnancy to be made compulsory along with births

and deaths.

The Government hopes to achieve the objectives of population stabilization by 2046

A.D. Immediately to improve the infrastructure, an additional allocation of Rs. 3,000 crores
is required so that the unmet need of contraception can be taken care of.
Tenth plan and family welfare programs:
The Tenth Plan has targeted to reduce crude birth rate from the level 25.8 per
thousand in 2000 to 21 by the year 2007. For this goal to be achieved, the total fertility rate
will be brought down from the current level of 3.2 to 2.3 by 2007. Infant mortality rate will
be reduced from the current level of 68 to 45 by 2007. A very ambitious target set by the
Tenth Plan is to increase safe deliveries from the present level of 42.2 per cent to 80 per
cent by 2007. Tenth Plan has made a provision of Rs. 27,125 crores, i.e. 1.7 per cent of the
total plan outlay for family welfare, as against the provision of Rs. 15,120 crores in the
Ninth Plan (1.8 per cent ).Tenth Plan hopes to restrict the growth of population between
2001- 11 to 16.2 per cent. This implies that by 2011, population of India will be around
1,193 million. The Registrar General of India projects Indias population in 2016 at 1,264
million.
Table 7.3: Literacy rate in India (per cent)
Particulars
Male
Female
Total Person

1950 -51
27.2
8.9
18.3

1960 -61
40.4
15.3
28.3

1970 -71
46.0
22.0
34.5

1980 -81
56.4
29.0
43.6

1990 -91
64.1
39.3
52.2

2000 -01
75.8
54.2
65.4

Table 7.4: Crude birth and death rates for selected countries
Country

Birth
Rate
Death
Rate
1970
2000
1970
2000
Germany
14
9
13
11
U.K.
16
11
12
11
U.S.A.
18
15
10
9
Canada
17
11
7
8
France
17
13
11
9
Australia
21
10
9
10
Japan
19
9
7
8
China
33
15
8
7
India
41
25
18
9
Source : World development Report (indicators)(2002)

Infant mortality rate

1970
2000
23
4
19
6
20
7
19
5
18
4
18
5
13
4
69
32
137
69

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Table 7.5: World population growth by groups
Population
(millions)

Per cent of
total

Average annual
growth rate (%)

Country group
1980

2002

1980

2002

1980 -90

1990 -2000

Low income economies

1384

2495

31.3

40.2

2.4

2.0

Middle income economies

2217

2742

50.0

44.2

1.6

1.2

High income economies

825

965

18.6

15.6

0.7

0.7

Total

4426

6201

100.0

100.0

1.7

1.4

India

687

1048

15.5

16.9

2.1

1.8

China

981

1281

22.2

20.7

1.5

1.1

Source: Compiled from World Development Report (2004)

Environment and human health:
The most pressing environmental problems facing developing countries include
water and air pollution, and soil degradation. Of these, water pollution poses a serious
challenge du e to its impact on a large number of economic activities. It is estimated that 75
per cent of the world population mostly in developing countries does not have access to safe
drinking water. The problems of water pollution acquire greater relevance in the context of
an agrarian economy like India.
The groundwater situation in India is not a happy one. While on the one hand, the
water-table is plunging by meters, on the other, the depleted aquifers are getting
contaminated with toxins.
Recently a soft drink major was asked to suspend its Kerala operations because of
the depleting groundwater. The going had been rough for this factory ever since a BBC
Radio report in September 2003 said that cadmium and lead, much above the prescribed
limits, were found in the sludge from there. A case of depleting aquifer compounded with
questionable water quality from South India has also came across.
The issue of industrial effluent discharge is a raging controversy between the
Haryana and Rajasthan governments. Pollute d waters from Bhiwadi industries of Rajasthan
flows into the villages of Rewari district and pollutes the groundwater. Dr. R.K. Aggarwal,
Principal Scientist and head of the Central Soil Conservation Institute, Chandigarh, who has
worked on environmental projects in Pali, Nagaon and Jaisalmer in Rajasthan, says that
owing to the discharge of effluents from textile industries, the groundwater is getting
polluted with sodium. What to talk of groundwater, even the rainwater is so polluted at
these places, he says.
The groundwater is being exploited to the extent of 98 per cent and 80 per cent in
Punjab and Haryana, respectively, resulting in a drastic fall in the groundwater levels.
Whatever has been left of the watertable is being mauled by pesticides, industrial effluents
and toxic wastes, the byproducts of the Green Revolution, rapid industrialisation and choc a-bloc urbanization.
A survey by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has found high fluoride and
nitrate in Ballabhgarhs groundwater, Ditto for Gurgaon and Panipat. In Panipat, the water
at shallow depths is yellowish due to the seepage of waste from the dyeing units. At all

121
these places heavy metals like copper, zinc iron, manganese and lead have been found in
quantities more than the permissible limit.
In Chandigarh, water samples taken along the Sukhna choe have shown higher
quantities of nickel and potassium and the groundwater quality has deteriorated in general.
The Lalru nullah is the most polluted water body in the City Beautifuls vicinity. This
nullah has not changed much in 18 years when a dozen cattle head perished after drinking
water from it.
According to a Punjab State Council for Science and Technology report, high yield
intensive cultivation has caused nitrates from fertilizers and pesticides to seep into the
groundwater in many parts of Punjab. The groundwater in Amritsar has shown high pH,
TDS and nitrate, Aquifers are also being polluted in Ropar district, Toansa and Nangal.
Studies have found a high nitrate concentration in Muktsar. In Ludhiana, besides very high
nitrate values, high concentrations of chromium and nickel have been reported.
Fertilizer consumption has increased from 3 to 130 kg per hectare in the last 30
years. Fertilizer use for rice and wheat is 160 and 170 kg per hectare, respectively, at
present. Due to heavy irrigation, nitrates from these fertilizers percolate into the
groundwater. There is a definite trend in accumulation of nitrates to toxic level in the
groundwater of Punjab and Haryana. An excess pestic ide usage and the disposal of
hazardous effluents from the industries is putting a great strain on the availability of fresh
water, says Dr. R.B. Singh, a reader in Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi
and Secretary General, National Association of Geographers India.
Major sources of air pollutants:
Aeroplanes, cars, ships and trains are leading sources of air pollution. Between
1970 and 1990, the number of vehicles has grown 11.5 times from about a million to more
than a million. At the same time, the figure per 1000 population has increased from 3.4 to
25.31 and is expected to exceed 40 by the year 2001. The bulk of this vehicular population
is found in urban areas. Exhaust from engines con tains various kinds of harmful pollutants.
Such pollutants include carbon monoxide gas, suspended particulate matter, hydrocarbons
(compounds of hydrogen and carbon) and nitrogen oxides (compounds of nitrogen and
oxygen). Nitrogen oxides in the air help produce a form of oxygen called ozone. Ozone
reacts with hydrocarbons to form a type of air pollution known as smog.
Industrial process:
Industrial processes contribute significantly to air pollution. Industries give off
various types of pollutants. For exa mple, factories that produce aluminium expel fluoride
dust. Oil refineries discharge ammonia, hydrocarbons, organic acids and sulphur oxides into
the atmosphere. Industrial plants that produce plastic foams are a major source of
chlorofluo -rocarbons (CFCs ), compounds of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
Solids wastes:
Burning of solid wastes creates a very visible form of air pollution (thick and black
smoke). The burning of leaves, scrap cars and other solid wastes is prohibited in some
areas.
Other sources of air pollution include chemical sprays, forest fires and structural
fires. Pollution also results from the burning of forest, bush and grass to clear land for
farming.
Indias most severe environmental problem arises in several forms, including
vehicular emissions and untreated industrial smoke. Due to rapid industrialization,
urbanization has led to emergence of industrial centres without a corresponding growth in
civic amenities and pollution control mechanisms.

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There are seven primary air pollutants, which are considered as health hazard when
their concentration exceeds the national ambient air quality standards. These are : SPM (or
PM10 and PM2.5), carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone and other photochemical
oxidants (smog), lead and sulphur dioxide. Other pollutants include toxic gases and heavy
metals. There is little or no information available about these pollutants and they are not
independently considered in this article.
Water pollution and health effects:
Human health is one of the most important factors in economic development. A
healthy workforce is essential for the development of an economy. A healthy workforce
requires a healthy environment, that is clean air, water, recreation and wilderness. Pearce
and Warford (1993) have argued that the most important and immediate consequences of
environmental degradation in the developing world take the form of damage to human
health. Further, they argued that diarrhoea is a common occurrence in many developing
countries with three million to five million cases recorded every year. Each case is
estimated to involve a loss of 3-5 working days, amounting to nine billion working days lost
in a single year.
Human rights:
Human rights are those rights, which inhere in every human being by virtue of
b eing a member of the human family. These are nothing but what had been traditionally
known as natural rights rights bestowed upon human beings by nature. Human rights
are based on mankinds increasing demand for a decent civilized life in which the inherent
dignity of each human being is well respected and protected. Human rights are fundamental
to our very existence without which we cannot live as human beings.
The original content of philosophy of fundamental freedom was limited to civil and
political rights of the individual, often referred to as first generation rights. Without
guaranteeing economic, social and cultural rights, full enjoyment of civil and political
rights was not possible and led to inclusion of economic, social and cultural rights,
popularly described as second generation rights. Third generation rights includes right
to self determination, right regarded as belonging to people rather than individuals and right
to development as well as rights of disadvantaged groups to special protection. Emergence
of new and very powerful movement like feminist movement, movement for environmental
protection and sustainable development, movement for protection of minorities and
indigenous people and their culture, movement for abolishing of child labour and all forms
of exploitation contributed to taking recourse to human rights concept and its language
more frequently.
Respect and realization of human rights requires evolving a culture that is more
sensitive to the basic needs of every cit izen.
New human rights to environmental conservation:
The existence of human rights is not by itself holistic and comprehensive to address
the various emerging issues concerning the environment. Therefore, there is a need to
examine new human rights that have a direct or an indirect implication to the environment.
A range of procedural rights at both the domestic and international levels relevant to
environment protection are as follows (Scott, 1997):
a.

The Right to Information: the right to be informed in advance of environmental

risks.

b.

The Right to Participate in Decision Making on environmental issues.

c.

The Right to Environmental Impact Assessment.

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d.

The Right to Legal Redress, including expanded locus standi to facilitate Public
Interest Litigation, and,

e.

The Right to Effective Remedies in case of environmental damage.

Principles of human rights and the environment:

All persons have the right to a secure, healthy and ecologically sound environment.

All persons shall be free from any form of discrimination with regard to actions that
affect the environment.

Table 7.6: Human rights and environmental issues

S. No.

Human Rights

Related Environmental issues

1.

Right to LIFE

An unsafe environment may endanger the human

right to life

2.

Right to EQUALITY

The right to equal access to and the protection of,

environmental resources. For marginalized and
indigenous groups, the right to natures bounties and
safe environment ensure s quality in the right to
survive with dignity.

3.

Right to A SSOCIATION

Association to voice objection to environmental

damage

4.

Right to EXPRESSION

To voice concern to environmental damage.

5.

Right to INFORMATION

Right to information concerning policies and issues

that bear effect on the environment. This tends to
curb the state' denial of access to information.

6.

Right

This forms a forum for protest as a corollary of

repression of environmental activists.

to

PERSONAL

LIBERTY

7.

Right to HEALTH

An unsafe environment can cause undue damage to a

persons health and limit his access to highest
standards of health attainable.

8.

Right to

A healthy environment alone can ensure decent living

conditions that elude the slums and ghettos of the
developing world.

DECENT LIVING

CONDITIONS

9.

Right to D ECENT WORKING

CONDITIONS

10.

S OCIAL

CULTURAL
RELIGIOUS RIGHTS

11.

Right to P ROPERTY

AND

A decent working environment is a must for tapping

the highest productive potential of the workers and
preventing them from hazardous consequences arising
out of unsafe working environment
The social and cultural rights of the marginalized and
indigenous people are threatened when the forests on
which they survive are recklessly felled and their
culture destroyed as a consequence. The right to
religious practice and profession as a means for the
expression of environmental concerns.
Right to protect the quality of the land.

All persons have the right to effectively meet the needs of the present generation
without hampering the needs of the future generations to meet their rights.

All persons have the right to freedom from pollution, and environmental activities
that threat en life, health, livelihood and sustainable development.

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All persons have the right to protection and preservation of air, soil, water and
processes that maintain biological diversity and ecosystems.

All persons have the right to a healthy working en vironment.

All persons have the right to effectively participate in decision -making processes
that affect the environment.

All persons have the right to timely assistance in the event of natural or man-caused
catastrophes.

All persons have the rig ht to environmental and human rights education.

Everyone has the right to benefit equally from the conservation of nature and
natural resources.

All persons have the right to hold an express opinions and disseminate ideas
regarding the environment.

All persons shall be free from discrimination with regard to actions and decisions
affecting the environment.

All persons have the right to safe food, water and the highest attainable standards of
health.

The right to environmental protection in India:

More than any other constitution in the World, India has cultivated wide-ranging
and innovative jurisprudence on environmental rights. The onset of Public Interest
Litigation has enabled lawyers to look up the terminology of rights, rather than the rules of
tort and crime. The Supreme Court has ruled, Every individual has the fundamental right to
the enjoyment of pollution -free air and water (AIR, 1991). It has also formulated a number
of innovative remedies to convey the new substantive right. The 18 major decisions on
environmental rights given by the Supreme Court and the High Courts in India testify the
merit of such rights. Indian courts wielding jurisdiction on one-sixth of the worlds
population, and some of the most vulnerable ecosystems on the planet, is of considerable
interest to the international community.
A few Acts under the Indian constitution that aim at conserving the environment are
as follows :
1.

Bengal Smoke Nuisances Act, 1905.

2.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980.

3.

Water (Prevent ion and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

4.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

5.

Environment Protection Act, 1986.

Environmental rights mushrooming at the level of national constitutions can provide

a jurisprudential basis for the claim of more general environmental rights at the
international level. Four basic positions emerge for an environmental right at the
international level (And erson, 1998):
1.

The right to a viable environment is a natural law norm within existing moral
systems, and should be treated as a rule of jus cogens in international law.

2.

It is a logical outcome of the existing human rights norms such as life and hea lth,
which contain implicit guarantees of environmental quality.

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3.

It is emerging as a customary norm in international law evidenced in treaty

obligations such as Art 24 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples rights and
state practice including constitutional and statutory provisions guaranteeing
environmental rights.

4.

There is no human right to environmental protection at the moment, but it would be

desirable to create one by means of a treaty, protocol, or declaration.

Effective implementation:
Effective enforcement is a must for achieving the goals of both human rights
standards and environmental regulation.
A human rights approach to environmental protection is a very tempting enterprise
and will play a key role in promoting sustainable development. Jurisprudential innovation
and a careful analysis of the issues as they arise, must be undertaken rather than giving way
to intellectual surrender.
Value education:
The significance of human values has been emphasized by educationists as well as
v arious Commissions like the Secondary Education Commission (1952- 53) Education
Commission (1964-66), etc. The National Policy on Education (1986) observed that at the
stage of secondary education, students should be provided a sense of history and national
perspective and give them (sic) opportunities to understand their constitutional duties and
rights as citizens. Conscious internalisation of healthy work-ethos and values of a humane
and composite culture should be brought about through appropriately formulated curricula.
The deterioration of values in day-t o -day life has been a matter of great concern to
educationists all over the world. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Human
Resource Development (1999) also observed, It is disappointing that well concerted efforts
made during the last four decades have failed to achieve the desired results. Well chalked
out plans and strategies for making our education value -oriented still remain on paper.
Growth of human values is now being emphasised as a ve ry significant objective of
the process of education. There is no doubt that the schools play a pivotal role for the
inculcation of values. Schools through their various activities can make a deliberate attempt
for propagating the desired and cherished values for the holistic development of an
individual. It is quite important that during the teacher education programme, the teachers
are introduced to the concept of value development and also made aware of the methods and
techniques keeping in view the phys ical and psychological development of the students to
promote the human values.
We have to inculcate human values. This is possible, when our teaching community
realises its duties, responsibilities, and obligations. It is the sacred responsibility of all
educational institutions to preserve the wisdom of Indian rishis and munis in order to
develop human values.
Human values are not simply related to the welfare of human beings, these should
be considered equally significant for saving animals and plants kingdom. There should be
proper ecological balance to maintain the human values. Education for peace should be
covered in all institutions from primary to university levels.
Proper and timely action should be taken in order to inculcate the human valu es in
education, as erosion of human values is taking place at all levels of society and education,
that is an alarming situation to all the educational thinkers, administrators, policy-makers
and planners at various levels of educational institutions. Inculcation of appropriate values
not only needs institutional reforms and efforts but also warrants the holistic social support
including students and their parents.

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The attributes of value-education are many. The five most significant ones are:

Value-e d ucation teaches tolerance.

Value-education teaches persuasion.

Value-education is essentially creative.

Value-education opposes fragmentation.

Value-education offers a vision of future in terms tradition.

Role of information technology in environment and human health:

Physical environment, economic environment, social environment and policy
environment etc. all are our important areas of concern where mass media have got a role to
play. Generally, the relationship between poverty, environment and development is
perceived as a viscous circle. Poverty leads people to over utilize and overburden their
natural environment on which, all development depends. Viewed in the context, there has to
be a ceaseless campaign for this important cause so that there will be no further
environmental deterioration of the earth.
Communication scene:
In India, the significance of communication in equipping people with new
information and skills and mobilizing them for their willing participation in various
development programmes and activities has been well recognised and emphasized in Five Year Plans, the blue-print of countrys development strategies. In the First-Year Plan itself,
the need for understanding and appreciation of the various development programmes and
schemes by the people was clearly underlined. In the subsequent Plans, the concern about
communicating with the people even in remote villages has been voiced with increasingly
greater emphasis and force. Consequently, all available methods of communication have
been developed and strengthened manifold over the years.
The media can play the role of a facilitator to create an environment congenial to
sustainable development and make people more responsive to the effort being made by the
government and NGOs for environmental awareness.
The need of the hour is to focus on the vital role of information and knowledge in
sustainable development. We come across different media sources which can be categorised
as follows : (i) The mass media (the radio, TV, newspaper, books and movies); (ii)
Institutional media (Government officials, leaders from outside village, village panchayat
and school); (iii) Traditional media (members of the family, other relatives in the village,
neighbours, fairs, village markets etc.); (iv) Urban contacts (leaders from the city, kinsmen
living in city, villagers directly going to the city as traders and milk sellers); (v) Posters and
(vi) Exhibitions.
Viewed socially, culturally and economically, the importance of the study of
environmental communication in India at the present juncture is great for transmitting
knowledge, disseminating facts and directing various emotional appeals to influence public
opinion. We can give much credit to media right at the moment for the present level of
consciousness amongst mass for the cause for environment.
Role of individual in prevention of pollution:
An individual conscious of his environment should try with the following at the
individual level by changing his own habits:

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1.

One should minimize the use of non -renewable resources such as forest produce,
kerosene, cooking gas, coal, electricity, water etc.

2.

The possessive nature for wooden furniture should be abandoned.

3.

Hunting of wild animals as a recreational activity should be abolished. All non vegetarians should observe a vegetarian day a week.

4.

Paper must not be wasted. Both sides of it should be used, because wastage of paper
is wastage of forest and environment.

5.

Use of polythene carry -bags should be minimized.

6.

Use of low-cost latrines may be restored to instead of relieving oneself in the open.

7.

Dead bodies should not be thrown either into the open space or river.

8.

Animals should not be bathed in the same water, where people also bathe.

9.

Proper management of domestic waste is to be practised in order to avoid pollution.

10.

One should try for recycling of domestic waste material.

11.

Proper maintenance and use of automobiles and their minimum use. Use of public
conveyances should be encouraged.

12.

One should have a proper drainage system to manage domestic waste-water.

13.

Hygienic care must be taken for all those low lying water-logging areas more
specially for those which are closer to settlements.

14.

One should stop smoking, drinking and taking all other types of intoxicating
materials.

15.

Open space around the home should be covered with vegetation .

16.

Use of smokeless fuel-efficient chullahs should be encouraged, and the charcoal or

coal chullah which pollutes the atmosphere must be prohibited.

17.

Public washeries should be provided for washing clothes to minimize water

pollution.

Many more may be added to regulate ones behaviour to enrich our immediate
environment and save life on earth.
To conclude, we should have the realization that earth is our home, and all biotics
taken together shall form World Community, not only human community. And think in
terms of :
Sarbe bhabentu sukhinah,
Sarbe sontu niramaya,
Sarbe bhadrani pashuantu,
Ma kaschit dukha bhag bhabet.
India heading towards AIDS epidemic:
At the time of detection of the first case of HIV in India in 1986, AIDS was
presumed to be a foreign disease limited to the Sub -Saharan region. However, since the HIV
positive cases have taken a giant leap forward, resulting in an estimated 3.82 million HIV
infections in the adult population (15-49 years) in India during 2002. There are nearly 40
million people living with AIDS in the world at present. Out of these, five million have
been infected this year, including 700,000 children.

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HIV is rapidly spreading to rural areas through migrant workers and truck drivers.
Various surveys show that 5 to 10 per cent of the truck drivers in India are infected with
HIV.
Nearly 54% boys and 70% girls out of 700 adolescents interviewed in the rural
areas of Panchkula district recently did not know about the modes of spread of HIV/AIDS.
With delayed marriages and greater exposure to the media, the period of vulnerability for
the adolescent increases, resulting in an earlier sexual debut. This along with inaccessibility
or lack of knowledge about condom usage augments the risk of STD/HIV for the youth. It is
now time to wake up and let not history repeat itself as has been the fate of Africa.
Anti -AIDS drive to cover school children:
The School AIDS Education Progra mme has been formulated in recognition of the
stark reality that teenagers are particularly vulnerable to HIV.
The programme aims at raising the awareness level of students about HIV and
helping them resist peer pressure to take part in risky behaviour. The document claims that
with its focus on a safe and responsible lifestyle, the programme is being taught at about
35,000 schools across the country.
The HIV epidemic affects people in their most productive ages with adverse
impacts on life expectancy, th e productivity of the labour force and household incomes. It
has not always been possible to measure the economic impact of AIDS empirically with a
reasonable degree of precision. Moreover, while there is some evidence of negative
individual, household and firm level impact, the empirical evidence on the impacts at the
sector and national levels is still weak. While purely humanitarian considerations may be
relevant in supporting investments in HIV/AIDS intervention, they may not always appear
to be so for finance ministers and planners in developing countries. To justify spending
more on policies to address HIV/AIDS in a regime of tight resource constraints, it is
sometimes important to justify investments in AIDS prevention and treatment as being more
crit ical relative to other investments. To the extent that HIV/AIDS has large adverse
impacts on economic indicators and other socially desirable goals of society, policy action
may be desirable, preferably early in the epidemic, rather than later.
Household economic impacts of HIV/AIDS:
Earnings losses and increased expenditures due to AIDS deaths among adult
members of the household are reflected in a number of short - and long-term consequences
for households that are not always fully ameliorated by countera cting influences by way of
community and extended family support, or by health and life insurance. These could
include declines in household savings and asset holdings.
In addition to long -term consequences manifested in the form of declining
household as set holdings, members of households affected by HIV/AIDS are likely to have
lower long -run accumulations of human capital, whether measured in terms of achievements
in education, or health.
Sector impacts:
In addition to impacts at the level of the individual and the household, HIV/AIDS
can have implications at the level of sectors and national economies. This section presents a
discussion of some of the findings regarding the impacts of HIV in five sectors -health
(including health insurance), tourism, agriculture, private industry and transport.

129
Impact on national economies:
Two types of impacts are worth noting on national outputs (or outputs per capita)
and on the distribution of national income. The two taken together, have implications for
the proportion of national population living below the poverty line, as well. This sub section assesses primarily the impact of HIV/AIDS on economic growth, given its emphasis
in the bulk of the literature on the economic impacts of AIDS. The implications of the
epidemic for poverty have been discussed in depth in Bloom e t a l . (2004), and only a
summary is presented here.
Policy action on HIV/AIDS:
Even if concrete evidence on some aspects of the economic impact of the
HIV/AIDS epidemic is not readily available, there are good reasons to think why
investment in HIV/AIDS policy, whether prevention or treatment, might be desirable. The
first is simply the human development costs of the epidemic -as indicated by the negative
effects of stigma and the loss of key adult members of individual households at the micro level and overall declines in life expectancy at birth in the worst affected countries. There
are also measurable economic impacts such as large medical expenditures on treating people
with HIV/AIDS, mostly o ut of pocket, than impose huge financial burdens on the affected
individuals and their families.
Does it pay to intervene early:
Analyses conducted for Sri Lanka (a low HIV prevalence country) reported earlier
suggest that it may be cost-beneficial to set up blood screening programmes and to
introduce disposable instead of reusable equipment even when HIV prevalence rates in the
population are extremely low (0.08%), provided secondary infections are included in
calculations (Bloom et al., 1997). This suggests introducing these programmes very early in
the epidemic.
Women and child welfare:
The department of Women and Child Development created in 1985 formulates and
implements the polices and programmes relating to women and child welfare.
The major programs/ schemes are as under:
Social legislation:
In our country, each community has its own personal laws based on religious codes. The
new constitution of India adopted in 1950, accorded complete equality of rights to women
with men. The re cent 72nd & 73 rd Amendment Bills dealing with Panchayati Raj and Urban
Local Bodies respectively, have provided 30 per cent reservation of seats in the elected
bodies for women. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1956, and Divorce Act 1955; the Hindu
Intestate Succes sion Act, 1956, and the Hindu Guardianship Act, 1956 have removed the
several disabilities women suffered from. No Hindu can marry second time unless wife or
husband is dead or divorced. The daughter has an equal right of share in the self-acquired
propert y of the father. The widow and daughters inherit the property as equal partners. The
women have acquired the right of adoption and a daughter can be adopted in the same
manner as the son.
The child marriage has been prohibited. The Child Marriage Restraint Amendment Act,
1978 has raised the age of the marriage for girls from 15 to 18 years and for boy from 18 to
21 years. The marriage Laws Amendment Act, 1976, provide for the right of the girl to
repudiate before attaining majority, the marriage as a child, whether the marriage has been
consummated or not.
The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 has been made more stringent by the Amendment Act,
1984. The Factories Amendment Act, 1976, provides for establishment of a Crche where

130
30 women are employed as against 50 hitherto, The Maternity Benefits Act, 1961, was
amended in 1976 to cover women who do not fall within the purview of the Employees
State Insurance Act, 1948. The equal Remuneration Act, 1976, provides for the payment of
equal remuneration to men and wo men workers. All these legislative measures have gone a
long way in developing awareness among women and removing social prejudices and social
inequalities.
Besides these legislative measures Government of India has launched several programs/
schemes for the welfare of women as mentioned below:
(i)

Education programme:

The Central Government gives financial assistance under the plan schemes to
encourage the girl education under various schemes.
(ii)

Employment and income generating programmes:

The gov ernment is giving greater attention to the training of women in vocational
courses. Employment and Income Generation Production Programme was started in 198283to train women belonging to weaker sections of society and provide them employment on
sustained basis. For the rehabilitation of women in distress, a scheme was launched in 1977
to provide vocational training -cum employment and residential care so that women in
distress such as young and old widows, unmarried mothers, victims of kidnapping, deserted
women could become economically independent. A new omnibus scheme known as STEP to
render support womens employment in various sectors such as agriculture, dairying, animal
husbandry, fisheries, khadi and village industries, handloom, handicrafts and sericulture,
where women are preponderantly engaged in work, was formulated at the beginning of the
Seventh Plan. The womens Development Corporation are playing an important role in
providing better employment avenues to women so that they may become economic ally
independent and self reliant.
(iii)

Hostels for working women:

Keeping in view the difficulties faced by working women due to lack of suitable
accommodation in healthy and wholesome environment, a centeral Scheme of Assistance
for construction of Hostel Buildings for working women was started in 1972.
(iv)

Mahila mandals:

The Scheme of Welfare Extension Projects started in 1954 to provide basic

minimum services to women and children comprising Balwadis, maternity and health
services, literacy and social education for women, crafts centres and recreational facilities
in the rural areas was handed over to voluntary organization known as Mahila Mandals in
1961. The Social Welfare Board bears the expenditure up to 75 percent ,and the remaining
25 percent is to be raised by the Mahila Mandals /Voluntary organizations themselves. This
programme is now being administered by the State Boards.
(v)

Family life institute:

The Association for Social health in India runs the Family Life Institute in Delhi.
The major functions of this institute are counseling services and family life education for
the maladjusted spouses, parents, unmarried youth, teenagers of unsettled and depressed
mind, child dropouts, etc.
(vi)

Appointment of commissions and committees:

National Committee on the Status of Women (1974);National Expert Committee on

Women Prisoners (1986);National Committee of Women(1980);National Commission on
Self employed women and women in the informal sector (1987).The question of
appointing a National Commission on Women a statuary body for protecting the right of
women on the pattern of National Commission for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
and the minorities commission, is under the consideration of the Government of India. The
National Fron t Government had introduced a Bill to that effect on the last day of the budget
session of parliament in 1990 but the Bill lapsed on account of the dissolution of Lok
Sabha.

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Child welfare:
Children constitute about 40 percent of Indias population. The number over 300
millions, more than the children of all the 46 countries of Africa put together. Nearly 40
percent suffer from malnutrition , about one lakh succumbing to it every month, Indias
infant mortality rate of 120 per thousand put it in the 27th p osition from the top in a list of
130countries. For every seven children born, one dies before the age of five: over 30,000
children go blind every year. Nine out of every 1000 school going children suffer from
rheumatic heart disease because of nutritiona l anemia. Over 4.8 million children in the age
group of six to eleven years are illiterate. Over 16 million children works as labour
comprising 5 percent of the work faced. Most of them are exploited.
Constitutional provisions:
The state has enacted various legislations in pursuance of the above provisions for
the welfare of children. These include laws prescribing minimum age for boys and girls
marriage, appointment of guardian for a minor childs person or property, the Hindu
Adoption and Maintenance Act,1956, Womens and Children Institutions (Licensing)
Act,1960,State Children Acts, Factories Act of 1948,Plantation Labour Act,1951,The Mines
Act of 1952,Shops and Establishment Acts prohibiting the employment of children in
hazardous occupations, Ju venile Justice Act,1986and so on.
Integrated child development services (ICDS):
The Integrated Child Development Services(ICDS), scheme was introduced on
October 2,1975 in the country. Its main objectives are: to improve the nutrition and health
status of children in the age group of 0-6years: to lay the foundations for proper
psychological, physical and social development of the child; to reduce the incidence of
mortality , morbidity, malnutrition and school drop outs; to achieve effective coordination
of policy and implementation amongst the various departments of promote child
development , and to enhance the capability to the mother, through proper nutrition and
health education , for looking after , the normal health and nutritional needs of the child.
ICDS places great emphasis and relies greatly on the involvement of local communities and
the coordinated efforts of different Ministers/Departments and Organizations at all levels.