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INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
2. Block diagram of Embedded based customized wireless message circular
system for college, industries.
2.1.1 TRANSMIT BLOCK DIAGRAM:
POWER CIRCUIT DC 5V
PHOTODIODE
PHOTODIODE
TRANSISTOR
LM324
Comparator IC
CHAPTER-3
HARDWARE DETAILS
3.1 POWER SUPPLY
The Power Supply unit is used to provide a constant 5 volts Regulated Supply
to different ICs this is standard circuits using external 12 VDC adapter and fixed 3pin voltage regulator. Diode is added in series to avoid Reverse Voltage Protection.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
In the power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved using a solid state
diode. Diode has the property that will let the electron flow easily in one direction at
proper biasing condition. As AC is applied to the diode, electrons only flow when the
node and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage will not permit
electron flow.
A commonly used circuit for supplying large amounts of DC power is the
bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier of four diodes (4*IN4007) are used to achieve full
wave rectification. Two diodes will conduct during the negative cycle and the other
two will conduct during the positive half cycle. The DC voltage appearing across the
output terminals of the bridge rectifier will be somewhat lass than 90% of the applied
rms value. Normally one alteration of the input voltage will reverse the polarities.
Opposite ends of the transformer will therefore always be 180 deg out of phase with
each other.
For a positive cycle, two diodes are connected to the positive voltage at the top
winding and only one diode conducts. At the same time one of the other two diodes
conducts for the negative voltage that is applied from the bottom winding due to the
forward bias for that diode. In this circuit due to positive half cycleD1 & D2 will
conduct to give 10.8v pulsating DC. The DC output has a ripple frequency of 100Hz.
Since each altercation produces a resulting output pulse, frequency = 2*50 Hz. The
output obtained is not a pure DC and therefore filtration has to be done.
3.1.3 FILTERING UNIT:
Filter circuits which are usually capacitors acting as a surge arrester always
follow the rectifier unit. This capacitor is also called as a decoupling capacitor or a
bypassing capacitor, is used not only to short the ripple with frequency of 120Hz to
ground but also to leave the frequency of the DC to appear at the output. A load
resistor R1 is connected so that a reference to the ground is maintained. C1R1 is for
bypassing ripples. C2R2 is used as a low pass filter, i.e. it passes only low frequency
signals and bypasses high frequency signals. The load resistor should be 1% to 2.5%
of the load.
1000f/25v
10f/25v
1f
XX- These two digits of the type number indicate nominal voltage.
Cin-
filter.
CO- is not needed for stability; however, it does improve transient response. Values
of
less than 0.1 mF could cause instability.
Resistor
Resistor is a passive component used to control current in a circuit.
Its resistance is given by the ratio of voltage applied across its
terminals to the current passing through it. Thus a particular value
of resistor, for fixed voltage, limits the current through it. They are
omnipresent in electronic circuits.
An electric resistor is a two-terminal passive component specifically used to
oppose and limit current. A resistor works on the principle of Ohms Law which
states that voltage across the terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to
the current flowing through it.
The different value of resistances are used to limit the currents or
get the desired voltage drop according to the current-voltage rating
of the device to be connected in the circuit. For example, if
an LED of rating 2.3V and 6mA is to be connected with a supply of
5V, a voltage drop of 2.7V (5V-2.3V) and limiting current of 6mA is
required. This can be achieved by providing a resistor of 450
connected in series with the LED.
Resistors can be either fixed or variable. The low power resistors are
comparatively smaller in size than high power resistors. The
resistance of a resistor can be estimated by their colour codes or
can be measured by a multimeter. There are some non linear
resistors also whose resistance changes with temperature or light.
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC), positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) and light dependent resistor (LDR) are some such
resistors. These special resistors are commonly used as sensors.
Read and learn about internal structure and working of a resistor.
Pin Diagram:
Capacitor
Capacitor is a passive component used to store charge. The charge
(q) stored in a capacitor is the product of its capacitance (C) value
and the voltage (V) applied to it. Capacitors offer infinite reactance
to zero frequency so they are used for blocking DC components or
bypassing the AC signals. The capacitor undergoes through a
recursive cycle of charging and discharging in AC circuits where the
voltage and current across it depends on the RC time constant. For
this reason, capacitors are used for smoothing power supply
variations. Other uses include, coupling the various stages of audio
system, tuning in radio circuits etc. These are used to store energy
like in a camera flash.
Capacitors may be non-polarized/polarized and fixed/variable. Electrolytic
capacitors are polarized while ceramic and paper capacitors are examples of
non polarized capacitors. Since capacitors store charge, they must be
carefully discharged before troubleshooting the circuits. The maximum voltage
rating of the capacitors used must always be greater than the supply
voltage. Click to learn more about working of a capacitor along with its internal
structure.
Diode
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Ideally, in one direction that is indicated by the arrow head diode must behave
short circuited and in other one that opposite to that of the direction of arrow
head must be open circuited. By ideal characteristics, the diodes is designed
to meet these features theoretically but are not achieved practically. So the
practical diode characteristics are only close to that of the desired.
Application:
Diodes are used in various applications like rectification, clipper, clamper,
voltage multiplier, comparator, sampling gates and filters.
1. Rectification The rectification means converting AC voltage into DC
voltage. The common rectification circuits are half wave rectifier (HWR), full
wave rectifier (FWR) and bridge rectifier.
Full wave rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into
DC. The figure is as shown below:
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Bridge rectifier: This circuit converts the entire AC signal into DC.
2. Clipper- Diode can be used to clip off some portion of pulse without
distorting the remaining part of the waveform. The figure is as shown below:
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Characteristics:
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where ID - diode current. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
IS - constant reverse saturation current
V - applied voltage. (Positive for forward and negative for reverse)
- factor dependent upon the nature of semiconductor. (1 for
germanium and 2 for silicon)
VT - volt equivalent of temperature which is given by T/11600. (T is
Temperature in Kelvin)
When a forward voltage is applied at the terminals of a diode, the diode
begins to conduct. During conduction, the cut in or threshold voltage exceeds
the applied forward voltage. The threshold voltage for a germanium diode is
0.3V and for silicon diode is 0.7V. The forward current (miliampere range)
initially increases linearly and then increases exponentially for high currents.
When a a reverse voltage is applied, a reverse saturation current flows
through the diode. The diode continues to be in the non conducting state until
the reverse voltage drops below the zener voltage. As the reverse voltage
approximates the peak inverse voltage a breakdown called as the Avalanche
breakdown occurs. During the breakdown, the minority charge carriers ionize
the stable atoms which are followed by a chain ionization to generate a large
number of free charge carriers. Thus the diode becomes short circuited and
gets damaged.
Note: When diodes are connected in series their equivalent peak inverse
voltage is increased while in parallel connection the current carrying capacity
is increased.
As the temperature increases, the electron pairs generated thermally also
increases thereby increasing the conductivity in both directions. The reverse
saturation current also increases with the increase in temperature. The
change is 11% per C for a germanium diode and 8% per C for a silicon
diode. On the other hand the diode current is doubled for every 10C rise.
With increase in voltage, the firing voltage in forward characteristics is
reduced while peak reverse voltage is increased.
Note: The peak inverse voltage can be reduced by increasing the doping
level. The same concept is used to design zener diodes.
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BC547
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer
of resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base
controls a larger current at collector & emitter terminals.
BC547 is mainly used for amplification and switching purposes. It has a
maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent transistors are BC548 and
BC549.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired
region of its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For
amplification applications, the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for
all input conditions. The input signal at base is amplified and taken at the
emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter configuration for amplifiers. The
voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode. For switching
applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a signal
at its base. In the absence of base signal, it gets completely off.
oxide
During
the
design
and
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3.1.7 TRANSFORMER:
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The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of
turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply,
and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output
voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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The LED and its series resistor serve as a pilot light to indicate when the
power supply is on. I like to use a miniature LED here, so it will serve that
function without being obtrusive or distracting while I'm performing an
experiment. I also use this LED to tell me when the reservoir capacitor is
completely discharged after power is turned off. Then I know it's safe to remove
or install components for the next experiment.
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